Caaba, an ancient Arab temple, a small square structure in the grandmosque of Mecca, with a mysterious black stone, probably an aerolite,built in it, on which all pilgrims who visit the shrine imprint a kiss;“the Keblah of all Moslem, the eyes of innumerable praying men beingturned towards it from all the quarters of the compass five times a day.”

Cabal`, a secret intriguing faction in a State, a name applied to ajunto of five ministers of Charles II. in power from 1668 to 1673, theinitials of whose names go to make up the word; their names wereClifford, Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington, and Lauderdale; derived fromCabala (q. v.).

Cab`ala, a secret science alleged to have been divinely imparted toMoses and preserved by tradition, by means of which the Rabbis affectedto interpret the pretended mystic sense of the words, letters, and veryaccents of the Hebrew Scriptures, a science which really owes itsexistence to a dissatisfaction in the rabbinical mind with thetraditional literal interpretation, and a sense that there is more inScripture than meets the ear. The name comes from a Hebrew wordsuggesting “to receive,” and denotes “that which is received” ortradition.

Caballero, Fernan, thenom de plume of Cecilia Boehl, a popularSpanish authoress, born in Switzerland, of German descent; a collector offolk tales; wrote charmingly; told stories of Spanish, particularlyAndalusian, peasant life (1797-1877).

Cabanel, Alexandre, a French painter, born at Montpellier(1828-1889).

Cabanis, Pierre Jean George, a celebrated French medical man, bornin Cosnac, in the dep. of Charente Inférieure, a pronounced materialistin philosophy, and friend of Mirabeau; attended him in his last illness,and published an account of it; his materialism was of the grossest;treated the soul as a nonentity; and held that the brain secretes thoughtjust as the liver secretes bile (1757-1808).

Cabel, a celebrated painter of the Dutch school, born at Ryswick(1631-1698).

Cabet, Étienne, a French communist, born in Dijon; a leader of theCarbonari; provoked prosecution, and fled to England; wrote a history ofthe First Revolution, in which he defended the Jacobins; author of the“Voyage en Icarie,” in description of a communistic Utopia, which becamethe text-book of a communistic sect called “Icarians,” a body of whom heheaded to carry out his schemes in America, first in Texas and then atNauvoo, but failed; died at St. Louis broken-hearted (1788-1856).

Cabi`ri, certain mysterious demonic beings to whom mystic honourswere paid in Lemnos and elsewhere in Greece, in connection withnature-worship, and especially with that ofDemeter andDionysus (q. v.).

Cable, George Washington, a journalist, born at New Orleans, haswritten interestingly on, and created an interest in, Creole life inAmerica;b. 1844.

Cabot, Giovanni, a Venetian pilot, born at Genoa, settled inBristol, entered the service of Henry VII., and discovered part of themainland of N. America, at Labrador, about 1497:d. 1498.

Cabot, Sebastian, son of the preceding, born either in Venice orBristol; accompanied his father to N. America; sought service as anavigator, first in Spain then in England, but failed; returned to Spain;attempted under Charles V. to plant colonies in Brazil with no success,for which he was imprisoned and banished; was the first to notice thevariation of the magnetic needle, and to open up to England trade withRussia (1474-1557).

Cabral, Pedro Alvarez, a Portuguese navigator, sailing for theIndies, drifted on the coast of Brazil, on which he planted thePortuguese flag, 1500, and of which he is accounted by some thediscoverer, continued his course, and established a factory at Calicut in1501 (1460-1526).

Cabre`ra, one of the Balearic Isles, used as a penal settlement bySpain, produces wild olives.

Cabrera, a Spanish general, born at Tortosa, Catalonia, a zealoussupporter of the claims of Don Carlos, took up arms in his behalf; diedin England; he was an unscrupulous adversary (1810-1877).

Cabul`, orKabul (50), cap. of a province of the name inAfghanistan, in a mild climate, on an elevated plateau of greatfertility, 6000 ft. in height, on the high route between Central Asia andthe Punjab, a great highway of trade, and a depôt for European goods.

Caccia, Italian fresco-painter, did altar-pieces; his best work,“Deposition from the Cross,” at Novara;d. 1625.

Caceras (350), a Spanish province in the N. of Estremadura; the namealso of its capital (14), famous for its bacon and sausages, as theprovince is for cattle-rearing.

Cachar (313), a great tea-growing district in Assam.

Cache, name given in Canada to a hole in the ground for hidingprovisions when they prove cumbersome to carry.

Cachet, Lettre de, a warrant issued in France before the Revolution,under the royal seal, for the arrest and imprisonment of a person, oftenobtained to gratify private ends; abolished in 1790.

Ca`cus, a mythological brigand of gigantic stature who occupied acave in Mount Aventine, represented by Virgil as breathing smoke andflames of fire; stole the oxen of Hercules as he was asleep, draggingthem to his cave tail foremost to deceive the owner; strangled byHercules in his rage at the deception quite as much as the theft.

Cadastre, a register of the landed proprietors of a district, andthe extent of their estates, with maps illustrative called CadastralMaps.

Cade, Jack, an Irish adventurer, headed an insurrection in Kent, in1450, in the reign of Henry VI.; encamped with his following onBlackheath; demanded of the king redress of grievances; was answered byan armed force, which he defeated; entered the city, could not preventhis followers from plundering; the citizens retaliating, he had to flee,but was overtaken and slain.

Cademosto, a Venetian in the service of Portugal, discovered theCape de Verde Islands in 1457; wrote the first book giving an account ofmodern voyages, published posthumously (1432-1480).

Cadiz (62), one of the chief commercial ports in Spain, inAndalusia; founded by the Phoenicians about 1100 B.C.; called Gades bythe Romans; at the NW. extremity of the Isle of Leon, and separated fromthe rest of the island by a channel crossed by bridges; it is 7 m. fromXeres and 50 m. from Gibraltar, and carries on a large export trade.

Cad`mus, a semi-mythological personage, founder of Thebes, inBoeotia, to whom is ascribed the introduction of the Greek alphabet fromPhoenicia and the invention of writing; in the quest of his sisterEuropa, was told by the oracle at Delphi to follow a cow and build a citywhere she lay down; arrived at the spot where the cow lay down, he sent,with a view to its sacrifice, his companions to a well guarded by adragon, which devoured them; slew the dragon; sowed its teeth, whichsprang up into a body of armed men, who speared each other to death, allbut five, who, the story goes, became the forefathers of Thebes.

Cadoudal, Georges, a brave man, chief of theChouans (q.v.), born in Brittany, the son of a farmer; tried hard and took up armsto restore the Bourbons in the teeth of the Republic, but was defeated;refused to serve under Bonaparte, who would fain have enlisted him,having seen in him “a mind cast in the true mould”; came over fromLondon, whither he had retired, on a secret mission from Charles X.; wassuspected of evil designs against the person of Bonaparte; arrested, and,after a short trial, condemned and executed, having confessed hisintention to overthrow the Republic and establish Louis XVIII. on thethrone (1769-1804).

Caduceus, the winged rod of Hermes, entwined with two serpents;originally a simple olive branch; was in the hands of the god possessedof magical virtues; it was the symbol of peace.

Cædmon, an English poet of the 7th century, the fragment of a hymnby whom, preserved by Bede, is the oldest specimen extant of Englishpoetry; wrote a poem on the beginning of things at the call of a voicefrom heaven, saying as he slept, “Cædmon, come sing me some song”; andthereupon he began to sing, as Stopford Brooke reports, the story ofGenesis and Exodus, many other tales in the sacred Scriptures, and thestory of Christ and the Apostles, and of heaven and hell to come.

Caen (45), a fine old Norman town, capital of Calvados, about 80 m.SE. of Cherbourg; lace the chief manufacture; the burial-place of Williamthe Conqueror, and the native place of Charlotte Corday; it is awell-built town, and has fine old public buildings, a large library, anda noble collection of pictures.

Caer`leon, a small old town in Monmouthshire, on the Usk, 2½ m. NE.of Newport; celebrated by Tennyson in connection with Arthurian legend;it is a very ancient place, and contains relics of Roman times.

Cæsalpinus, Italian natural philosopher, born at Arezzo; wasprofessor of botany at Pisa; was forerunner of Harvey and Linnæus;discovered sex in plants, and gave hints on their classification(1519-1603).

Cæsar, name of an old Roman family claiming descent from the TrojanÆneas, which the emperors of Rome from Augustus to Nero of rightinherited, though the title was applied to succeeding emperors and to theheirs-apparent of the Western and the Eastern Empires; it survives in thetitles of the Kaiser of Germany and the Czar of Russia.

Cæsar, Caius Julius, pronounced the greatest man of antiquity, bybirth and marriage connected with the democratic party; early provokedthe jealousy of Sulla, then dictator, and was by an edict of proscriptionagainst him obliged to quit the city; on the death of Sulla returned toRome; was elected to one civic office after another, and finally to theconsulship. United with Pompey and Crassus in the First Triumvirate (60B.C.); was appointed to the government of Gaul, which he subdued afternine years to the dominion of Rome; his successes awoke the jealousy ofPompey, who had gone over to the aristocratic side, and he was recalled;this roused Cæsar, and crossing the Rubicon with his victorious troops,he soon saw all Italy lying at his feet (49 B.C.); pursued Pompey, whohad fled to Greece, and defeated him at Pharsalia (48 B.C.); wasthereupon elected dictator and consul for five years, distinguishinghimself in Egypt and elsewhere; returned to Rome (47 B.C.); conceivedand executed vast schemes for the benefit of the city, and became theidol of its citizens; when he was assassinated on the Ides (the 15th) ofMarch, 44 B.C., in the fifty-sixth year of his age;b.100 B.C.

Cæsarea, a Syrian seaport, 30 m. N. of Joppa, built in honour ofAugustus Cæsar by Herod the Great, now in ruins, though a place of notein the days of the Crusades. AlsoC. Philippi, at the source of theJordan, whence Christ, on assuring Himself that His disciples werepersuaded of His divine sonship, turned to go up to Jerusalem, and so byHis sacrifice perfect their faith in Him.

Cagliari (44), the cap of Sardinia, and the chief port, on the S.coast, was a colony of Jews from the time of Tiberius till 1492, whencethey were expelled by the Spaniards; lies on the slopes of a hill, thesummit of which is 300 ft. high, and is on the site of an ancientCarthaginian town.

Cagliari, Paolo, proper name ofPaul Veronese (q. v.).

Cagliostro, Count Alessandro di, assumed name of an arch-impostor,his real name being Giuseppe Balsamo, born in Palermo, of poor parents;early acquired a smattering of chemistry and medicine, by means of whichhe perpetrated the most audacious frauds, which, when detected in oneplace were repeated with even more brazen effrontery in another; marrieda pretty woman named Lorenza Feliciani, who became an accomplice;professed supernatural powers, and wrung large sums from his dupeswherever they went, after which they absconded to Paris and lived inextravagance; here he was thrown into the Bastille for complicity in theDiamond Necklace affair (q. v.); on his wife turning informer,he was consigned to the tender mercies of the Inquisition, and committedto the fortress of San Leone, where he died at 52, his wife havingretired into a convent (1743-1795). SeeCarlyle's “Miscellanies”for an account of his character and career.

Cagnola, Luigi, Marquis of, Italian architect, born at Milan; hisgreatest work, the “Arco della Pace,” of white marble, in his nativecity, the execution of which occupied him over 30 years (1762-1833).

Cagots, a race in the SW. of France of uncertain origin; treated asoutcasts in the Middle Ages, owing, it has been supposed, to some taintof leprosy, from which, it is argued, they were by their manner of lifein course of time freed.

Cahors (13), a town in the dep. of Lot, in the S. of France, 71 m.N. of Toulouse, with interesting Roman and other relics of antiquity.

Caiaphas, the High-Priest of the Jews who condemned Christ to deathas a violator of the law of Moses.

Caiapos, a wild savage race in the woods of Brazil, hard to persuadeto reconcile themselves to a settled life.

Caicos, a group of small islands connected with the Bahamas, butannexed to Jamaica since 1874.

Caille, Louis de la, astronomer, studied at the Cape of Good Hope,registered stars of the Southern Hemisphere, numbering 9000, beforeunknown; calculated the table of eclipses for 1800 years (1713-1762).

Caillet, a chief of the Jacquerie, a peasant insurrection in Francein 1358, taken prisoner and tortured to death.

Cailliaud, French mineralogist, born in Nantes, travelled in Egypt,Nubia, and Ethiopia, collecting minerals and making observations(1787-1869).

Caillié, René, French traveller in Africa, born in Poitou, the firstEuropean to penetrate as far as Timbuctoo, in Central Africa, which hedid in 1828; the temptation was a prize of 10,000 marks offered by theGeographical Society of Paris, which he received with a pension of 1000besides (1799-1839).

Cain, according to Genesis, the first-born of Adam and Eve, andtherefore of the race, and the murderer of his brother Abel.

Cain, Thomas Henry Hall, eminent novelist, born in Cheshire, of Manxblood; began life as architect and took to journalism; author of a numberof novels bearing on Manx life, such as the “Deemster” and the “Manxman”;his most recent novel, the “Christian,” his greatest but most ambiguouswork, and much challenged in England, though less so in America; it hasbeen translated into most of the languages of Europe, where the verdictis divided;b. 1853.

Ça ira, “It will go on,” a popular song in France during theRevolution, said to have been a phrase of Benjamin Franklin's, which hewas in the habit of using in answering inquirers about the progress ofthe American revolution by his friends in France.

Caird, Edward, brother of the following, interpreter of Kant andHegel; succeeded Jowett as master of Balliol; has written on the“Evolution of Religion,” and edited the lectures and sermons of hisbrother;b. 1825.

Caird, John, an eloquent Scotch preacher, born at Greenock,Principal of Glasgow University, famous for a sermon entitled “TheReligion of Common Life” preached before the Queen at Crathie in 1855;made a special study of the philosophy of religion, and wrote eloquentlyon it, more especially the Christian version of it (1820-1898).

Cairn, a heap of stones often, though not always, loosely throwntogether, generally by way of a sepulchral monument, and it would seemsometimes in execration of some foul deed.

Cairnes, John Elliot, a political economist of the school of JohnStuart Mill with modifications, born in co. Louth, Ireland; professorsuccessively in Dublin, Galway, and London; author of works on politicaleconomy (1823-1875).

Cairngorm, a yellowish-brown variety of rock-crystal, so called frombeing found, among other places, on one of the Scottish Grampians, inAberdeenshire, so named.

Cairns, Hugh MacCalmont, Earl, lawyer and politician, born in co.Down, Ireland; called to the English bar; entered Parliament,representing Belfast; became Lord Chancellor under Disraeli's governmentin 1868, and again in 1874; took an active interest in philanthropicmovements (1819-1885).

Cairo (400), cap. of Egypt, and largest city in Africa, on the rightbank of the Nile, just above the Delta, 120 m. SE. of Alexandria, coversan extensive area on a broad sandy plain, and presents a strangeagglomeration of ancient and modern elements. The modern city is thefourth founded in succession on the same site, and remains of the formercities are included in it, old walls, gateways, narrow streets, andlatticed houses, palaces, and 400 mosques. These, though much spoiled bytime and tourists, still represent the brightest period of Saracenic art.The most modern part of the city consists of broad boulevards, withEuropean-built villas, hotels, &c., and has all the advantages of moderncivic appliances. There is a rich museum, and university with 2000students. Extensive railway communication and the Nile waterway induce alarge transport trade, but there is little industry. The population ismixed; the townsfolk are half Arab, half Egyptian, while Copts, Turks,Jews, Italians, and Greeks are numerous; it is a centre of Mohammedanlearning, and since 1882 the centre of British influence in Egypt.

Caithness (37), a level, except in the W. and S., bare, and somewhatbarren, county in the NE. of Scotland, 43 m. by 28 m., with a bold androcky coast; has flagstone quarries; fishing the chief industry, of whichWick is the chief seat; the inhabitants are to a great extent ofScandinavian origin, and English, not Gaelic, is the language spoken.

Cajetan, Cardinal, general of the Dominicans, born in Gaeta;represented the Pope at the Diet of Augsburg, and tried in vain topersuade Luther to recant; wrote a Commentary on the Bible, and on the“Summa Theologiæ” of Aquinas.

Calabar`, a district under British protection on the coast of UpperGuinea, the country flat and the climate unhealthy.

Calabar Bean, seed of an African bean, employed in medicine, knownas the Ordeal Bean, as, being poisonous, having been used to test theinnocence of people charged with witchcraft.

Calabria (1,500), a fertile prov. embraced in the SW. peninsula ofItaly, and traversed by the Apennines, with tunny and anchovy fisheries;yields grains and fruits, and a variety of minerals; is inhabited by arace of somewhat fiery temper; is much subject to earthquakes.

Calais (56), a fortified seaport in France, on the Strait of Dover,where it is 21 m. across; was in possession of the English from 1347 to1558, and the last town held by them on French soil; is the chieflanding-place for travellers from England to the Continent, and hasconsiderable export trade, as well as cotton and tulle manufactures.

Calamy, Edmund, a Presbyterian divine, born in London; favourable toRoyalty, but zealously opposed to Episcopacy, against which hevigorously protested with his pen; opposed the execution of Charles I.and the protectorate of Cromwell; made chaplain to Charles II. after theRestoration; refused a bishopric, which he could not, on conscientiousgrounds, accept (1600-1666).

Calamy, Edmund, a grandson of the preceding, an eminentNonconformist minister in London, on whom, for the high esteem in whichhe was held, honorary degrees were conferred by the Edinburgh, Glasgow,and Aberdeen universities (1671-1732).

Calas, Jean, a tradesman of Toulouse, whose son committed suicide,and who was charged with murdering him to prevent his going over to theCatholic Church; was tried, convicted, and sentenced to torture and deathon the wheel (1762); after which his property was confiscated, and hischildren compelled to embrace the Catholic faith, while the widow escapedinto Switzerland. Voltaire, to his immortal honour, took up her case,proved to the satisfaction of the legal authorities in France theinnocence of the victims, got the process revised, and Louis XV. to granta sum of money out of the royal bounty for the benefit of the family.

Calave`ras, an inland county of California, E. of San Francisco,rich in minerals, with copper and gold mines.

Calchas, the soothsayer who accompanied Agamemnon to the siege ofTroy; enjoined the sacrifice of Iphigenia to propitiate the gods,foretold the length or the war, and advised the construction of thewooden horses, a device by means of which Troy was surprised and taken.

Calculus, Differential and Integral, in mathematics, is the methodby which we discuss the properties of continuously varying quantities.The nature of the method and the necessity for it may be indicated by asimple example;e. g. the motion of a train in a track, or the motionof a planet in its orbit. If we know the successive positions of themoving body at successive short intervals of time, the rules of thedifferential calculus enable us to calculate the speed, the change ofspeed, the change of direction of motion (i. e. the curvature of thepath), and the effective force acting on the body. Conversely, given theforce at every point, and the initial position and velocity, the rules ofthe integral calculus assist us in calculating the position and velocityof the body at any future time. Expressed somewhat crudely, thedifferential calculus has to do with thedifferentials (increments ordecrements) of varying quantities; while the integral calculus is aprocess of summation orintegration of these differentials.

Calcutta (900), on the left bank of the Hooghly, the largest andwesternmost branch of the Ganges delta, about 80 m. from the sea; is thecapital of Bengal and the Indian Empire, and the residence of theGovernor-General; the Government buildings, Bishop's College (now anengineering school) High Court, town hall, bank, museum, university, St.Paul's cathedral, and many other English Buildings have earned for it thename “city of palaces”; but the native quarters, though being improved,are still squalid, the houses of mud or bamboo; an esplanade, numerousquays, an excellent water-supply, gas, and tramway services, add to theamenities; there are extensive dockyards, warehouses, iron-works, timberyards, and jute mills; extensive railway and steamboat communicationsmake it the chief emporium of commerce in Asia; ships of 5000 tons enterthe docks; founded in 1686, Calcutta was captured by Surajah Dowlah, andthe “Black Hole” massacre perpetrated in 1756; became the capital ofIndia in 1772, and has suffered frequently from cyclones; the populationare two-thirds Hindus, less than a third Mohammedan, and 4½ per cent.Christian.

Caldecott, Randolph, artist, born in Chester; exercised his artchiefly in book illustrations, which were full of life, and instinct witha kindly, graceful humour; though professionally untrained, his abilitiesas an artist were promptly and generously recognised by the Academy; hesuffered from ill-health, and died in Florida, whither he had gone torecruit (1846-1886).

Calder, Sir Robert, British naval officer; served bravely in severalnaval engagements; was tried by court-martial, and reprimanded for notfollowing up a victory which he had gained, a sentence which wasafterwards found to be unjust; attained afterwards the rank of admiral(1745-1818).

Calderon de la Barca, the great Spanish dramatist, born at Madrid;entered the army, and served in Italy and Flanders, producing the whiledramas which were received with great enthusiasm; took holy orders, andbecame a canon of Toledo, but to the last continued to write poems andplays; he was a dramatist of the first order, and has been ranked by themore competent critics among the foremost of the class in both ancientand modern times (1600-1681).

Calderwood, David, a Scotch ecclesiastic, born at Dalkeith; becameminister of Crailing; first imprisoned, and then banished for resistingthe attempts of James VI. to establish Episcopacy in Scotland; wrote abook, “Altare Damascenum,” in Holland, whither he had retired, being asearching criticism of the claims of the Episcopacy; returned on thedeath of the king, and wrote a “History of the Kirk” (1575-1650).

Caledonia, the Roman name for Scotland N. of the Wall of Antoninus,since applied poetically to the whole of Scotland.

Caledonian Canal, a canal across the NW. of Scotland, executed byTelford, for the passage of ships between the Atlantic and the North Sea,60 m. long, 40 m. of which consist of natural lakes; begun 1803, finished1823; cost £1,300,000; has 28 locks; was constructed for the benefit ofcoasting vessels to save the risks they encountered in the PentlandFirth.

Calends, the first day of the Roman month, so called as the day onwhich the feast days and unlucky days of the month were announced.

Cal`gary, the capital of Alberta, in NW. territory of Canada.

Calhoun, John Caldwell, an American statesman, born in S. Carolina,of Irish descent; all through his public life in high civic position;leader of “the States rights” movement, in vindication of the doctrinethat the Union was a mere compact, and any State had a right to withdrawfrom its conditions; and champion of the slave-holding States, regardingslavery as an institution fraught with blessing to all concerned. Hischief work is a treatise on the “Nature of Government” (1789-1850).

Caliban, a slave in Shakespeare's “Tempest,” of the grossestanimality of nature.

Calicut (66), chief town on the Malabar coast, in the MadrasPresidency of India, the first port at which Vasco da Gama landed in1498, whence the cotton cloth first imported from the place got the name“calico.”

California (1,208), the most south-westerly State in the AmericanUnion; occupies the Pacific seaboard between Oregon and Mexico, and isbounded landward by Nevada and Arizona. It is the second largest State,larger by a quarter than the United Kingdom. In the N. the rainfall isexcessive, and winters severe; in the S. there is little rain, and adelightful climate. Wheat is the most important product; the grape andall manner of fruits grow luxuriantly. Mineral wealth is great: it is theforemost State for gold and quicksilver; lead, silver, copper, iron,sulphur, coal, and many other minerals abound. The industries includebrandy and sugar manufactures, silk-growing, shipbuilding, and fishing.All products are exported, eastward by the great Central, Union, andSouthern Pacific railroads; and seaward, the chief port being SanFrancisco, the largest city, as Sacramento is the capital of the State.The Yosemite Valley, in the Sierra Nevada, through which falls the MercedRiver, is the most wonderful gorge in the world. Captured from Mexico in1847, the discovery of gold next year raised great excitement, andbrought thousands of adventurers from all over the world. Constituted aState in 1850, the original lawlessness gradually gave way to regularadministration, and progress has since been steady and rapid.

California, Lower (30), an extensive, mountainous, dry, and scarcelyhabitable peninsula, stretching southward from the State, in Mexicanterritory; agriculture is carried on in some of the valleys, and pearland whale fisheries support some coast towns.

Caligula, Roman emperor from A.D. 37 to 41, youngest son ofGermanicus and Agrippina, born at Antium; having ingratiated himself withTiberius, was named his successor; ruled with wisdom and magnanimity atfirst, while he lived in the unbridled indulgence of every lust, butafter an illness due to his dissipation, gave way to the most atrociousacts of cruelty and impiety; would entertain people at a banquet and thenthrow them into the sea; wished Rome had only one head, that he mightshear it off at a blow; had his horse installed as consul in mockery ofthe office; declared himself a god, and had divine honours paid to him,till a conspiracy was formed against him on his return from an expeditioninto Gaul, when he was assassinated (12-41).

Caliph, the title adopted by the successors of Mahomet, as supremein both civil and religious matters. The principal caliphates are: (1)the Caliphate of the East, established by Abubekr at Mecca, transferredto Bagdad by the Abassides (632-1258); (2) the Caliphate of Cordova,established at Cordova by Abderrahman (756-1031); (3) the Caliphate ofEgypt, established by the Fatimites (909-1171). It was at Bagdad thatMoslem civilisation achieved its final development.

Calisto, daughter of Lycaon, king of Arcadia; changed by Juno into ashe-bear, and placed by Jupiter among the stars.

Calixtus, the name of three Popes:C. I., Pope from 218 to 222;C. II., Pope from 1119 to 1124;C. III., Pope from 1455 to1458.

Calixtus, George, a Lutheran theologian of an eminently toleranttype, born at Sleswick; travelled for four years in Germany, Belgium,England, and France; accused of heresy, or rather apostasy, for theliberal spirit in which he had learned in consequence to treat bothCatholics and Calvinists, and for considering the Apostles' Creed a broadenough basis for Christian union and communion, which might embrace both;his friends, however, stood by him, and he retained the position he heldin the Lutheran Church (1586-1656).

Calla`o (32), a port in Peru, 7 m. from Lima, with a fine harbourthe safest on the coast, if not in the world; its prosperity depends ontrade, which is less than it was before the annexation of the nitratefields to Chile.

Callcott, John Wall, an eminent musical composer, born atKensington; was a pupil of Händel's, and is celebrated for his gleecompositions (1766-1821).Sir Augustus Wall, landscape painter,brother; was knighted for his eminent skill as an artist (1779-1841).Lady Maria, wife of Sir Augustus, author of “Little Arthur's Historyof England” (1779-1842).

Callernish, a district in the W. of the island of Lewis, 10 m. fromStornoway; noted for its circles of standing stones, from 10 to 17 ft. inheight, the whole in cruciform arrangement.

Callic`rates, along with Ictinos, architect of the Parthenon inAthens.

Callim`achus, Greek architect, inventor of the Corinthian order, 4thcentury B.C.

Callimachus, Greek poet, born in Cyrena; taught grammar andbelles-lettres at Alexandria; was keeper of the library there; of hiswritings, which are said to have been on a variety of subjects and verynumerous, only a few epigrams and hymns remain; was admired by Catullus,Ovid, and Propertius, and flourished in the 3rd century B.C.

Calli`ope, the muse of epic poetry and eloquence, is representedwith a tablet and stylus, and sometimes with a paper roll. SeeMuses.

Callis`thenes, a disciple of Aristotle, who accompanied Alexanderthe Great to India, and was put to death by his order for remonstratingwith him on his adoption of the manners and style of the potentates ofthe East, but professedly on a charge of treason.

Callis`tratus, an Athenian orator, who kindled in Demosthenes apassion for his art; his Spartan sympathies brought him to grief, and ledto his execution as a traitor.

Callot, Jacques, engraver and etcher, born at Nancy; his etchings,executed many of them at the instance of the Grand-duke of Tuscany andLouis XIII. of France, amounted to 1600 pieces, such as those of thesieges of Breda and Rochelle, which are much admired, as also those ofthe gipsies with whom he associated in his youth (1593-1633).

Calmet, Augustine, a learned Benedictine and biblical scholar, bornin Lorraine, but known in England by his “Historical, Critical, andChronological Dictionary of the Bible,” the first published book of itskind of any note, and much referred to at one time as an authority; hewrote also a “Commentary on the Bible” in 23 vols., and a “UniversalHistory” in 17 vols. (1672-1757).

Calms, The, tracts of calm in the ocean, on the confines of thetrade winds, and which lasts for weeks at a time.

Calomar`de, Duke, a Spanish statesman; minister of Ferdinand VII.; aviolent enemy of liberal principles and measures, and a reactionary;obnoxious to the people; arrested for treachery, escaped into France bybribing his captors (1773-1842).

Calonne, Charles Alexandre de, French financier under Louis XVI.,born at Douay; a man of “fiscal genius; genius for persuading, before allthings for borrowing”; succeeded Necker in 1783 as comptroller-general ofthe finances in France; after four years of desperate attempts atfinancial adjustment, could do nothing but convoke the Notables in 1787;could give no account of his administration that would satisfy them; wasdismissed, and had to quit Paris and France; “his task to raise the windand the winds,” says Carlyle, “and he did it,” referring to theRevolution he provoked; was permitted by Napoleon to return to France,where he died in embarrassed circumstances (1734-1802).

Caloric, the name given by physicists to the presumed subtle elementwhich causes heat.

Calorius, Abraham, a fiery Lutheran polemic, a bitter enemy ofGeorge Calixtus (1612-1686).

Calotype, a process of photography invented by Fox Talbot in 1840,by means of the action of light on nitrate of silver.

Calpë, Gibraltar, one of thePillars of Hercules (q. v.).

Calpurnia, the last wife of Julius Cæsar, daughter of the consulPiso, who, alive to the danger of conspiracy, urged Cæsar to stay at homethe day he was assassinated.

Caltagirone (28), a city 38 m. SW. of Catania; the staple industryis pottery and terra-cotta ware.

Cal`umet, among the American Indians a pipe for smoking, which ifaccepted when offered, was an emblem of peace, and if rejected, adeclaration of war.

Calvados (428), a maritime dep. in N. of France, skirted bydangerous rocks of the same name, with a fertile soil and a moistclimate.

Calvaert, Denis, a painter, born at Antwerp; settled at Bologna,where he founded a school, from whence issued many eminent artists, amongothers Guidi Reni, Domenichino, and Albani; his masterpiece, “St.Michael” in St. Peter's, Bologna (1555-1619).

Calvary, the place of the crucifixion, identified with a hill on theN. of Jerusalem, looked down upon from the city, with a cliff on whichcriminals were cast down prior to being stoned; also name given toeffigies of the crucifixion in Catholic countries, erected for devotion.

Calverley, Charles Stuart, a clever English parodist, Fellow ofChrist's Church, Oxford; wrote “Fly-Leaves” and “Verses andTranslations”; his parodies among the most amusing of the century,flavoured by the author's scholarship (1831-1884).

Calvert, George andCecil, father and son, Lords Baltimore;founders, under charter from James I., of Maryland, U.S.

Calvin, John, orCauvin, the great Reformer, born at Noyon, inPicardy; devoted for a time to the law, was sent to study at theuniversity of Orleans, after having mastered Latin as a boy at Paris;became acquainted with the Scriptures, and acquired a permanentlytheological bent; professed the Protestant faith; proceeded to Paris;became the centre of a dangerous religious excitement; had to flee forhis life from France; retired to Basel, where he studied Hebrew and wrotehis great epoch-making book, the “Institutes of the Christian Religion”;making after this for Strassburg, he chanced to pass through Geneva, wasarrested as by the hand of God to stay and help on God's work in theplace, but proceeded with such rigour that he was expelled, thoughrecalled after three years; on his return he proposed and established hissystem of Church government, which allowed of no license in faith anymore than conduct, as witness the burning of Servetus for denying thedoctrine of the Trinity; for twenty years he held sway in Geneva, and forso long he was regarded as the head of the Reformed Churches in Scotland,Switzerland, Holland, and France. Besides his “Institutes,” he found timeto write Commentaries on nearly all the books of the Bible; was a man ofmasculine intellect and single-hearted devotion to duty, as ever in the“Great Taskmaster's” eye. His greatest work was his “Institutes,”published in Basel in 1535-36. It was written in Latin, and four yearsafter translated by himself into French. “In the translated form,” saysProf. Saintsbury, “it is beyond all question the first serious work ofgreat literary merit not historical in the history of French prose....Considering that the whole of it was written before the author of it wasseven-and-twenty, it is perhaps the most remarkable work of itsparticular kind to be anywhere found; the merits of it being those offull maturity and elaborate preparation rather than of youthfulexuberance” (1509-1564).

Calvinism, the theological system of Calvin, the chiefcharacteristic of which is that it assigns all in salvation to thesovereign action and persistent operation of Divine grace.

Calvo, Charles, an Argentine publicist, born at Buenos Ayres in1824; author of “International Law, Theoretical and Practical.”

Calypso, in the Greek mythology a nymph, daughter of Atlas, queen ofthe island of Ogygia, who by her fascinating charms detained Ulyssesbeside her for 7 of the 10 years of his wanderings home from Troy; shedied of grief on his departure.

Camarilla, a name of recent origin in Spain for a clique of privatecounsellors at court, who interpose between the legitimate ministers andthe crown.

Cambacérès, Jean Jacques Régis de, Duke of Parma, born atMontpellier; bred to the legal profession, took a prominent part as alawyer in the national Convention; after the Revolution of the 18thBrumaire, was chosen second consul; was sincerely attached to Napoleon;was made by him High Chancellor of the Empire as well as Duke of Parma;his “Projet de Code” formed the basis of theCode Napoléon (1753-1824).

Cambay (31), a town and seaport N. of Bombay, on a gulf of the samename, which is fast silting up, in consequence of which the place, once aflourishing port, has fallen into decay.

Cambo`dia (1,500), a small kingdom in Indo-China, occupying an areaas large as Scotland in the plains of the Lower Mekong. The coast-line iswashed by the Gulf of Siam; the landward boundaries touch Siam, Annam,and French Cochin-China; in the N. are stretches of forest and hills inwhich iron and copper are wrought; a branch of the Mekong flows backwardand forms the Great Lake; most of the country is inundated in the rainyseason, and rice, tobacco, cotton, and maize are grown in the tracts thusirrigated; spices, gutta-percha, and timber are also produced; there areiron-works at Kompong Soai; foreign trade is done through the portKampot. The capital is Pnom-Penh (35), on the Mekong. The kingdom wasformerly much more extensive; remarkable ruins of ancient grandeur arenumerous; it has been under French protection since 1863.

Cambrai (17), a city in the dep. of Nord, in France, on the Scheldt;famous for its fine linen fabrics, hence calledcambrics. Fénélon wasarchbishop here, in the cathedral of which is a monument to his memory.

Cambria, the ancient name of Wales, country of the Kymry, a Celticrace, to which the Welsh belong.

Cambridge (44), county town of Cambridgeshire, stands in flatcountry, on the Cam, 28 m. NE. of London; an ancient city, withinteresting archæological remains; there are some fine buildings, theoldest round church in England, Holy Sepulchre, and a Roman Catholicchurch. The glory of the city is the University, founded in the 12thcentury, with its colleges housed in stately buildings, chapels,libraries, museums, &c., which shares with Oxford the academic prestigeof England. It lays emphasis on mathematical, as Oxford on classical,culture. Among its eminent men have been Bacon, Newton, Cromwell, Pitt,Thackeray, Spenser, Milton, Dryden, Wordsworth, and Tennyson.

Cambridge (70), a suburb of Boston, U.S., one of the oldest townsin New England; seat of Harvard University; the centre of the book-makingtrade; here Longfellow resided for many years.

Cambridge, first Duke of, seventh and youngest son of George III.;served as volunteer under the Duke of York, and carried a marshal'sbaton; was made viceroy of Hanover, which he continued to be till, in1837, the crown fell to the Duke of Cumberland (1774-1850).

Cambridge, second Duke of, son of the preceding and cousin to theQueen, born in Hanover; served in the army; became commander-in-chief in1856 on the resignation of Viscount Hardinge; retired in 1895, and wassucceeded by Lord Wolseley;b. 1819.

Cambridge University contains 17 colleges: Peterhouse, founded 1257;Clare College, 1326; Pembroke, 1347; Gonville and Caius, 1348; TrinityHall, 1350; Corpus Christi, 1352; King's, 1441; Queens', 1448; St.Catherine's, 1473; Jesus, 1496; Christ's, 1505; St John's, 1511;Magdalene, 1519; Trinity, 1546; Emmanuel, 1584; Sidney Sussex, 1598; andDowning, 1800. Each college is a corporation by itself, governed bystatutes sanctioned by the crown, and capable of holding landed or otherproperty.

Cambridgeshire (188), an inland agricultural county, nine-tenths ofits surface under cultivation; famed for its butter and cheese; veryflat, marshy in the N., with a range of chalk-hills, the Gog-Magog in theS.; is rich in Roman remains.

Cambronne, French general, born at Nantes; served under the Republicand the Empire; accompanied Napoleon to Elba in 1814; commanded adivision of the Old Guard at Waterloo; fought to the last; thoughsurrounded by the enemy and summoned to surrender, refused, and was takenprisoner; is credited with the saying,La Garde meurt, et ne se rendpas, “The Guard dies, but does not surrender” (1770-1842).

Cambus`can, king of Tartary, identified with Genghis Khan, who had awonderful steed of brass, magically obedient to the wish of the rider,together with a magical mirror, sword, and ring.

Camby`ses, king of Persia, succeeded his father, the great Cyrus;invaded and subdued Egypt, but afterwards suffered serious reverses, andin the end gave himself up to dissipation and vindictive acts of cruelty,from which not only his subjects suffered, but the members of his ownfamily;d. 54 B.C.

Cambyses, King, a ranting character in a play called “The LamentableTragedy”; referred to by Falstaff in I Henry IV., Act ii. sc. 4.

Camden (58), a busy town in New Jersey, U.S., on the left bank ofthe Delaware, opposite Philadelphia; the terminus of six railways.

Camden, Charles Pratt, first Earl of, a distinguished British lawyerand statesman, chief-justice of the King's Bench in George I.'s reign,and ultimately Lord Chancellor of England; opposed, as judge in the case,the prosecution of Wilkes as illegal, and as a statesman the policy andaction of the government towards the American colonies; he was createdearl in 1786 (1713-1794).

Camden, William, a learned English antiquary, the first and mostfamous born in London; second master, and eventually head-master inWestminster School, during which time he gave proof of his antiquarianknowledge, which led to his appointment as Clarencieux king-at-arms;author of “Britannia,” a historical and topographical account of theBritish Isles, his most widely known work, and “Annals of Elizabeth'sReign,” both, as all the rest of his works, written in Latin; he has beensurnamed the Strabo and the Pausanias of England (1551-1623).

Camelot, a place in Somerset, where, it is presumed, King Arthurheld his court, and where entrenchments of an old town are still to beseen.

Camenæ, in the Roman mythology a set of nymphs endowed withsemi-prophetic powers, and sometimes identified with the Muses.

Cameo, a precious stone cut in relief; consists generally of two orthree different colours, the upper cut in relief and the under formingthe ground.

Camera Lucida, an optical instrument or contrivance, by means ofwhich the image of an object may be made to appear on a light or whitesurface.

Camera Obscura, an optical contrivance, by means of which the imagesof external objects are exhibited distinctly on a surface in the focus ofthe lens.

Camerarius, a distinguished scholar, born at Bamberg; active as aGerman Reformer; played a prominent part in the religious struggles ofhis time; friend and biographer of Melanchthon; collaborated with him indrawing up the Augsburg Confession (1500-1574).

Cameron, John, a learned divine, born in Glasgow, who held severalprofessorial appointments on the Continent; was for a time Principal ofGlasgow University; his knowledge was so extensive that he was styled a“walking library,” but he fell in disfavour with the people for hisdoctrine of passive obedience, and he died of a wound inflicted by anopponent of his views (1579-1625).

Cameron, Richard, a Scotch Covenanter of the 17th century, born inFalkland, Fife; a ringleader of the persecuted Presbyterians, took toarms along with sixty others in defence of his rights; was surprised by abody of dragoons atAirds Moss (q. v.), and after a brave fightslain, his head and hands cut off, and fixed on the Netherbow Port, atthe head of the Canongate, Edinburgh, in 1680.

Cameron, Verney Lovett, African explorer, born near Weymouth;traversed Africa all the way from east to west (1873-75); he was on thetrack of important discoveries, but his explorations were cut short bythe natives; wrote “Across Africa” (1844-1894).

Cameronians (1), a Presbyterian body in Scotland who derived theirname from Richard Cameron, contended like him for the faith to which thenation by covenant had bound itself, and even declined to take the oathof allegiance to sovereigns such as William III. and his successors, whodid not explicitly concede to the nation this right. (2) Also a Britishregiment, originally raised in defence of Scottish religious rights; forlong the 26th Regiment of the British line, now the Scottish Rifles.

Cameroon, (1) a river in W. Africa, falling by a wide estuary intothe Bight of Biafra, known as the oil river, from the quantities ofpalm-oil exported; (2) a mountain range, a volcanic group, the highestpeak nearly 14,000 ft., NW. of the estuary; (3) also a German colony,extending 199 m. along the coast.

Camilla, (1) a virgin queen of the Volsci, one of the heroines inthe “Æneid,” noted for her preternatural fleetness on the racecourse,and her grace; (2) also a sister of theHoratii (q. v.), killedby her brother because she wept at the death of her affiancé, one of theCuriatii (q. v.), whom the Horatii slew.

Camillus, Marcus Furius, a famous patrician of early Rome; tookVeii, a rival town, after a ten years' siege; retired into voluntaryexile at Ardea on account of the envy of his enemies in Rome; recalledfrom exile, saved Rome from destruction by the Gauls under Brennus, wasfive times elected dictator, and gained a succession of victories overrival Italian tribes; died at eighty of the plague, in 365 B.C.,lamented by the whole nation, and remembered for generations after as oneof the noblest heroic figures in Roman history.

Camisards, Huguenots of the Cévennes, who took up arms by thousandsin serious revolt against Louis XIV., in which others joined, under JeanCavalier their chief, after, and in consequence of, the revocation of theEdict of Nantes (1685); so called because they wore acamiso (Fr. achemise), a blouse over their armour; were partly persuaded and partlycompelled into submission by Marshal Villars in 1704.

Camoëns, the poet of Portugal, born at Lisbon, studied at Coimbra;fell in passionate love with a lady of high rank in Lisbon, as she withhim, but whom he was not allowed to marry; left Lisbon, joined the army,and fought against the Moors; volunteered service in India, arrived atGoa, and got into trouble with the Portuguese authorities; was banishedto Macao, and consoled himself by writing his “Lusiad”; coming home helost everything but his poem; died neglected and in poverty; the title ofthe poem is properly “The Lusiads,” or the Lusitanians,i. e. thePortuguese, and is their national epic, called, not inaptly, the “Epos ofCommerce”; it has been translated into most European languages, and intoEnglish alone no fewer than six times (1524-1580).

Camorra, a secret society in Naples with wide ramifications, whichat one time had by sheer terrorism considerable political influence inthe country; when steps were taken by Francis II. to suppress it, themembers of it joined the revolutionary party, and had their revenge inthe expulsion eventually of the Bourbons from Italy.

Campagna, (1) an unhealthy flat district round Rome, co-extensivewith ancient Latium, infested with malaria; (2) a town in Italy, inSalerno, with a cathedral, and a trade in wine, oil, and fruit.

Campaign, The, poem by Addison in celebration of Marlborough'svictory at Blenheim.

Campan, Mme. de, born at Paris, faithful friend and confidante ofMarie Antoinette; after the Revolution opened a boarding-school at St.Germain; became under Napoleon matron of an institution for daughters ofofficers of the Legion of Honour; wrote the “Private Life of MarieAntoinette” (1752-1822).

Campanella, Tommaso, an Italian philosopher of the transitionperiod, originally a Dominican monk, born in Calabria; contemporary ofBacon; aimed, like him, at the reform of philosophy; opposedscholasticism, fell back upon the ancient systems, and devoted himself tothe study of nature; was persecuted all along by the Church, and spent 27years of his life in a Neapolitan dungeon; released, he retired toFrance, and enjoyed the protection of Richelieu; he was the author ofsonnets as well as philosophical works (1568-1639).

Campania, an ancient prov. in the W. of Italy, of great fertility,and yields corn, wine, and oil in great abundance; Capua was the capital,the chief towns of which now are Naples, Salerno, and Gaeta; it was afavourite resort of the wealthy families of ancient Rome.

Campanile, a tower for bells constructed beside a church, but notattached to it; very common in Italian cities, the leaning tower of Pisabeing one, and that of Florence one of the most famous.

Campbell, a celebrated Scottish Highland clan, the members of whichhave played an important role in English and Scottish history.

Campbell, Alexander, an Anti-Calvinistic Baptist, born in Antrim;emigrated to America in 1807, and founded a sect called the “Disciples ofChrist”; disowned creeds, and owned no authority in religion but theBible; the sect has upwards of 5000 meeting-houses in America, and overhalf a million members. Campbell executed a translation of the NewTestament, in which he employed the words “immercer” and “immersion” for“baptist” and “baptism” (1788-1866).

Campbell, Sir Colin, Lord Clyde, born in Glasgow, son of a carpenternamed Macliver; entered the army, and rose rapidly; served in China andthe Punjab; commanded the Highland Brigade in the Crimea; won the day atAlma and Balaclava; commanded in India during the Mutiny; relievedLucknow, and quelled the rebellion; was made field-marshal, with apension of £2000, and created Lord Clyde; he was one of the bravestsoldiers of England (1792-1863).

Campbell, George, a Scotch divine, Principal of Aberdeen University;wrote “Philosophy of Rhetoric,” and an able reply to Hume's argumentagainst miracles, entitled “Dissertation on Miracles” (1709-1796).

Campbell, John, Lord Chancellor of England, born at Cupar-Fife; ason of the manse; destined for the Church, but took the study of law; wascalled to the bar; did journalistic work and law reports; was a Whig inpolitics; held a succession of offices both on the Bench and in theCabinet; wrote the “Lives of the Chancellors” and the “Lives of the ChiefJustices” (1779-1861).

Campbell, John Francis, born at Islay, author of, among other works,“Popular Tales of the West Highlands, orally collected,” a collection allhis own, and a remarkable one for the enthusiasm and the patrioticdevotion it displays (1822-1885).

Campbell, John Macleod, a Scotch clergyman, born in Argyll; deposedfrom the ministry of the Scotch Church in 1831 for his liberaltheological sentiments; a saintly man, whose character alone should haveprotected him from such an indignity; his favourite theme was theself-evidencing character of revelation, while the doctrine for which hewas deposed, the Fatherhood of God, is being now adopted as the centralprinciple of Scotch theology; he continued afterwards to ply his vocationas a minister of Christ in a quiet way to some quiet people like himself,and before his death a testimonial and address in recognition of hisworth was presented to him by representatives of nearly every religiouscommunity in Scotland (1801-1872).

Campbell, Thomas, poet, born in Glasgow; studied with distinction atthe University; when a student of law in Edinburgh wrote “The Pleasuresof Hope”; the success of the work, which was great, enabled him to travelon the Continent, where he wrote the well-known lines, “Ye Mariners ofEngland,” “Hohenlinden,” and “The Exile of Erin”; married, and settled inLondon, where he did writing, lecturing, and some more poetry, inparticular “The Last Man”; after settling in London a pension of £200 wasawarded him through the influence of Fox; he wrote in prose as well asverse; he was elected Rector of Glasgow University in 1827, and again inthe following year: buried in Westminster (1777-1844).

Campbeltown, a town in Kintyre, Argyllshire, with a fine harbour; isa great fishing centre; and has over 20 whisky distilleries.

Campe, Joachim Heinrich, German educationist; disciple of Basedow,and author of educational works (1746-1818).

Campeachy (12), a Mexican seaport on a bay of the same name;manufactures cigars.

Campeggio, Lorenzo, cardinal; twice visited England as legate, thelast time in connection with the divorce between Henry VIII. andCatherine, with the effect of mortally offending the former and being ofno real benefit to the latter, whom he would fain have befriended; hismission served only to embitter the relations of Henry with the see ofRome (1474-1539).

Camper, Peter, a Dutch anatomist, born at Leyden; held sundryprofessorships; made a special study of the facial angle in connectionwith intelligence; he was an artist as well as a scientist, and a patronof art (1722-1789).

Camperdown, a tract of sandy hills on the coast of N. Holland, nearwhich Admiral Duncan defeated the Dutch fleet under Van Winter in 1797.

Camphuysen, a Dutch landscape painter of the 17th century, famousfor his moonlight pieces.

Campi, a family of painters, distinguished in the annals of Italianart at Cremona in the 16th century.

Campine, a vast moor of swamp and peat to the E. of Antwerp, beingnow rendered fertile by irrigation.

Campion, Edmund, a Jesuit, born in London; a renegade from theChurch of England; became a keen Catholic propagandist in England; wasarrested for sedition, of which he was innocent, and executed; was in1886 beatified by Pope Leo XIII. (1540-1581).

Campo-Formio, a village near Udine, in Venetia, where a treaty wasconcluded between France and Austria in 1797, by which the Belgianprovinces and part of Lombardy were ceded to France, and certain VenetianStates to Austria in return.

Campo Santo (Holy Ground), Italian and Spanish name for aburial-place.

Campos (13), a trading city of Brazil, in the prov. of Rio Janeiro.

Campvere, now calledVere, on the NE. of the island ofWalcheren; had a Scotch factory under Scotch law, civil andecclesiastical.

Camus, bishop of Belley, born at Paris; a violent enemy of themendicant monks (1582-1663).

Camus, a learned French jurisconsult, member of the NationalConvention; a determined enemy of the Court party in France; voted forthe execution of the king as a traitor and conspirator; was conservatorof the national records, and did good service in preserving them(1740-1804).

Canaan, originally the coast land, but eventually the whole, ofPalestine W. of the Jordan.

Canaanites, a civilised race with towns for defence; dependent onagriculture; worshippers of the fertilising powers of nature; and theoriginal inhabitants of Palestine, from which they were never whollyrooted out.

Canada (5,000), which with Newfoundland forms British North America,occupies the northern third of the continent, stretches from the Atlanticto the Pacific, from the United States to Alaska and the Arctic Ocean;nearly as large as Europe, it comprises a lofty and a lower tableland W.and E. of the Rocky Mountains, the peninsulas of Labrador and NovaScotia, and between these a vast extent of prairie and undulating land,with rivers and lakes innumerable, many of them of enormous size andnavigable, constituting the finest system of inland waterways in theworld; the Rocky Mountains rise to 16,000 ft., but there are severalgorges, through one of which the Canadian Pacific railroad runs; thechief rivers are the Fraser, Mackenzie, Saskatchewan, and St. Lawrence;Great Slave, Great Bear, Athabasca, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Superior, Huron,Erie, and Ontario are the largest lakes; the climate is varied, very coldin the north, very wet west of the Rockies, elsewhere drier than inEurope, with hot summers, long, cold, but bracing and exhilaratingwinters; the corn-growing land is practically inexhaustible; the finestwheat is grown without manure, year after year, in the rich soil ofManitoba, Athabasca, and the western prairie; the forests yield maple,oak, elm, pine, ash, and poplar in immense quantities, and steps aretaken to prevent the wealth of timber ever being exhausted; gold, coal,iron, and copper are widely distributed, but as yet not much wrought;fisheries, both on the coasts and inland, are of great value; agricultureand forestry are the most important industries; the chief trade is donewith England and the United States; the twelve provinces, Quebec,Ontario, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, BritishColumbia, Manitoba, Keewatin, Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, Alberta, andAthabasca, each with its own Parliament, are united under the DominionGovernment; the Governor-General is the Viceroy of the Queen; theDominion Parliament meets at Ottawa, the federal capital; nearly everyprovince has its university, that of Toronto being the most important;the largest town is Montreal; Toronto, Quebec, Hamilton, and Halifax areall larger than the capital; taken possession of by France in 1534,settlement began at Quebec in 1608; by the treaty of Utrecht, 1703,Hudson Bay, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland passed to England; the rest ofFrench territory was ceded to England in 1763; constituted at differenttimes, the various provinces, except Newfoundland, were finallyconfederated in 1871.

Canaletto, Antonio, a Venetian painter, famous for his pictures ofVenice and handling of light and shade (1697-1768).

Canaletto, Bernardo Bellotto, nephew and pupil of preceding;distinguished for his perspective and light and shade (1720-1780).

Canaris, Constantine, a Greek statesman, did much to free andconsolidate Greece, more than any other statesman (1790-1877).

Canary Islands (288), a group of mountainous islands in theAtlantic, off the NW. African coast, belonging to Spain, with rockycoasts, and wild, picturesque scenery; on the lower levels the climate isdelightful, and sugar, bananas, and dates grow; farther up there arezones where wheat and cereals are cultivated; the rainfall is low, andwater often scarce; sugar, wine, and tobacco are exported; the islandsare a health resort of growing favour.

Cancan, the name of an ungraceful and indecent dance practised inthe Paris dancing saloons.

Candia (12), the ancient name of Crete, now the name of the capital,in the centre of the N. coast.

Candide, a philosophic romance by Voltaire, and written in ridiculeof the famous maxim of Leibnitz, “All for the best in the best of allpossible worlds”; it is a sweeping satire, and “religion, politicalgovernment, national manners, human weakness, ambition, love, loyalty,all come in for a sneer.”

Candlemas, a festival in commemoration of the purification of theVirgin, held on February 2, celebrated with lighted candles; an old Romancustom in honour of the goddess Februa.

Candlish, Robert Smith, a Scottish ecclesiastic, born in Edinburgh;distinguished, next to Chalmers, for his services in organising the FreeChurch of Scotland; was an able debater and an eloquent preacher(1806-1873).

Candolle. SeeDe Candolle.

Candour, Mrs., a slanderess in Sheridan's “Rivals.”

Canea (12), chief commercial town in Crete, on NW. coast; trades inwax, oil, fruit, wool, and silk.

Canina, Luigi, Italian architect; wrote on the antiquities of Rome,Etruria, &c. (1795-1856).

Cannæ, ancient town in Apulia, near the mouth of the Aufidus, whereHannibal, in a great battle, defeated the Romans in 216 B.C., butfailing to follow up his success by a march on Rome, was twitted byMaherbal, one of his officers, who addressing him said, “You know how toconquer, Hannibal, but not how to profit by your victory.”

Cannes (15), a French watering-place and health resort on theMediterranean, in the SE. of France, where Napoleon landed on his returnfrom Elba.

Canning, Charles John, Earl, grandson of the succeeding; afterservice in cabinet offices, was made Governor-General of India, 1856, insuccession to Lord Dalhousie; held this post at the time of the Mutiny in1857; distinguished himself during this trying crisis by his discretion,firmness, and moderation; became viceroy on the transfer of thegovernment to the crown in 1858; died in London without issue, and thetitle became extinct (1812-1862).

Canning, George, a distinguished British statesman and orator, bornin London; studied for the bar; entered Parliament as a protégé of Pitt,whom he strenuously supported; was rewarded by an under-secretaryship;married a lady of high rank, with a fortune; satirised the Whigs by hispen in his “Anti-Jacobin”; on the death of Pitt became minister ofForeign Affairs; under Portland distinguished himself by defeating theschemes of Napoleon; became a member of the Liverpool ministry, and oncemore minister of Foreign Affairs; on the death of Liverpool was madePrime Minister, and after a period of unpopularity became popular byadopting, to the disgust of his old colleagues, a liberal policy; was notequal to the opposition he provoked, and died at the age of 57(1770-1827).

Cano, Alonzo, a celebrated artist, born at Granada; surnamed theMichael Angelo of Spain, having been painter, sculptor, and architect(1601-1667).

Cano, Sebastian del, a Spanish navigator, the first to sail roundthe world; perished on his second voyage to India (1460-1526).

Canon, the name given to the body of Scripture accepted by theChurch as of divine authority.

Cañon of Colorado, a gorge in Arizona through which the ColoradoRiver flows, the largest and deepest in the world, being 300 m. long,with a wall from 3000 to 6000 ft. in perpendicular height.

Canonisation, in the Romish Church, is the solemn declaration by thePope that a servant of God, renowned for his virtue and for miracles hehas wrought, is to be publicly venerated by the whole Church, termedSaint, and honoured by a special festival. A preparatory stage isbeatification, and the beatification and canonisation of a saint arepromoted by a long, tedious, and costly process, much resembling a suitat law.

Canopus, the blue vault of heaven with its stars, revered andworshipped by the son of the sandy desert as a friend and guide to him,as he wanders over the waste at night alone.

Canosa (18), a town in Apulia, abounding in Roman remains, on thesite of ancient Canusium.

Canossa, a town NW. of Bologna, in the courtyard of the castle ofwhich the Emperor Henry IV. stood three days in the cold, in January1077, bareheaded and barefooted, waiting for Pope Gregory VII. to removefrom him the sentence of excommunication.

Canova, Antonio, a great Italian sculptor, born in Venetia; gaveearly proof of his genius; his first great work, and which establishedhis fame, was the group of “Theseus and the Minotaur,” which wasby-and-by succeeded by his “Cupid and Psyche,” distinguished by atenderness and grace quite peculiar to him, and erelong by “Perseus withthe Head of Medusa,” perhaps the triumph of his art; his works werenumerous, and brought him a large fortune, which he made a generous useof (1757-1822).

Canrobert, François, marshal of France; served for some 20 years inAlgeria; was a supporter of Napoleon III., and a tool; commanded in theCrimea, first under, and then in succession to St. Arnaud; fought inItaly against Austria; was shut up in Metz with Bazaine, and madeprisoner; became a member of the senate under the Republic (1809-1895).

Cant, affectation of thinking, believing, and feeling what one inhis heart and reality does not, of which there are two degrees, insincereand sincere; insincere when one cants knowing it, and sincere when onecants without knowing it, the latter being of the darker and deeper dye.

Cant, Andrew, a Scotch Presbyterian minister, who had an equal zealfor the Scotch covenant and the cause of Charles Stuart (1610-1664). Ason of his was Principal of Edinburgh University from 1675 to 1685.

Cantabri, the original inhabitants of the N. of Spain; presumed tobe the ancestors of the Basques.

Cantacuze`nus, John, emperor of the East; an able statesman, whoacting as regent for the heir, had himself crowned king, but was drivento resign at length; retired to a monastery on Mount Athos, where hewrote a history of his time; died in 1411, 100 years old.

Cantarini, Simone, an Italian painter, born at Pesaro; a pupil ofGuido and a rival, but only an imitator from afar (1612-1648).

Canterbury (23), in E. Kent, on the Stour, by rail 62 m. SE. ofLondon; is the ecclesiastical capital of England; the cathedral wasfounded A.D. 597 by St. Augustin; the present building belongs tovarious epochs, dating as far back as the 11th century; it contains manyinteresting monuments, statues, and tombs, among the latter that ofThomas à Becket, murdered in the north transept, 1170; the cloisters,chapter-house, and other buildings occupy the site of the old monastichouses; the city is rich in old churches and ecclesiastical monuments;there is an art gallery; trade is chiefly in hops and grain. Kit Marlowewas a native.

Canterbury (128), a district in New Zealand, in the centre of theSouth Island, on the east side of which are the Canterbury Plains orDowns, a great pasture-land for sheep of over three million acres.

Canterbury Tales, a body of tales by Chaucer, conceived of asrelated by a small company of pilgrims from London to the shrine ofThomas à Becket at Canterbury. They started from the Tabard Inn atSouthwark, and agreed to tell each a tale going and each another comingback, the author of the best tale to be treated with a supper. None ofthe tales on the homeward journey are given.

Canticles, a book in the Bible erroneously ascribed to Solomon, andcalled in Hebrew the Song of Songs, about the canonicity andinterpretation of which there has been much debate, though, as regardsthe latter, recent criticism inclines, if there is any unity in it atall, to the conclusion that it represents a young maiden seduced into theharem of Solomon, who cannot be persuaded to transfer to the king theaffection she has for a shepherd in the northern hills of Galilee, hersole beloved; the aim of the author presumed by some to present acontrast between the morals of the south and those of the north, injustification possibly of the secession. It was for long, and is by somestill, believed to be an allegory in which the Bridegroom representsChrist and the Bride His Church.

Canton (1,800), chief commercial city and port of Southern China;stands on a river almost on the seaboard, 90 m. NW. of Hong-Kong, and isa healthy town, but with a heavy rainfall; it is surrounded by walls, hasnarrow crooked streets, 125 temples, mostly Buddhist, and two pagodas, 10and 13 centuries old respectively; great part of the population live inboats on the river; the fancy goods, silk, porcelain, ivory, and metalwork are famous; its river communication with the interior has fosteredan extensive commerce; exports, tea, silk, sugar, cassia, &c.

Canton, John, an ingenious experimentalist in physics, andparticularly in electricity, born at Stroud; discovered the means ofmaking artificial magnets and the compressibility of water (1718-1772).

Cantù, Cæsare, an Italian historian, born in Lombardy; imprisoned bythe Austrian government for his bold advocacy of liberal views, but atlength liberated; wrote, among a number of other works, literary as wellas historical, a “Universal History” in 35 vols. (1807-1895).

Canute, orCnut, the Dane, called the Great, son of Sweyn, kingof Denmark; invaded England, and after a success or two was elected kingby his fleet; the claim was repudiated by the Saxons, and he had to flee;returned in 1015, and next year, though London held out for a time,carried all before him; on the death of his sole rival became undisputedking of England, and ruled it as an Englishman born, wisely, equitably,and well, though the care of governing Denmark and Norway lay on hisshoulders as well; died in England, and was buried in Winchester Minster;every one is familiar with the story of the rebuke he administered to thecourtiers by showing how regardless the waves of the sea were of theauthority of a king (994-1035).

Cape Breton (92), the insular portion of the prov. of Nova Scotia atits eastern extremity, 100 m. long and 85 broad; is covered with forestsof pine, oak, &c., and exports timber and fish.

Cape Coast Castle (11), capital of the Gold Coast colony.

Cape Colony (1,527), comprises the extremity of the Africancontinent south of the Orange River and Natal, and is nearly twice thesize of the United Kingdom; the Nieuwveld Berge, running E. and W.,divides the country into two slopes, the northern slope long and gradualto the Orange River, the southern shorter and terraced to the sea;two-thirds of the country is arid plain, which, however, only requiresirrigation to render it very fertile; the climate is dry and healthy, buthot in summer; the prevalent vegetation is heath and bulbous plants.Sheep and ostrich farming are the chief industries; wool, goats' hair,ostrich feathers, hides, diamonds from Kimberley and copper fromNamaqualand are the chief exports; two-thirds of the people are ofAfrican race, chiefly Kaffirs, who flourish under British rule; theremainder are of Dutch, English, French, and German origin; Cape Town isthe capital, Kimberley and Port Elizabeth the only other large towns, butthere are many small towns; roads are good; railway and telegraphcommunication is rapidly developing. The government is in the hands of agovernor, appointed by the crown, assisted by an executive council offive and a parliament of two houses; local government is in vogue allover the country; education is well cared for; the university of the Capeof Good Hope was founded in 1873. Discovered by the Portuguese Diaz in1486, the Cape was taken possession of by the Dutch in 1652, from whom itwas captured by Great Britain in 1805. Various steps towardsself-government culminated in 1872. In recent years great tracts to theN. have been formally taken under British protection, and the policy ofextending British sway from the Cape to Cairo is explicitly avowed.

Cape Horn, a black, steep, frowning rock at the SE. extremity of theFuegean Islands; much dreaded at one time by sailors.

Cape of Good Hope, a cape in South Africa, discovered by Diaz in1486; called at first “Cape of Storms,” from the experience of the firstnavigators; altered in consideration of the promised land reached beyond.

Cape Town (84), capital of Cape Colony, situated at the head ofTable Bay, on the SW. coast, with Table Mountain rising behind it; is aregularly built, flat-roofed, imposing town, with handsome buildings andextensive Government gardens; well drained, paved, and lit, and with agood water supply. The Government buildings and law courts, museum andart gallery, bank and exchange, are its chief architectural features. Ithas docks, and a graving dock, and is a port of call for vessels of allnations, with a thriving commerce.

Cape Verde Islands (110), a group of mountainous, volcanic islands,belonging to Portugal, 350 m. from Cape Verde, on the W. of Africa, ofwhich 10 are inhabited, the largest and most productive Santiago and St.Vincent, with an excellent harbour, oftenest visited. These islands areunhealthy, and cattle-breeding is the chief industry.

Capell, Edward, an inspector of plays, born at Bury St. Edmunds;spent 20 years in editing the text of Shakespeare, in three vols., withnotes and various readings (1713-1781).

Capella, a reddish star of the first magnitude in the northernconstellation of Auriga.

Capella, an encyclopædist, born in North Africa in the 5th century;author of a work called the “Satiricon,” a strange medley of curiouslearning.

Capercailzie, the wood-grouse, a large game-bird found in fir woodsin mountainous districts, and highly esteemed for table.

Capernaum, a town on the N. side of the Sea of Galilee, the centreof Christ's labours, the exact site of which is uncertain.

Capet, the surname of Hugh, the founder, in 987, of the thirddynasty of French kings, which continued to rule France till 1328, thoughthe name is applied both to the Valois dynasty, which ruled till 1589,and the Bourbon, which ruled till 1848, Louis XVI. having been officiallydesignated as a Capet at his trial, and under that name sentenced to theguillotine.

Capgrave, John, Augustine friar, wrote “Chronicle of England,” andvoluminously both in French and English (1393-1464).

Capistrano, Giovanni da, an Italian Franciscan, a rabid adversary ofthe Hussites, aided John Hunniades in 1456 in defending Belgrade againstthe Turks (1385-1456).

Capitol, a temple and citadel erected by Tarquin on the CapitolineHill, one of the seven hills of Rome, and where victors who were voted atriumph were crowned; terminated at its southern extremity by TarpeianRock, from which criminals guilty of treason were precipitated; hence thesaying, “The Tarpeian Rock is near the Capitol,” to denote the closeconnection between glory and disgrace.

Capitularies, collections of royal edicts issued by the Frankishkings of the Carlovingian dynasty, with sanction of the nobles, for thewhole Frankish empire, as distinct from the laws for the separate peoplescomprising it, the most famous being those issued or begun by Charlemagneand St. Louis.

Capo d'Istria, Count of, born in Corfu; entered the Russiandiplomatic service; played a prominent part in the insurrection of theGreeks against Turkey; made President of the Greek Republic; assassinatedat Nauplia from distrust of his fidelity (1776-1831).

Capo d'Istria, a port of a small island in the government ofTrieste, connected with the mainland by a causeway half a mile in length.

Cappadocia, an ancient country in the heart of Asia Minor, of variedpolitical fortune; a plateau with pastures for immense flocks.

Caprara, Cardinal, born at Bologna, legate of Pius VII. in France,concluded the “Concordat” of 1801 (1733-1810).

Capre`ra, a small, barren island off the N. coast of Sardinia, thehome of Garibaldi, where he died, and his burial-place.

Capri, a small island at the entrance from the S. of the bay ofNaples, with a capital of the same name on the eastern side; a favouriteretreat of the Emperors Augustus and Tiberius, and noted for its fine airand picturesque scenery.

Caprivi, Count, born in Berlin, entered the army in 1849; held chiefposts in the Austrian and Franco-German wars; in 1890 succeeded Bismarckas Imperial Chancellor; resigned in 1894 (1831-1899).

Capua (11), a fortified city in Campania, on the Volturno, 27 m. N.of Naples, where, or rather near which, in a place of the same name,Hannibal, at the invitation of the citizens, retired with his army tospend the winter after the battle of Cannæ, 216 B.C., and where, fromthe luxurious life they led, his soldiers were enervated, after which itwas taken by the Romans, destroyed by the Saracens in 840, and the moderncity built in its stead.

Capuchins, monks of the Franciscan Order, founded in 1526, so calledfrom a cowl they wear; they were a mendicant order, and were twice oversuppressed by the Pope, though they exist still in Austria andSwitzerland.

Capulets, a celebrated Ghibelline family of Verona at mortal feudwith that of the Montagues, familiar to us through Shakespeare's “Romeoand Juliet,” Romeo being of the latter and Juliet of the former.

Capyba`ra, the water-hog, the largest rodent extant, in appearancelike a small pig.

Caracalla, a Roman emperor, son of Septimius Severus, born at Lyons;his reign (211-217) was a series of crimes, follies, and extravagances;he put to death 20,000 persons, among others the jurist Papinianus, andwas assassinated himself by one of his guards.

Caracas orCarracas (72), the cap. of Venezuela, stands at analtitude 3000 ft. above the level of the sea; subject to earthquakes, inone of which (1812) 12,000 perished, and great part of the city wasdestroyed; it contains the tomb of Bolivar.

Caracci orCarracci, a family of painters, born at Bologna:Ludovico, the founder of a new school of painting, the principle ofwhich was eclecticism, in consequence of which it is known as theEclectic School, or imitation of the styles of the best masters(1555-1619);Annibale, cousin and pupil, did “St. Roche distributingAlms,” and his chief, “Three Marys weeping over Christ”; went to Rome andpainted the celebrated Farnese gallery, a work which occupied him fouryears (1560-1609);Agostino, brother of above, assisted him in thefrescoes of the gallery, the “Communion of St. Jerome” his greatest work(1557-1602).

Caractacus, a British chief, king of the Silures, maintained agallant struggle against the Romans for nine years, but was overthrown byOstorius, 50 A.D., taken captive, and led in triumphal processionthrough Rome, when the Emperor Claudius was so struck with his dignifieddemeanour, that he set him and all his companions at liberty.

Caradoc, a knight of the Round Table, famous for his valour and thechastity and constancy of his wife.

Caraffa, a distinguished Neapolitan family, which gave birth to anumber of distinguished ecclesiastics, Paul IV. one of them.

Caraglio, an eminent Italian engraver, born at Verona, engraved ongems and medals as well as copper-plate, after the works of the greatmasters (1500-1570).

Caravaggio, an Italian painter, disdained the ideal and the idealstyle of art, and kept generally to crass reality, often in its grossestforms; a man of a violent temper, which hastened his end; a painting byhim of “Christ and the Disciples at Emmaus” is in the National Gallery,London (1569-1609).

Caravanserai, a large unfurnished inn, with a court in the middlefor the accommodation of caravans and other travellers at night in theEast.

Carbohydrates, a class of substances such as the sugars, starch,&c., consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, the latter in theproportion in which they exist in water.

Carbonari (lit.charcoal burners), a secret society that, in thebeginning of the 19th century, originated in Italy and extended itselfinto France, numbering hundreds of thousands, included Lord Byron, SilvioPellico, and Mazzini among them, the object of which was the overthrow ofdespotic governments; they were broken up by Austria, and absorbed by theYoung Italy party.

Cardan, Jerome, Italian physician and mathematician, born at Pavia;was far-famed as a physician; studied and wrote on all manner of knownsubjects, made discoveries in algebra, believed in astrology, left acandid account of himself entitled “De Vita Propria”; was the author of“Cardan's Formula” a formula for the solution of cubic equations; he issaid to have starved himself to death so as to fulfil a prophecy he hadmade as to the term of his life (1501-1576).

Cardiff (129), county town of Glamorganshire, S. Wales, on the riverTaff, the sea outlet for the mineral wealth and products of the district,a town that has risen more rapidly than any other in the kingdom, havinghad at the beginning of the century only 2000 inhabitants; it has auniversity, a number of churches, few of them belonging to the Church ofEngland, and has also three daily papers.

Cardigan, Earl of, a British officer; commanded the Light CavalryBrigade in the Crimean war, and distinguished himself in the famouscharge of the Six Hundred, which he led; his favourite regiment, the 11thHussars, on the equipment of which he lavished large sums of money(1797-1868).

Cardiganshire (62), a county in S. Wales, low-lying on the coast,level towards the coast, and mountainous in the interior, but withfertile valleys.

Cardinal virtues, these have been “arranged by the wisest men of alltime, under four general heads,” and are defined by Ruskin as “Prudenceor Discretion (the spirit which discerns and adopts rightly), Justice(the spirit which rules and divides rightly), Fortitude (the spirit thatpersists and endures rightly), and Temperance (the spirit which stops andrefuses rightly). These cardinal and sentinel virtues,” he adds, “are notonly the means of protecting and prolonging life itself, but are thechief guards or sources of the material means of life, and the governingpowers and princes of economy.”

Cardinalists, name given to the partisans in France of Richelieu andMazarin.

Carducci, Florentine artists, brothers, of the 17th century; didtheir chief work in Spain.

Carducci, Giosue, an Italian poet and critic; author of “Hymn toSatan,” “Odi Barbari,” “Commentaries on Petrarch,” &c.;b. 1837.

Carew, Thomas, English courtier poet; his poems, chiefly masks andlyrics (1589-1639).

Carey, Henry, English poet and musician, excelled in ballads;composed “Sally in Our Alley”;d. 1743.

Carey, Sir Robert, warden of the Border Marches under Elizabeth;present at her deathbed rode off post-haste on the occurrence of thedeath with the news to Edinburgh to announce it to King James(1560-1639).

Carey, William, celebrated Baptist missionary, born inNorthamptonshire; founder of the Baptist Missionary Society, and itsfirst missionary; founded the mission at Serampore and directed itsoperations, distributing Bibles and tracts by thousands in nativelanguages, as well as preparing grammars and dictionaries; was 29 yearsOriental professor in the College of Fort William. Calcutta (1761-1834).

Cargill, Donald, a Scotch Covenanter, born in Perthshire; wasminister of the Barony Parish, Glasgow; fought at Bothwell Brig; sufferedat the Cross of Edinburgh for daring to excommunicate the king; died withthe faith and courage of a martyr (1619-1681).

Caria, a SW. country in Asia Minor, bordering on the Archipelago, ofwhich the Mæander is the chief river.

Caribbean Sea, an inland sea of the Atlantic, lying between theGreat Antilles and South America, subject to hurricanes; it correspondsto the Mediterranean in Europe, and is the turning-point of the GulfStream.

Caribs, a race of American Indians, originally inhabiting the WestIndies, now confined to the southern shores of the Caribbean Sea, as faras the mouth of the Amazon; they are a fine race, tall, and ofruddy-brown complexion, but have lost their distinctive physique byamalgamation with other tribes; they give name to the Caribbean Sea.

Carinthia (361), since 1849 crownland of Austria, near Italy; is amountainous and a mineral country; rears cattle and horses; manufactureshardware and textile fabrics; the principal river is the Drave; capital,Klagenfurt.

Carisbrooke, a village in the Isle of Wight, in the castle of which,now in ruins, Charles I. was imprisoned 13 months before his trial; itwas at one time a Roman station.

Carlén, Emilia, Swedish novelist; her novels, some 30 in number,treat of the everyday life of the lower and middle classes (1807-1883).

Carleton, William, Irish novelist; his first work, and thefoundation of his reputation, “Traits and Stories of the IrishPeasantry,” followed by others of a like class (1794-1860).

Carli, Italian archæologist, numismatist, and economist, born atCapo d'Istria; wrote as his chief work on political economy; president ofthe Council of Commerce at Milan (1720-1795).

Carlile, Richard, English Radical and Freethinker, born inDevonshire; a disciple of Tom Paine's, and propagandist of his views witha zeal which no prosecution could subdue, although he time after timesuffered imprisonment for it, as well as those who associated themselveswith him, his wife included; his principal organ was “The Republican,”the first twelve volumes of which are dated from his prison; he was amartyr for the freedom of the press, and in that interest did not sufferin vain (1790-1843).

Carlisle (39), county town of Cumberland, on the Eden; a greatrailway centre; with an old castle of historical interest, and acathedral founded by William Rufus and dedicated to Henry I.

Carlisle, George Frederick William Howard, Earl Of, a Whig inpolitics; supported the successive Whig administrations of his time, andbecame eventually Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland under Palmerston(1802-1864).

Carlists, a name given in France to the partisans of Charles X.(1830), and especially in Spain to those of Don Carlos (1833), and thoseof his grandson (1873-1874).

Carloman, son of Charles Martel, and brother of Pepin le Bref, kingof Austrasia from 741 to 747; abdicated, and retired into a monastery,where he died.

Carloman, son of Pepin le Bref, and brother of Charlemagne, king ofAustrasia, Burgundy, and Provence in 768;d. 771.

Carloman, king of France conjointly with his brother Louis III.;d. 884.

Carlos, Don, son of Philip II. of Spain, born at Valladolid, andheir to the throne, but from incapacity, or worse, excluded by his fatherfrom all share in the government; confessed to a priest a design toassassinate some one, believed to be his father; was seized, tried, andconvicted, though sentence against him was never pronounced; died shortlyafter; the story of Don Carlos has formed the subject of tragedies,especially one by Schiller, the German poet (1545-1568).

Carlos, Don, the brother of Ferdinand VII. of Spain, on whose deathhe laid claim to the crown as heir, against Isabella, Ferdinand'sdaughter who by the Salic law, though set aside in her favour by herfather, had, he urged, no right to the throne; his cause was taken up bya large party, and the struggle kept up for years; defeated at length heretired from the contest, and abdicated in favour of his son(1785-1855).

Carlos, Don, grandson of the preceding, and heir to his rights;revived the struggle in 1870, but fared no better than his grandfather;took refuge in London;b. 1848.

Carlovingians, orKarlings, the name of the second dynasty ofFrankish kings, in succession to the Merovingian, which had becomefainéant; bore sway from 762 to 987, Pepin le Bref the first, and LouisV. the last; Charlemagne was the greatest of the race, and gave name tothe dynasty.

Callow (40), an inland county in Leinster, Ireland; also the countytown.

Carlowitz, a town on the Danube, 30 m. NW. of Belgrade, where atreaty was concluded in 1699 between Turkey and other European powers,very much to the curtailment of the territories of the former.

Carlsbad (10), a celebrated watering-place in Bohemia, ofaristocratic resort, the springs being the hottest in Europe, the watervarying from 117° to 165°; population nearly trebled in the season; theinhabitants are engaged in industries which minister to the tastes of thevisitors and their own profit.

Carlscrona (21), a Swedish town, strongly fortified, on the Baltic,with a spacious harbour, naval station, and arsenal; it is built on fiverocky islands united by dykes and bridges.

Carlsruhe (73), the capital of the Grand-Duchy of Baden, a greatrailway centre; built in the form of a fan, its streets, 32 in number,radiating so from the duke's palace in the centre.

Carlstadt, a German Reformer, associated for a time with Luther, butparted from him both on practical and dogmatical grounds; succeededZwingli as professor at Basel (1483-1541).

Carlton Club, the Conservative club in London, so called, as erectedon the site of Carlton House, demolished in 1828, and occupied by GeorgeIV. when he was Prince of Wales.

Carlyle, Alexander, surnamed Jupiter Carlyle, from his noble headand imposing person, born in Dumfriesshire; minister of Inveresk,Musselburgh, from 1747 to his death; friend of David Hume, Adam Smith,and Home, the author of “Douglas”; a leader of the Moderate party in theChurch of Scotland; left an “Autobiography,” which was not published till1860, which shows its author to have been a man who took things as hefound them, and enjoyed them to the full as any easy-going, culturedpagan (1722-1805).

Carlyle, Thomas, born in the village of Ecclefechan, Annandale,Dumfriesshire; son of James Carlyle, a stone-mason, and afterwards asmall farmer, a man of great force, penetration, and integrity ofcharacter, and of Margaret Aitken, a woman of deep piety and warmaffection; educated at the parish school and Annan Academy; entered theUniversity of Edinburgh at the age of 14, in the Arts classes;distinguished himself early in mathematics; enrolled as a student in thetheological department; became a teacher first in Annan Academy, then atKirkcaldy; formed there an intimate friendship with Edward Irving; threwup both school-mastering and the church; removed to Edinburgh, and tookto tutoring and working for an encyclopedia, and by-and-by to translatingfrom the German and writing criticisms for the Reviews, the latter ofwhich collected afterwards in the “Miscellanies,” proved “epoch-making”in British literature, wrote a “Life of Schiller”; married Jane Welsh, adescendant of John Knox; removed to Craigenputtock, in Dumfriesshire,“the loneliest nook in Britain,” where his original work began with“Sartor Resartus,” written in 1831, a radically spiritual book, and asymbolical, though all too exclusively treated as a speculative, and anautobiographical; removed to London in 1834, where he wrote his “FrenchRevolution” (1837), a book instinct with the all-consuming fire of theevent which it pictures, and revealing “a new moral force” in theliterary life of the country and century; delivered three courses oflectures to theélite of London Society (1837-1840), the last of them“Heroes and Hero-Worship,” afterwards printed in 1840; in 1840 appeared“Chartism,” in 1843 “Past and Present,” and in 1850 “Latter-DayPamphlets”; all on what he called the “Condition-of-England-Question,”which to the last he regarded, as a subject of the realm, the mostserious question of the time, seeing, as he all along taught and felt,the social life affects the individual life to the very core; in 1845 hedug up a hero literally from the grave in his “Letters and Speeches ofOliver Cromwell,” and after writing in 1851 a brief biography of hismisrepresented friend, John Sterling, concluded (1858-1865) his life'stask, prosecuted from first to last, in “sore travail” of body and soul,with “The History of Friedrich II. of Prussia, called Frederick theGreat,” “the last and grandest of his works,” says Froude; “a book,” saysEmerson, “that is a Judgment Day, for its moral verdict on men andnations, and the manners of modern times”; lies buried beside his ownkindred in the place where he was born, as he had left instructions tobe. “The man,” according to Ruskin, his greatest disciple, and atpresent, as would seem, the last, “who alone of all our masters ofliterature, has written, without thought of himself, what he knew to beneedful for the people of his time to hear, if the will to hear had beenin them ... the solitary Teacher who has asked them to be (before all)brave for the help of Man, and just for the love of God” (1795-1881).

Carmagnole, a Red-republican song and dance.

Carmarthenshire (30), a county in S. Wales, and the largest in thePrincipality; contains part of the coal-fields in the district; capitalCarmarthen, on the right bank of the Towy, a river which traverses thecounty.

Carmel, a NW. extension of the limestone ridge that bounds on the S.the Plain of Esdraëlon, in Palestine, and terminates in a rockypromontory 500 ft. high; forms the southern boundary of the Bay of Acre;its highest point is 1742 ft. above the sea-level.

Carmelites, a monastic order, originally an association of hermitson Mount Carmel, at length mendicant, called the Order of Our Lady ofMount Carmel,i. e. the Virgin, in consecration to whom it was foundedby a pilgrim of the name Berthold, a Calabrian, in 1156. The Order issaid to have existed from the days of Elijah.

Carmen Sylva, thenom-de-plume of Elizabeth, queen of Roumania;lost an only child, and took to literature for consolation; has taken anactive interest in the elevation and welfare of her sex;b. 1843.

Carmontel, a French dramatist; author of little pieces under thename of “Proverbes” (1717-1806).

Carnac, a seaside fishing-village in the Bay of Quibéron, in thedep. of Morbihan, France, with interesting historical records,particularly Celtic, many of them undecipherable by the antiquary.

Carnarvon, a maritime county in N. Wales, with the highest mountainsand grandest scenery in the Principality, and a capital of the same nameon the Menai Strait, with the noble ruins of a castle, in which EdwardII., the first Prince of Wales, was born.

Carnarvon, Henry Howard, Earl of, Conservative statesman; heldoffice under Lord Derby and Disraeli; was a good classical scholar; wrotethe “Druses of Mount Lebanon” (1831-1890).

Carnatic, an old prov. in the Madras Presidency of India thatextended along the Coromandel coast from Cape Comorin, 600 m. N.

Carneades, a Greek philosopher, born at Cyrene; his whole philosophya polemic against the dogmatism of the Stoics, on the alleged ground ofthe absence of any criterion of certainty in matters of either science ormorality; conceded that truth and virtue were admirable qualities, but hedenied the reality of them; sent once on an embassy to Rome, hepropounded this doctrine in the ears of the Conscript Fathers, upon whichCato moved he should be expelled from the senate-house and sent back toAthens, where he came from (213-129 B.C.).

Carnegie, Andrew, ironmaster, born in Dunfermline, the son of aweaver; made a large fortune by his iron and steel works at Pittsburg,U.S., out of which he has liberally endowed institutions and libraries,both in America and his native country;b. 1835.

Carniola (500), a crownland of the Austrian empire, SW. of Austria,on the Adriatic, S. of Carinthia; contains quicksilver mines, second onlyto those of Almaden, in Spain; the surface is mountainous, and the soilis not grain productive, though in some parts it yields wine and finefruit.

Carnival, in Roman Catholic countries the name given to a season offeasting and revelry immediately preceding Lent, akin to the Saturnaliaof the Romans.

Carnot, Leonard Sadi, son of Nicolas, founder of thermo-dynamics; inhis “Reflexions sur la Puissance du Feu” enunciates the principle ofReversibility, considered the most important contribution to physicalscience since the time of Newton (1796-1832). See Dr. Knott's “Physics.”

Carnot, Marie François, civil engineer and statesman, born atLimoges, nephew of the preceding; Finance Minister in 1879 and 1887;became President in 1887; was assassinated at Lyons by an anarchist in1894.

Carnot, Nicolas, French mathematician and engineer, born at Nolay,in Burgundy; a member of the National Convention; voted for the death ofthe king; became member of the Committee of Public Safety, and organiserof the armies of the Republic, whence his name, the “organiser ofvictory”; Minister of War under Napoleon; defender of Antwerp in 1814;and afterwards Minister of the Interior (1753-1823).

Caro, Annibale, an Italian author and poet, notable for his classicstyle (1507-1566).

Caro, Marie, a French philosopher, born at Poitiers; a popularlecturer on philosophy, surnamedle philosophe des dames; wrote onmysticism, materialism, and pessimism (1826-1887).

Carolina, North, one of the original 13 States of N. America, on theAtlantic, about the size of England, S. of Virginia, 480 m. from E. to W.and 180 m. from N. to S.; has a fertile, well-watered subsoil in the highlands; is rich in minerals and natural products; the mountains arecovered with forests, and the manufactures are numerous.

Carolina, South, S. of N. Carolina, is alluvial with swamps, 100 m.inland from the coast, is well watered; produces rice and cotton in largequantities and of a fine quality.

Caroline Islands (36), a stretch of lagoon islands, 2000 m. from E.to W., belonging to Spain, N. of New Guinea and E. of the PhilippineIslands; once divided into eastern, western, and central; the soil of thewestern is fertile, and there is plenty of fish and turtle in thelagoons.

Caroline of Brunswick, queen of George IV. and daughter of the Dukeof Brunswick; married George, then Prince of Wales, in 1795; gave birthto the Princess Charlotte the year following, but almost immediatelyafter her husband abandoned her; she retired to a mansion at Blackheath;was allowed to go abroad after a time; on the accession of her husbandshe was offered a pension of £50,000 if she stayed out of the country,but rejected it and claimed her rights as queen; was charged withadultery, but after a long trial acquitted; on the day of the coronationsought admission to Westminster Abbey, but the door was shut against her;she died a fortnight after (1768-1821).

Caron, Lieutenant-Colonel, under the first Empire; head of theBelford conspiracy in 1820 under the Restoration; executed 1822.

Carpaccio, Vittore, a Venetian painter of great celebrity,particularly in his early pieces, for his truth of delineation, hisfertile imagination, and his rich colouring; his works are numerous, andhave nearly all of them sacred subjects; an Italian critic says of him,“He had truth in his heart” (1450-1522).

Carpathians, a range of wooded mountains in Central Europe, 880 m.long, which, in two great masses, extend from Presburg to Orsova, both onthe Danube, in a semicircle round the greater part of Hungary,particularly the whole of the N. and E., the highest of them Negoi, 8517ft., they are rich in minerals, and their sides clothed with forests,principally of beech and pine.

Carpeaux, Jean Baptiste, sculptor, born at Valenciennes; adorned byhis art, reckoned highly imaginative, several of the public monuments ofParis, and the façade of the Opera House (1827-1875).

Carpentaria, Gulf of, a broad, deep gulf in the N. of Australia;contains several islands, and receives several rivers.

Carpenter, Mary, a philanthropist, born at Exeter, daughter of Dr.Lant Carpenter, Unitarian minister; took an active part in theestablishment of reformatory and ragged schools, and a chief promoter ofthe Industrial Schools Act; her philanthropic efforts extended to India,which, in her zeal, she visited four times, and she was the founder ofthe National Indian Association (1807-1877).

Carpenter, William Benjamin, biologist, brother of the preceding;author, among other numerous works, of the “Principles of General andComparative Physiology” (1838); contributed to mental physiology; heldseveral high professional appointments in London; inaugurated deep-seasoundings, and advocated the theory of a vertical circulation in theocean (1813-1877).

Carpi, Girolamo da, Italian painter and architect, born at Ferrara;successful imitator of Correggio (1501-1556).

Carpi, Ugo da, Italian painter and wood engraver; is said to haveinvented engraving in chiaroscuro (1486-1530).

Carpini, a Franciscan monk, born in Umbria; headed an embassy fromPope Innocent IV. to the Emperor of the Mogul Tartars to persuade him outof Europe, which he threatened; was a corpulent man of 60; travelled fromLyons to beyond Lake Baikal and back; wrote a report of his journey inLatin, which had a quieting effect on the panic in Europe (1182-1252).

Carpio, a legendary hero of the Moors of Spain; is said to haveslain Roland at Roncesvalles.

Carpoc`rates, a Gnostic of Alexandria of the 2nd century, whobelieved in the transmigration of the soul and its final emancipationfrom all external bonds and obligations, by means of concentratedmeditation on the divine unity, and a life in conformity therewith; wasthe founder of a sect called after his name.

Carrara (11), a town in N. Italy, 30 m. NW. of Leghorn; famous forits quarries of white statuary marble, the working of which is its stapleindustry; these quarries have been worked for 2000 years, are 400 innumber, and employ as quarrymen alone regularly over 3000 men.

Carrel, Armand, French publicist, born at Rouen; a man of highcharacter, and highly esteemed; editor of theNational, which heconducted with great ability, and courage; died of a wound in a duel withÉmile de Girardin (1800-1836).

Carrick, the southern division of Ayrshire. SeeAyrshire.

Carrickfergus (9), a town and seaport N. of Belfast Lough, 9½ m.from Belfast, with a picturesque castle.

Carrier, Jean Baptiste, one of the most blood-thirsty of the FrenchRevolutionists, born near Aurillac; an attorney by profession; sent on amission to La Vendée; caused thousands of victims to be drowned,beheaded, or shot; was guillotined himself after trial by a Revolutionarytribunal (1756-1794). SeeNoyades.

Carrière, Moritz, a German philosopher and man of letters, born inHesse, author of works on æsthetics and art in its relation to cultureand the ideal; advocated the compatibility of the pantheistic with thedeistic view of the world (1817-1893).

Carrol, Lewis, pseudonym ofC. L. Dodgson (q. v.), theauthor of “Alice in Wonderland,” with its sequel, “Through theLooking-Glass.”

Carse, the name given in Scotland to alluvial lands bordering on ariver.

Carson, Kit, American trapper, born in Kentucky; was of service tothe States in expeditions in Indian territories from his knowledge of thehabits of the Indians (1809-1878).

Carstairs, William, a Scotch ecclesiastic, born at Cathcart, nearGlasgow; sent to Utrecht to study theology; recommended himself to theregard of the Prince of Orange, and became his political adviser;accompanied him to England as chaplain in 1688, and had no small share inbringing about the Revolution; controlled Church affairs in Scotland; wasmade Principal of Edinburgh University; was chief promoter of the Treatyof Union; was held in high esteem by his countrymen for his personalcharacter as well as his public services; was a most sagacious man(1649-1715).

Carstens, Asmus Jakob, Danish artist, born in Sleswig; on theappearance of his great picture, “The Fall of the Angels,” rose at onceinto fame; was admitted to the Berlin Academy; afterwards studied themasters at Rome; brought back to Germany a taste for art; was the meansof reviving it; treated classical subjects; quarrelled the Academy; diedin poverty at Rome (1754-1798).

Cartagena (86), a naval port of Spain, on the Mediterranean, with acapacious harbour; one of the oldest towns in it, founded by theCarthaginians; was once the largest naval arsenal in Europe. Also capital(12) of the Bolivar State in Colombia.

Carte, Thomas, historian, a devoted Jacobite, born near Rugby; wrotea “History of England,” which has proved a rich quarry of facts forsubsequent historians (1686-1754).

Carte-blanche, a blank paper with a signature to be filled up withsuch terms of an agreement as the holder is authorised to accept in nameof the person whose signature it bears.

Carter, Elizabeth, an accomplished lady, born at Deal, friend of Dr.Johnson, Sir Joshua Reynolds, and others; a great Greek and Italianscholar; translated Epictetus and Algarotti's exposition of Newton'sphilosophy; some of her papers appear in theRambler (1717-1806).

Carteret, John, Earl Granville, eminent British statesman, orator,and diplomatist, entered Parliament in the Whig interest; his firstspeech was in favour of the Protestant succession; after service asdiplomatist abroad, was made Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, in whichcapacity he was brought into contact with Swift, first as an enemy but atlength as a friend, and proved a successful viceroy; in Parliament washead of the party opposed to Sir Robert Walpole and of the subsequentadministration; his foreign policy has been in general approved of; hadthe satisfaction of seeing, which he was instrumental in securing, theelder Pitt installed in office before he retired; was a “fiery, emphaticman” (1690-1763).

Carteret, Philip, English sailor and explorer, explored in theSouthern Seas, and discovered several islands, Pitcairn's Island amongthe number;d. 1796.

Carthage, an ancient maritime city, on a peninsula in the N. ofAfrica, near the site of Tunis, and founded by Phoenicians in 850 B.C.;originally the centre of a colony, it became the capital of a wide-spreadtrading community, which even ventured to compete with, and at one timethreatened, under Hannibal, to overthrow, the power of Rome, in a seriesof protracted struggles known as the Punic Wars, in the last of which itwas taken and destroyed by Publius Cornelius Scipio in 146 B.C., after asiege of two years, though it rose again as a Roman city under theCæsars, and became a place of great importance till burned in A.D. 698by Hassan, the Arab; the struggle during the early part of its historywas virtually a struggle for the ascendency of the Semitic people overthe Aryan race in Europe.

Carthusians, a monastic order of a very severe type, founded by St.Bruno in 1086, each member of which had originally a single cell,eventually one consisting of two or three rooms with a garden, all ofthem opening into one corridor; they amassed considerable wealth, butwere given to deeds of benefaction, and spent their time in study andcontemplation, in consequence of which they figure not so much in theoutside world as many other orders do.

Cartier, a French navigator, born at St. Malo, made three voyages toN. America in quest of a North-West passage, at the instance of FrancisI.; took possession of Canada in the name of France, by planting theFrench flag on the soil (1494-1554).

Cartoons, drawings or designs made on stiff paper for a fresco orother paintings, transferred by tracing or pouncing to the surface to bepainted, the most famous of which are those of Raphael.

Cartouche, a notorious captain of a band of thieves, born in Paris,who was broken on the wheel alive in the Place de Grève (1698-1721).

Cartwright, Edmund, inventor of the powerloom and the cardingmachine, born in Nottinghamshire; bred for the Church; his invention, atfirst violently opposed, to his ruin for the time being, is nowuniversally adopted; a grant of £10,000 was made him by Parliament inconsideration of his services and in compensation for his losses; he hada turn for versifying as well as mechanical invention (1743-1823).

Cartwright, John, brother of the preceding; served in the navy andthe militia, but left both services for political reasons; took to thestudy of agriculture, and the advocacy of radical political reform muchin advance of his time (1740-1824).

Carus, Karl Gustav, a celebrated German physiologist, born atLeipzig; a many-sided man; advocate of the theory that health of body andmind depends on the equipoise of antagonistic principles (1789-1869).

Cary, Henry Francis, translator of Dante, born at Gibraltar; histranslation is admired for its fidelity as well as for its force andfelicity (1772-1844).

Caryatides, draped female figures surmounting columns and supportingentablatures; the corresponding male figures are called Atlantes.

Casa, Italian statesman, Secretary of State under Pope Paul IV.;wrote “Galateo; or, the Art of Living in the World” (1503-1556).

Casabianca, Louis, a French naval officer, born in Corsica, who, atthe battle of Aboukir, after securing the safety of his crew, blew up hisship and perished along with his son, who would not leave him(1755-1798).

Casa`le (17), a town on the Po; manufactures silk twist.

Casanova, painter, born in London, of Venetian origin; paintedlandscapes and battle-pieces (1727-1806).

Casanova de Seingalt, a clever Venetian adventurer and scandalousimpostor, of the Cagliostro type, who insinuated himself into the goodgraces for a time of all the distinguished people of the period,including even Frederick the Great, Voltaire, and others; died in Bohemiaafter endless roamings and wrigglings, leaving, as Carlyle would say,“the smell of brimstone behind him”; wrote a long detailed, brazen-facedaccount of his career of scoundrelism (1725-1798).

Casas, Bartolomeo de Las, a Spanish prelate, distinguished for hisexertions in behalf of the Christianisation and civilisation of theIndians of S. America (1474-1566).

Casaubon, Isaac, an eminent classical scholar and commentator, bornin Geneva; professor of Greek at Geneva and Montpellier, and afterwardsof belles-lettres at Paris, invited thither by Henry IV., who pensionedhim; being a Protestant he removed to London on Henry's death, whereJames I. gave him two prebends; has been ranked with Lepsius and Scaligeras a scholar (1559-1614).

Casaubon, Meric, son of preceding; accompanied his father toEngland; held a church living under the Charleses; became professor ofTheology at Oxford, and edited his father's works (1599-1671).

Cascade Mountains, a range in Columbia that slopes down toward thePacific from the Western Plateau, of which the Rocky Mountains form theeastern boundary; they are nearly parallel with the coast, and above 100m. inland.

Caserta (35), a town in Italy, 20 m. from Naples, noted for amagnificent palace, built after plans supplied by Vanvitelli, one of thearchitects of St. Peter's at Rome.

Cashel, a town in Tipperary, Ireland, 49 m. NE. of Cork; a bishop'ssee, with a “Rock” 300 ft. high, occupied by interesting ruins; it wasformerly the seat of the kings of Munster.

Cashmere orKashmir (2,543), a native Indian State, borderingupon Tibet, 120 m. long and 80 m. wide, with beautiful scenery and adelicious climate, in a valley of the Himalayas, forming the basin of theUpper Indus, hemmed in by deep-gorged woods and snow-peaked mountains,and watered by the Jhelum, which spreads out here and there near it intolovely lakes; shawl weaving and lacquer-work are the chief occupations ofthe inhabitants.

Casimir, the name of five kings of Poland; the most eminent, CasimirIII., called the Great, after distinguishing himself in wars against theTeutonic Knights, was elected king in 1333; recovered Silesia fromBohemia in two victories; defeated the Tartars on the Vistula, andannexed part of Lithuania; formed a code of laws, limiting both the royalauthority and that of the nobles (1309-1370).

Casimir-Perier, president of the French Republic, born in Paris; aman of moderate views and firm character; was premier in 1893; succeededCarnot in 1894; resigned 1895, because, owing to misrepresentation, theoffice had become irksome to him;b. 1847.

Casino, a club-house or public building in Continental townsprovided with rooms for social gatherings, music, dancing, billiards, &c.

Casiri, a Syro-Maronite religious, and a learned Orientalist(1710-1791).

Caspari, Karl Paul, German theologian, born at Dessau; professor atChristiania (1814-1892).

Caspian Sea, an inland sea, partly in Europe and partly in Asia, thelargest in the world, being 600 m. from N. to S. and from 270 to 130 m.in breadth, with the Caucasus Mts. on the W. and the Elburz on the S., isthe fragment of a larger sea which extended to the Arctic Ocean; shallowin the N., deep in the S.; the waters, which are not so salt as theocean, abound in fish, especially salmon and sturgeon.

Cass, Lewis, an eminent American statesman, a member of theDemocratic party, and openly hostile to Great Britain; though in favourof slave-holding, a friend of Union; wrote a “History of the U.S.Indians” (1782-1867).

Cassagnac, Granier de, a French journalist; at first an Orleanist,became a supporter of the Empire; started several journals, which alldied a natural death; editedLe Pays, a semi-official organ; embroiledhimself in duels and lawsuits without number (1806-1880).

Cassagnac, Paul, son of preceding; editor ofLe Pays and thejournalL'Autorité; an obstinate Imperialist;b. 1843.

Cassander, king of Macedonia, passed over in the succession by hisfather Antipater; allied himself with the Greek cities; invaded Macedoniaand ascended the throne; married Thessalonica, the sister of Alexanderthe Great, but put Alexander's mother to death, thus securing himselfagainst all rival claimants; left his son Philip as successor(354-297 B.C.).

Cassandra, a beautiful Trojan princess, daughter of Priam andHecuba, whom Apollo endowed with the gift of prophecy, but, as she hadrejected his suit, doomed to utter prophecies which no one would believe,as happened with her warnings of the fate and the fall of Troy, whichwere treated by her countrymen as the ravings of a lunatic; her name isapplied to any one who entertains gloomy forebodings.

Cassano, a town in the S. of Italy; also a town near Milan, scene ofa French victory under Vendôme in 1705, and a French defeat under Moreauin 1799.

Cassation, Court of, a court of highest and last appeal in France,appointed in the case of appeal to revise the forms of a procedure in aninferior court; it consists of a president and vice-president, 49 judges,a public prosecutor called theprocureur-général, and sixadvocates-general; it consists of three sections: first, one to determineif the appeal should be received; second, one to decide in civil cases;and third, one to decide in criminal cases.

Cassel (72), capital of Hesse-Cassel, an interesting town, 120 m.from Frankfort-on-Main; it is the birthplace of Bunsen.

Cassell, John, the publisher, born in Manchester; a self-made man,who knew the value of knowledge and did much to extend it (1817-1865).

Cassianus, Joannus, an Eastern ascetic; came to Constantinople, andbecame a pupil of Chrysostom, who ordained him; founded two monasteriesin Marseilles; opposed the extreme views of Augustine in regard to graceand free-will, and human depravity; and not being able to go the lengthof Pelaganism, adoptedsemi-Pelagianism,q. v. (360-448).

Cassini, name of a family of astronomers of the 17th and 18thcenturies, of Italian origin; distinguished for their observations anddiscoveries affecting the comets, the planets, and the moon; theysettled, father and son and grandson, in Paris, and became in successiondirectors of the observatory of Paris, the last of whom died in 1864,after completing in 1793 a great topographical map of France begun by hisfather.

Cassiodo`rus, a Latin statesman and historian, born in Calabria;prime minister of Theodoric the Great and his successor; retired into amonastery about 70, and lived there nearly 30 years; wrote a history ofthe Goths, and left letters of great historical value (468-568).

Cassiope`ia, queen of Ethiopia, mother of Andromeda, placed afterdeath among the constellations; a constellation well north in thenorthern sky of five stars in the figure of a W.

Cassiquia`ri, a remarkable river in Venezuela, which, like a canal,connects the Rio Negro, an affluent of the Amazon, with the Orinoco.

Cassiter`ides, islands in the Atlantic, which the Phoenician sailorsvisited to procure tin; presumed to have been the Scilly Islands orCornwall, which they adjoin.

Cassius, Caius, chief conspirator against Cæsar; won over Brutus tojoin in the foul plot; soon after the deed was done fled to Syria, madehimself master of it; joined his forces with those of Brutus at Philippi;repulsed on the right, thought all was lost; withdrew into his tent, andcalled his freedmen to kill him; Brutus, in his lamentation over him,called him the “last of the Romans”;d. 42 B.C.

Cassius, Spurius, a Roman, thrice chosen consul, first time 502B.C.; subdued the Sabines, made a league with the Latins, promoted anagrarian law, the first passed, which conceded to the plebs a share inthe public lands.

Cassivellaunus, a British warlike chief, who unsuccessfully opposedCæsar on his second invasion of Britain, 52 B.C.; surrendered afterdefeat, and became tributary to Rome.

Castalia, a fountain at the foot of Parnassus sacred to the Muses;named after a nymph, who drowned herself in it to escape Apollo.

Castanet, bishop of Albi; procured the canonisation of St. Louis(1256-1317).

Castaños, a Spanish general; distinguished for his victory over theFrench under Dupont, whom he compelled to surrender and sign thecapitulation of Baylen, in 1808; after this he served under Wellington inseveral engagements, and was commander of the Spanish army, ready, ifrequired, to invade France in 1815 (1758-1852).

Caste, rank in society of an exclusive nature due to birth ororigin, such as prevails among the Hindus especially. Among them thereare originally two great classes, the twice-born and the once-born,i.e. those who have passed through a second birth, and those who have not;of the former there are three grades, Brahmans, or the priestly caste,from the mouth of Brahma; Kshatriyas, or the soldier caste, from thehands of Brahma; and Vaisyas, or the agricultural caste, from the feet ofBrahma; while the latter are of one rank and are menial to the other,called Sudras, earth-born all; notwithstanding which distinction oftenmembers of the highest class sink socially to the lowest level, andmembers of the lowest rise socially to the highest.

Castel, René-Richard, French poet and naturalist (1758-1832).

Castelar, Emilio, a Spanish republican, born in Cadiz; an eloquentman and a literary; appointed dictator of Spain in 1873, but not beingequal to the exigency in the affairs of the State, resigned, and made wayfor the return of monarchy, though under protest; wrote a history of the“Republican Movement in Europe” among other works of political interest;b. 1832.

Castellamare (15), a port on the coast of Italy, 115 m. SE. ofNaples, the scene of Pliny's death from the eruption of Vesuvius in A.D.79. It takes its name from a castle built on it by the Emperor FrederickII.; has a cathedral, arsenal, and manufactures.

Castellio, Protestant theologian, a protégé of Calvin's for a time,till he gave expression to some heretical views, which led to a rupture;he ventured to pronounce the Song of Solomon a mere erotic poem(1515-1563).

Castiglione, a town of Sicily, on N. slope of Etna, 35 m. SW. ofMessina; famed for hazel nuts.

Castiglione, Count, an accomplished Italian, born in Mantua; authorof “II Cortegiano,” a manual for courtiers, called by the Italians inadmiration of it “The Golden Book”; had spent much of his time in courtsin England and Spain, as well as Rome, and was a courtly man (1478-1529).

Castile, a central district of Spain, divided by the mountains ofCastile into Old Castile (1,800) in the N., and New Castile (3,500) inthe S.: the former consisting of a high bare plateau, bounded bymountains on the N. and on the S., with a variable climate, yields wheatand good pasturage, and is rich in minerals; the latter, also tableland,has a richer soil, and yields richer produce, breeds horses and cattle,and contains besides the quicksilver mines of Almaden. Both were at onetime occupied by the Moors, and were created into a kingdom in the 11thcentury, and united to the crown of Spain in 1469 by the marriage ofFerdinand and Isabella.

Castle Garden, the immigration depôt of New York where immigrantsland, report themselves, and are advised where to settle or find work.

Castle of Indolence, a poem of Thomson's, a place in which thedwellers live amid luxurious delights, to the enervation of soul andbody.

Castleford (14), a town 10 m. SE. of Leeds, with extensiveglass-works, especially bottles.

Castlereagh, Lord, entered political life as a member of the IrishParliament, co-operated with Pitt in securing the Union, after which heentered the Imperial Parliament, became War Minister (1805), till theill-fated Walcheren expedition and a duel with Canning obliged him toresign; became Foreign Secretary in 1812, and the soul of the coalitionagainst Napoleon; represented the country in a congress after Napoleon'sfall; succeeded his father as Marquis of Londonderry in 1821, andcommitted suicide the year following; his name has been unduly defamed,and his services to the country as a diplomatist have been entirelyoverlooked (1769-1822).

Castles in Spain, visionary projects.

Castletown, a seaport in the Isle of Man, 11 m. SW. of Douglas, andthe former capital.

Castlewood, the heroine in Thackeray's “Esmond.”

Castor and Pollux, the Dioscuri, the twin sons of Zeus by Leda;great, the former in horsemanship, and the latter in boxing; famed fortheir mutual affection, so that when the former was slain the latterbegged to be allowed to die with him, whereupon it was agreed they shouldspend a day in Hades time about; were raised eventually to become starsin the sky, the Gemini, twin signs in the zodiac, rising and settingtogether; this name is also given to the electric phenomenon calledSt. Elmo's Fire (q. v.).

Castren, Mathias Alexander, an eminent philologist, born in Finland,professor of the Finnish Language and Literature in Helsingfors;travelled all over Northern Europe and Asia, and left accounts of theraces he visited and their languages; translated the “Kalevala”(q. v.) the epic of the Finns; died prematurely, worn out with hislabours (1813-1852).

Castres (22), a town in the dep. of Tarn, 46 m. E. of Toulouse; wasa Roman station, and one of the first places in France to embraceCalvinism.

Castro, Guillen de, a Spanish dramatist, author of the play of “TheCid,” which gained him European fame; he began life as a soldier, gotacquainted with Lope de Vega, and took to dramatic composition(1569-1631).

Castro, Inez de, a royal heiress of the Spanish throne in the 14thcentury, the beloved wife of Don Pedro, heir of the Portuguese throne;put to death out of jealousy of Spain by the latter's father, but on hisaccession dug out of her grave, arrayed in her royal robes, and crownedalong with him, after which she was entombed again, and a magnificentmonument erected over her remains.

Castro, Juan de, a Portuguese soldier, born at Lisbon, distinguishedfor his exploits in behalf of Portugal; made viceroy of the PortugueseIndies, but died soon after in the arms of Francis Xavier (1500-1548).

Castro, Vaca de, a Spaniard, sent out by Charles V. as governor ofPeru, but addressing himself to the welfare of the natives rather thanthe enrichment of Spain, was recalled, to pine and die in prison in 1558.

Castrogiovanni (18), a town in a strong position in the heart ofSicily, 3270 ft. above the sea-level; at one time a centre of the worshipof Ceres, and with a temple to her.

Castruccio-Castracani, Duke of Lucca, and chief of the Ghibellineparty in that town, the greatest war-captain in Europe in his day; lordof hundreds of strongholds; wore on a high occasion across his breast ascroll, inscribed, “He is what God made him,” and across his backanother, inscribed, “He shall be what God will make”;d. 1328, “crushedbefore the moth.”

Catacombs, originally underground quarries, afterwards used asburial-places for the dead, found beneath Paris and in the neighbourhoodof Rome, as well as elsewhere; those around Rome, some 40 in number, arethe most famous, as having been used by the early Christians, not merelyfor burial but for purposes of worship, and are rich In monuments of artand memorials of history.

Catalani, Angelica, a celebrated Italian singer and prima donna,born near Ancona; began her career in Rome with such success that it ledto engagements over all the chief cities of Europe, the enthusiasm whichfollowed her reaching its climax when she came to England, where, on herfirst visit, she stayed eight years; by the failure of an enterprise inParis she lost her fortune, but soon repaired it by revisiting thecapitals of Europe; died of cholera in Paris (1779-1840).

Catalonia (1,900), old prov. of Spain, on the NE.; has a mostfertile soil, which yields a luxuriant vegetation; chief seat ofmanufacture in the country, called hence the “Lancashire of Spain”; thepeople are specially distinguished from other Spaniards for theirintelligence and energy.

Catamar`ca (ISO), NW. prov. of the Argentine Republic; rich inminerals, especially copper.

Cata`nia (123), an ancient city at the foot of Etna, to the S., on aplain called the Granary of Sicily; has been several times devastated bythe eruptions of Etna, particularly in 1169, 1669, and 1693; manufacturessilk, linen, and articles of amber, &c., and exports sulphur, grain, andfruits.

Catanza`ro (20), a city in Calabria, 6 m. from the Gulf ofSquillace, with an old castle of Robert Guiscard.

Categorical imperative, Kant's name for the self-derived moral law,“universal and binding on every rational will, a commandment of theautonomous, one and universal reason.”

Categories are either classes under which all our Notions of thingsmay be grouped, or classes under which all our Thoughts of things may begrouped; the former called Logical, we owe to Aristotle, and the lattercalled Metaphysical, we owe to Kant. The Logical, so derived, that groupour notions, are ten in number: Substance or Being, Quantity, Quality,Relation, Place, Time, Position, Possession, Action, Passion. TheMetaphysical, so derived, that group our thoughts, are twelve in number:(1) as regardsquantity, Totality, Plurality, Unity; (2) as regardsquality, Reality, Negation, Limitation; (3) as regardsrelation,Substance, Accident, Cause and Effect, Action and Reaction; (4) asregardsmodality, Possibility and Impossibility, Existence andNonexistence, Necessity and Contingency. John Stuart Mill resolves thecategories into five, Existence, Co-existence, Succession, Causation, andResemblance.

Catesby, Mark, an English naturalist and traveller, wrote a naturalhistory of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahamas (1680-1750).

Catesby, Robert, born in Northamptonshire, a Catholic of good birth;concerned in the famous Gunpowder Plot; shot dead three days after itsdiscovery by officers sent to arrest him (1573-1605).

Cath`ari, or Catharists,i. e. purists or puritans, a sect ofpresumably Gnostic derivation, scattered here and there under differentnames over the S. and W. of Europe during the Middle Ages, who held theManichæan doctrine of the radically sinful nature of the flesh, and thenecessity of mortifying all its desires and affections to attain purityof soul.

Catharine, St., of Alexandria, a virgin who, in 307, sufferedmartyrdom after torture on the wheel, which has since borne her name; isrepresented in art as in a vision presented to Christ by His Mother asher sole husband, who gives her a ring. Festival, Nov. 25.

Catharine I., wife of Peter the Great and empress of Russia,daughter of a Livonian peasant; “a little stumpy body, very brown,...strangely chased about from the bottom to the top of the world,... hadonce been a kitchen wench”; married first to a Swedish dragoon, becameafterwards the mistress of Prince Menschikoff, and then of Peter theGreat, who eventually married her; succeeded him as empress, withMenschikoff as minister; for a time ruled well, but in the end gaveherself up to dissipation, and died (1682-1727).

Catharine II. the Great, empress of Russia, born at Stettin,daughter of Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst; “a most-clever, clear-eyed,stout-hearted woman”; became the wife of Peter III., a scandalous mortal,who was dethroned and then murdered, leaving her empress; ruled well forthe country, and though her character was immoral and her reign despoticand often cruel, her efforts at reform, the patronage she accorded toliterature, science, and philosophy, and her diplomatic successes,entitle her to a high rank among the sovereigns of Russia; she reignedfrom 1763 to 1796, and it was during the course of her reign, and underthe sanction of it, that Europe witnessed the three partitions of Poland(1729-1796).

Catharine de' Medici, daughter of Lorenzo de' Medici, wife of HenryII. of France, and mother of his three successors; on the accession ofher second son, Charles IX.—for the reign of her first, Francis II., wasvery brief—acted as regent during his minority; joined heart and soulwith the Catholics in persecuting the Huguenots, and persuaded her son toissue the order which resulted in the massacre of St. Bartholomew; on hisdeath, which occurred soon after, she acted as regent during the minorityof her third son, Henry III., and lived to see both herself and himdetested by the whole French people, and this although she was during herascendency the patroness of the arts and of literature (1519-1589).

Catharine of Aragon, fourth daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella ofSpain, and wife of Henry VIII., her brother-in-law as widow of Arthur,from whom, and at whose instance, after 18 years of married life, andafter giving birth to five children, she was divorced on the plea that,as she had been his brother's wife before, it was not lawful for him tohave her; after her divorce she remained in the country, led an austerereligious life, and died broken-hearted. The refusal of the Pope tosanction this divorce led to the final rupture of the English Church fromthe Church of Rome, and the emancipation of the nation from priestlytyranny (1483-1536).

Catharine of Braganza, the wife of Charles II. of England, of theroyal house of Portugal; was unpopular in the country as a Catholic andneglected by her husband, on whose death, however, she returned toPortugal, and did the duties ably of regent for her brother Don Pedro(1638-1705).

Catharine of Sienna, born at Sienna, a sister of the Order of St.Dominic, and patron saint of the Order; celebrated for her ecstasies andvisions, and the marks which by favour of Christ she bore on her body ofHis sufferings on the Cross (1347-1380). Festival, April 30. Besides her,are other saints of the same name.

Catharine of Valois, daughter of Charles VI. of France, and wife ofHenry V. of England, who, on his marriage to her, was declared heir tothe throne of France, with the result that their son was afterwards,while but an infant, crowned king of both countries; becoming a widow,she married Owen Tudor, a Welsh gentleman, whereby a grandson of hissucceeded to the English throne as Henry VII., and the first of theTudors (1401-1438).

Catharine Parr, the sixth wife of Henry VIII. and the daughter of aWestmoreland knight; was of the Protestant faith and obnoxious to theCatholic faction, who trumped up a charge against her of heresy andtreason, from which, however, she cleared herself to the satisfaction ofthe king, over whom she retained her ascendency till his death;d.1548.

Catharine Theot, a religious fanatic, born in Avranches; gaveherself out as the Mother of God; appeared in Paris in 1794, and declaredRobespierre a second John the Baptist and forerunner of the Word; theCommittee of Public Safety had her arrested and guillotined.

Cathay, the name given to China by mediæval writers, which it stillbears in Central Asia.

Cathcart, Earl, a British general and diplomatist, born inRenfrewshire; saw service in America and Flanders; distinguished himselfat the bombardment of Copenhagen; represented England at the court ofRussia and the Congress of Vienna (1755-1843).

Cathcart, Sir George, a lieutenant-general, son of the preceding;enlisted in the army; served in the later Napoleonic wars; was present atQuatre-Bras and Waterloo; was governor of the Cape; brought the Kaffirwar to a successful conclusion; served in the Crimea, and fell atInkerman (1794-1854).

Cathedral, the principal church in a diocese, and which contains thethrone of the bishop as his seat of authority; is of a rank correspondingto the dignity of the bishop; the governing body consists of the dean andchapter.

Cathelineau, Jacques, a famous leader of the Vendéans in theirrevolt against the French Republic on account of a conscription in itsbehalf; a peasant by birth; mortally wounded in attacking Nantes; he isremembered by the peasants of La Vendée as the “Saint of Anjou”(1759-1793).

Catholic Emancipation, the name given to the emancipation in 1829 ofthe Roman Catholics of the United Kingdom from disabilities whichprecluded their election to office in the State, so that they areeligible now to any save the Lord Chancellorship of England and officesrepresentative of royalty.

Catholic Epistles, the name, equivalent to encyclical, given tocertain epistles in the New Testament not addressed to any community inparticular, but to several, and given eventually to all not written bySt. Paul.

Catholic Majesty, a title given by the Pope to several Spanishmonarchs for their zeal in the defence of the Catholic faith.

Catiline, orLucius Sergius Catilina, a Roman patrician, anable man, but unscrupulously ambitious; frustrated in his ambitiousdesigns, he formed a conspiracy against the State, which was discoveredand exposed by Cicero, a discovery which obliged him to leave the city;he tried to stir up hostility outside; this too being discovered byCicero, an army was sent against him, when an engagement ensued, inwhich, fighting desperately, he was slain, 62 B.C.

Catinat, Nicolas, a marshal of France, born in Paris; one of thegreatest military captains under Louis XIV.; defeated the Duke of Savoytwice over, though defeated by Prince Eugene and compelled to retreat;was an able diplomatist as well as military strategist (1637-1712).

Catlin, George, a traveller among the North American Indians, andauthor of an illustrated work on their life and manners; spent eightyears among them (1796-1872).

Cato Dionysius, name of a book of maxims in verse, held in highfavour during the Middle Ages; of unknown authorship.

Cato, Marcus Portius, orCato Major, surnamed Censor, Priscus,and Sapiens, born at Tusculum, of a good old family, and trained torustic, frugal life; after serving occasionally in the army, removed toRome; became in succession censor, ædile, prætor, and consul; served inthe second Punic war, towards the end of it, and subjugated Spain; was aRoman of the old school; disliked and denounced all innovations, ascensor dealt sharply with them; sent on an embassy to Africa, was sostruck with the increasing power and the threateningly evil ascendency ofCarthage, that on his return he urged its demolition, and in every speechwhich he delivered afterwards he ended with the words,Ceterum censeoCarthaginem esse delendam, “But, be that as it may, my opinion isCarthage must be destroyed” (234-149 B.C.).

Cato, Marcus Portius, orCato the Younger, orUticensis,great-grandson of the former, and a somewhat pedantic second edition ofhim; fortified himself by study of the Stoic philosophy; conceived adistrust of the public men of the day, Cæsar among the number; preferredPompey to him, and sided with him; after Pompey's defeat retired toUtica, whence his surname, and stabbed himself to death rather than fallinto the hands of Cæsar (95-46 B.C.).

Cato-Street Conspiracy, an insignificant, abortive plot, headed byone Thistlewood, to assassinate Castlereagh and other ministers of thecrown in 1820; so called from their place of meeting off the EdgewareRoad, London.

Catrail, an old Roman earthwork, 50 m. long, passing S. from nearGalashiels, through Selkirk and Roxburgh, or from the Cheviots; it isknown by the name of the “Devil's Dyke.”

Cats, Jacob, a Dutch poet and statesman, venerated in Holland as“Father Cats”; his works are written in a simple, natural style, andabound in wise maxims; he did service as a statesman; twice visitedEngland as an envoy, and was knighted by Charles I. (1577-1660).

Catskill Mountains, a group of mountains, of steep ascent, and withrocky summits, in New York State, W. of the Hudson, none of themexceeding 4000 feet; celebrated as the scene of Rip Van Winkle's longslumber; belong to the Appalachians.

Cattegat, an arm of the sea, 150 m. in length and 84 of greatestwidth, between Sweden and Jutland; a highway into the Baltic, all butblocked up with islands; is dangerous to shipping on account of thestorms that infest it at times.

Cattermole, George, artist, born in Norfolk; illustrated Britton's“English Cathedrals,” “Waverley Novels,” and the “Historical Annual” byhis brother; painted mostly in water-colour; his subjects chiefly fromEnglish history (1800-1868).

Cattle Plague, orRinderpest, a disease which affectsruminants, but especially bovine cattle; indigenous to the East, Russia,Persia, India, and China, and imported into Britain only by contagion ofsome kind; the most serious outbreaks were in 1865 and 1872.

Catullus, Caius Valerius, the great Latin lyric poet, born atVerona, a man of wealth and good standing, being, it would seem, of theequestrian order; associated with the best wits in Rome; fell in lovewith Clodia, a patrician lady, who was the inspiration, both in peace andwar, of many of his effusions, and whom he addresses as Lesbia; the deathof a brother affected him deeply, and was the occasion of the productionof one of the most pathetic elegies ever penned; in the civic strife ofthe time he sided with the senate, and opposed Cæsar to the length ofdirecting against him a coarse lampoon (84-54 B.C.).

Cauca, a river in Colombia, S. America, which falls into theMagdalena after a northward course of 600 m.

Caucasia, a prov. of Russia, geographically divided intoCis-Caucasia on the European side, and Trans-Caucasia on the Asiatic sideof the Caucasus, with an area about four times as large as England.

Caucasian race, a name adopted by Blumenbach to denote theIndo-European race, from the fine type of a skull of one of the racefound in Georgia.

Caucasus, an enormous mountain range, 750 m. in length, extendingfrom the Black Sea ESE. to the Caspian, in two parallel chains, withtablelands between, bounded on the S. by the valley of the Kur, whichseparates it from the tableland of Armenia; snow-line higher than that ofthe Alps; has fewer and smaller glaciers; has no active volcanoes, thoughabundant evidence of volcanic action.

Cauchon, bishop of Beauvais, infamous for the iniquitous part heplayed in the trial and condemnation of Joan of Arc;d. 1443.

Cauchy, Augustin Louis, mathematician, born in Paris; wrote largelyon physical subjects; his “Memoir” on the theory of the waves suggestedthe undulatory theory of light; professor of Astronomy at Paris; declinedto take the oath of allegiance to Napoleon III., and retired (1789-1857).

Caucus, a preliminary private meeting to arrange and agree on somemeasure or course to propose at a general meeting of a political party.

Caudine Forks, a narrow mountain gorge in Samnium, in which, duringthe second Samnite war, a Roman army was entrapped and caught by theSamnites, who obliged them to pass under the yoke in token ofsubjugation, 321 B.C.

Caudle, Mrs., an imaginary dame, a conception of Douglas Jerrold,famous for her “Curtain Lectures” all through the night for 30 years toher husband Mr. Job Caudle.

Caul, a membrane covering the head of some children at birth, towhich a magical virtue was at one time ascribed, and which, on thataccount, was rated high and sold often at a high price.

Caulaincourt, Armand de, a French general and statesman of theEmpire, a faithful supporter of Napoleon, who conferred on him a peerage,with the title of Duke of Vicenza, of which he was deprived at theRestoration; represented Napoleon at the Congress of Châtillon(1772-1827).

Caus, Salomon de, a French engineer, born at Dieppe; discovered theproperties of steam as a motive force towards 1638; claimed by Arago asthe inventor of the steam-engine in consequence.

Causality, the philosophic name for the nature of the relationbetween cause and effect, in regard to which there has been muchdiversity of opinion among philosophers.

Cauterets, a fashionable watering-place in the dep. of theHautes-Pyrénées, 3250 ft. above the sea, with sulphurous springs of veryancient repute, 25 in number, and of varying temperature.

Cavaignac, Louis Eugène, a distinguished French general, born inParis; appointed governor of Algeria in 1849, but recalled to be head ofthe executive power in Paris same year; appointed dictator, suppressedthe insurrection in June, after the most obstinate and bloody strugglethe streets of Paris had witnessed since the first Revolution; stoodcandidate for the Presidency, to which Louis Napoleon was elected; wasarrested after thecoup d'état, but soon released; never gave in hisadherence to the Empire (1802-1857).

Cavalcaselle, Giovanni Battista, Italian writer on art; joint-authorwith J. A. Crowe of works on the “Early Flemish Painters” and the“History of Painting in Italy”; chief of the art department under theMinister of Public Instruction in Rome;b. 1820.

Cavalier, Jean, leader of theCamisards (q. v.), born atRibaute, in the dep. of Gard; bred a baker; held his own againstMontreval and Villars; in 1704 concluded peace with the latter onhonourable terms; haughtily received by Louis XIV., passed over toEngland; served against France, and died governor of Jersey (1679-1740).

Cavaliers, the royalist partisans of Charles I. in England inopposition to the parliamentary party, or the Roundheads, as they werecalled.

Cavallo, a distinguished Italian physicist, born at Naples(1749-1809).

Cavan (111), inland county S. of Ulster, Ireland, with a poor soil;has minerals and mineral springs.

Cave, Edward, a London bookseller, born in Warwickshire; projectedthe Gentleman's Magazine, to which Dr. Johnson contributed; was the firstto give Johnson literary work, employing him as parliamentary reporter,and Johnson was much attached to him; he died with his hand in Johnson's(1691-1754).

Cave, William, an English divine; author of works on the Fathers ofthe Church and on primitive Christianity, of high repute at one time(1637-1713).

Cavendish, the surname of the Devonshire ducal family, traceableback to the 14th century.

Cavendish, George, the biographer of Wolsey; never left him while helived, and never forgot him or the lesson of his life after he was dead;this appears from the vivid picture he gives of him, though written 30years after his death (1500-1561).

Cavendish, Lord Frederick, brother of the ninth Duke of Devonshire,educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and a Liberal; was madeChief-Secretary for Ireland in 1882, but chancing to walk home oneevening through the Phoenix Park, he fell a victim, stabbed to the heart,of a conspiracy that was aimed at Mr. Burke, an unpopular subordinate,who was walking along with him, and came to the same fate. Eight monthsafter, 20 men were arrested as concerned in the murder, when one of the20 informed; five of them were hanged; the informer Carey was afterwardsmurdered, and his murderer, O'Donnel, hanged (1836-1882).

Cavendish, Henry, natural philosopher and chemist, born at Nice, ofthe Devonshire family; devoted his entire life to scientificinvestigations; the first to analyse the air of the atmosphere, determinethe mean density of the earth, discover the composition of water, andascertain the properties of hydrogen; was an extremely shy, retiring man;born rich and died rich, leaving over a million sterling (1731-1810).

Cavendish, Spencer Compton, ninth Duke of Devonshire, for long knownin public life as Marquis of Hartington; also educated at TrinityCollege, and a leader of the Liberal party; served under Gladstone tillhe adopted Home Rule for Ireland, but joined Lord Salisbury in theinterest of Union, and one of the leaders of what is called theLiberal-Unionist party;b. 1833.

Cavendish, Thomas, an English navigator, fitted out three vessels tocruise against the Spaniards; extended his cruise into the Pacific;succeeded in taking valuable prizes, with which he landed in England,after circumnavigating the globe; he set out on a second cruise, whichended in disaster, and he died in the island of Ascension broken-hearted(1555-1592).

Cavendish, William, English courtier and cavalier in the reigns ofJames I. and Charles I.; joined Charles II. in exile; returned at theRestoration; was made Duke of Newcastle; wrote on horsemanship(1592-1676).

Cavendish, William, first Duke of Devonshire; friend and protectorof Lord William Russell; became a great favourite at court, and wasraised to the dukedom (1640-1707).

Caviare, the roe (the immature ovaries) of the common sturgeon andother kindred fishes, caught chiefly in the Black and Caspian Seas, andprepared and salted; deemed a great luxury by those who have acquired thetaste for it; largely imported from Astrakhan.

Cavour, Count Camillo Benso de, one of the greatest of modernstatesmen, born the younger son of a Piedmontese family at Turin; enteredthe army, but was precluded from a military career by his liberalopinions; retired, and for 16 years laboured as a private gentleman toimprove the social and economic condition of Piedmont; in 1847 he threwhimself into the great movement which resulted in the independence andunification of Italy; for the next 14 years, as editor ofIlRisorgimento, member of the chamber of deputies, holder of variousportfolios in the government, and ultimately as prime minister of thekingdom of Sardinia, he obtained a constitution and representativegovernment for his country, improved its fiscal and financial condition,and raised it to a place of influence in Europe; he co-operated with theallies in the Crimean war; negotiated with Napoleon III. for theexpulsion of the Austrians from Italy, and so precipitated the successfulwar of 1859; he encouraged Garibaldi in the expedition of 1860, whichliberated Sicily and Southern Italy, and saw the parliament of 1861summoned, and Victor Emmanuel declared king of Italy; but the strain ofhis labours broke his health, and he died a few months later (1810-1861).

Cawnpore (188), a city on the right bank of the Ganges, in theNorth-Western Provinces of India, 40 m. SW. of Lucknow, and 628 NW. ofCalcutta; the scene of one of the most fearful atrocities, perpetrated byNana Sahib, in the Indian Mutiny in 1857.

Caxton, William, the first English printer, born in Kent, bred amercer, settled for a time in Bruges, learned the art of printing there,where he printed a translation of the “Recuyell of the Historyes ofTroyes,” and “The Game and Playe of Chesse”; returning to England, set upa press in Westminster Abbey, and in 1477 issued “Dictes and Sayings ofthe Philosophers,” the first book printed in England, which was soonfollowed by many others; he was a good linguist, as well as a devotedworkman (1422-1491).

Cayenne (10), cap. and port of French Guiana, a swampy, unhealthyplace, rank with tropical vegetation; a French penal settlement since1852.

Cayla, Countess Of, friend and confidante of Louis XVIII.(1784-1850).

Cayley, Arthur, an eminent English mathematician, professor atCambridge, and president of the British Association in 1883 (1821-1895).

Cayley, Charles Bagot, a linguist, translated Dante into the metreof the original, with annotations, besides metrical versions of the“Iliad,” the “Prometheus” of Æschylus, the “Canzoniere” of Petrarch, &c.(1823-1883).

Caylus, Count, a distinguished archæologist, born in Paris; authorof a “Collection of Antiquities of Egypt, Etruria,” &c., with excellentengravings (1692-1765).

Caylus, Marquise de, born in Poitou, related to Mme. de Maintenon;left piquant souvenirs of the court of Louis XIV. and the house of St.Cyr (1672-1729).

Cazalès, a member of French Constituent Assembly, a dragoon captain,a fervid, eloquent orator of royalism, who “earned thereby,” saysCarlyle, “the shadow of a name” (1758-1805).

Cazotte, author of the “Diable Amoureux”; victim as an enemy of theFrench Revolution; spared for his daughter's sake for a time, butguillotined at last; left her a “lock of his old grey hair” (1720-1792).

Cean-Bermudez, a Spanish writer on art; author of a biographicaldictionary of the principal artists of Spain (1749-1834).

Ceara (35), cap. of the prov. (900) of the name, in N. of Brazil.

Ce`bes, a Greek philosopher, disciple and friend of Socrates,reputed author of the “Pinax” or Tablet, a once popular book on thesecret of life, being an allegorical representation of the temptationsthat beset it.

Cecil, Robert, Earl of Salisbury, succeeded his father, LordBurleigh, as first Minister under Elizabeth, and continued in officeunder James I., whose friendship he sedulously cultivated before hisaccession, and who created him earl (1565-1612). SeeBurleigh, Lord.

Cecilia, St., a Roman virgin and martyr, A.D. 230, patron saint ofmusic, especially church music, and reputed inventor of the organ;sometimes represented as holding a small organ, with her head turnedheavenwards as if listening to the music of the spheres, and sometimes asplaying on an organ and with a heavenly expression of face. Festival,Nov. 22.

Cecrops, the mythical first king and civiliser of Attica and founderof Athens with its citadel, dedicated by him to Athena, whence the nameof the city.

Cedar Rapids (25), a manufacturing town in Iowa, U.S.; a greatrailway centre.

Celadon, poetical name for a languid swain, all sighs and longings.

Celæno, name of one of theHarpies (q. v.).

Celebes (1,000), an island in the centre of the Eastern Archipelago,third in size, in the shape of a body with four long limbs, traversed bymountain chains, and the greater part of it a Dutch possession, though itcontains a number of small native states; it yields among its mineralproducts gold, copper, tin, &c.; and among its vegetable, tea, coffee,rice, sugar, pepper, &c.; capital. Macassar.

Céleste, Mme., a dancer, born in Paris; made herdébut in NewYork; in great repute in England, and particularly in the States, whereshe in her second visit realised £40,000 (1814-1882).

Celestial Empire, China, as ruled over by a dynasty appointed byHeaven.

Celestine, the name of five Popes: C. I., Pope from 422 to 432; C.II., Pope from 1143 to 1144; C. III., Pope from 1191 to 1198; C. IV.,Pope for 18 days in 1241; C. V., Pope in 1294, a hermit for 60 years;nearly 80 when elected against his wish; abdicated in five months;imprisoned by order of Boniface VIII.;d. 1296; canonised 1313.

Celestines, an order of monks founded by Celestine V. before he waselected Pope in 1354; they followed the rule of the Benedictine Order,and led a contemplative life.

Cellini, Benvenuto, a celebrated engraver, sculptor, and goldsmith,a most versatile and erratic genius, born at Florence; had to leaveFlorence for a bloody fray he was involved in, and went to Rome; wroughtas a goldsmith there for 20 years, patronised by the nobles; killed theConstable de Bourbon at the sack of the city, and for this receivedplenary indulgence from the Pope; Francis I. attracted him to his courtand kept him in his service five years, after which he returned toFlorence and executed his famous bronze “Perseus with the Head ofMedusa,” which occupied him four years; was a man of a quarrelsometemper, which involved him in no end of scrapes with sword as well astongue; left an autobiography, from its self-dissection of the deepestinterest to all students of human nature (1500-1571).

Celsius, a distinguished Swedish astronomer, born at Upsala, andprofessor of Astronomy there; inventor of the Centigrade thermometer(1701-1744).

Celsus, a celebrated Roman physician of the age of Augustus, andperhaps later; famed as the author of “De Medicina,” a work oftenreferred to, and valuable as one of the sources of our knowledge of themedicine of the ancients.

Celsus, a philosopher of the 2nd century, and notable as the firstassailant on philosophic grounds of the Christian religion, particularlyas regards the power it claims to deliver from the evil that is inherentin human nature, inseparable from it, and implanted in it not by God, butsome inferior being remote from Him; the book in which he attackedChristianity is no longer extant, only quotations from it scattered overthe pages of the defence of Origen in reply.

Celtibe`ri, an ancient Spanish race occupying the centre of thepeninsula, sprung from a blending of the aborigines and the Celts, whoinvaded the country; a brave race, divided into four tribes;distinguished in war both as cavalry and infantry, and whom the Romanshad much trouble in subduing.

Celts. The W. of Europe was in prehistoric times subjected to twoinvasions of Aryan tribes, all of whom are now referred to as Celts. Theearlier invaders were Goidels or Gaels; they conquered the Ivernian andIberian peoples of ancient Gaul, Britain, and Ireland; their successors,the Brythons or Britons pouring from the E., drove them to thewesternmost borders of these countries, and there compelled them to makecommon cause with the surviving Iberians in resistance; in the easternparts of the conquered territories they formed the bulk of thepopulation, in the W. they were in a dominant minority; study oflanguages in the British Isles leads to the conclusion that the Irish,Manx, and Scottish Celts belonged chiefly to the earlier immigration,while the Welsh and Cornish represent the latter; the true Celtic type istall, red or fair, and blue-eyed, while the short, swarthy type, so longconsidered Celtic, is now held to represent the original Iberian races.

Cenci, The, a Roman family celebrated for their crimes andmisfortunes as well as their wealth.Francesco Cenci was twicemarried, had had twelve children by his first wife, whom he treatedcruelly; after his second marriage cruelly treated the children of hisfirst wife, but conceived a criminal passion for the youngest of them, abeautiful girl namedBeatrice, whom he outraged, upon which, beingunable to bring him to justice, she, along with her stepmother and abrother, hired two assassins to murder him; the crime was found out, andall three were beheaded (1599); this is the story on which Shelleyfounded his tragedy, but it is now discredited.

Cenis, Mont, one of the Cottian Alps, over which Napoleonconstructed a pass 6884 ft. high in 1802-10, through which a tunnel 7½ m.long passes from Modane to Bardonnêche, connecting France with Italy; theconstruction of this tunnel cost £3,000,000, and Napoleon's pass a tenthof the sum.

Censors, two magistrates of ancient Rome, who held office at firstfor five years and then eighteen months, whose duty it was to keep aregister of the citizens, guard the public morals, collect the publicrevenue, and superintend the public property.

Cen`taurs, a savage race living between Pelion and Ossa, inThessaly, and conceived of at length by Pindar as half men and halfhorses, treated as embodying the relation between the spiritual and theanimal in man and nature, in all of whom the animal prevails over thespiritual except in Chiron, who therefore figures as the trainer of theheroes of Greece; in the mythology they figure as the progeny ofCentaurus, son ofIxion (q. v.) and the cloud, their mothersbeing mares.

Central America (3,000), territory of fertile tableland slopinggradually to both oceans, occupied chiefly by a number of smallrepublics, lying between Tehuantepec and Panama in N. America; itincludes the republics of Guatemala, Honduras, St. Salvador, Nicaragua,and Costa Rica, and a few adjoining fractions of territory.

Central India (10,000), includes a group of feudatory States lyingbetween Rajputana in the N. and Central Provinces in the S.

Central Provinces (12,944), States partly British and partly native,occupying the N. of the Deccan, and lying between the Nerbudda and theGodavary.

Ceos, one of the Cyclades, a small island 13 m. by 8 m., yieldsfruits; was the birthplace of Simonides and Bacchylides.

Cephalonia (80), the largest of the Ionian Islands, 30 m. long, theancient Samos; yields grapes and olive oil.

Cephalus, king of Thessaly, who having involuntarily killed his wifeProcris, in despair put himself to death with the same weapon.

Ceram` (195), the largest of S. Moluccas; yields sago, which ischiefly cultivated and largely exported.

Cerberus, the three-headed or three-throated monster that guardedthe entrance to the nether world of Pluto, could be soothed by music, andtempted by honey, only Hercules overcame him by sheer strength, dragginghim by neck and crop to the upper world.

Ceres, the Latin name forDemeter (q. v.); also the name ofone of the asteroids, the first discovered, by Piazzi, in 1801.

Ceri`go (14), an Ionian island, the southernmost, the ancientCythera; yields wine and fruits.

Cerinthus, a heresiarch of the first century, whom, according totradition, St. John held in special detestation, presumably as denyingthe Father and the Son.

Cerro de Pasco, a town in Peru, 14,200 ft. above the sea-level, withthe richest silver mine in S. America.

Cerutti, a Jesuit, born at Turin; became a Revolutionary in France;pronounced the funeral oration at the grave of Mirabeau in 1789.

Cervantes-Saavedra, Miguel de, the author of “Don Quixote,” born atAlcalá de Henares; was distinguished in arms before he becamedistinguished in letters; fought in the battle of Lepanto like a veryhero, and bore away with him as a “maimed soldier” marks of his share inthe struggle; sent on a risky embassy, was captured by pirates andremained in their hands five years; was ransomed by his family at a costwhich beggared them, and it was only when his career as a soldier closedthat he took himself to literature; began as a dramatist before hedevoted himself to prose romance; wrote no fewer than 30 dramas; thefirst part of the work which has immortalised his name appeared in 1605,and the second in 1615; it took the world by storm, was translated intoall the languages of Europe, but the fortune which was extended to hisbook did not extend to himself, for he died poor, some ten days beforehis great contemporary, William Shakespeare; though carelessly written,“Don Quixote” is one of the few books of all time, and is as fresh to-dayas when it was first written (1547-1616).

Cervin, Mont, the French name for the Matterhorn, 705 ft., thesummit of the Pennine Alps, between Valais and Piedmont.

Cesarewitch, the eldest son and heir of the Czar of Russia.

Ce`sari, Giuseppe, sometimes calledArpino, an eminent Italianpainter; painted a series of frescoes in the Conservatorio of theCapitol, illustrative of events in the history of Rome (1568-1640).

Cesarotti, an Italian poet, translator of the “Iliad” and “Ossian”into Italian (1730-1808).

Cestus, a girdle worn by Greek and Roman women, specially the girdleof Aphrodité, so emblazoned with symbols of the joys of love that nosusceptible soul could resist the power of it; it was borrowed by Hera tocaptivate Zeus.

Cetinje, the capital of Montenegro, in a valley 2000 ft. high;smallest of capital cities, with a population under 2000.

Cette (36), a seaport, trading, and manufacturing town, on a tongueof land between the lagoon of Thau and the Mediterranean, 23 m. SW. ofMontpellier, with a large safe harbourage.

Ce`uta (12), a port opposite Gibraltar belonging to Spain, on thecoast of Morocco, guarded by a fort on one of the Pillars of Hercules,overlooking it; of importance as a military and convict station.

Cévennes, a range of low mountains on the eastern edge of thecentral plateau of France, separating the basin of the Rhône from thoseof the Loire and Garonne; average height from 3000 to 4000 ft.; the chiefscene of the dragonnades against the Huguenots under Louis XIV.

Ceylon (3,008), a pear-shaped island about the size of Scotland,separated from India, to which it geographically belongs, and SE. ofwhich it lies, by Palk Strait, 32 m. broad; comprises a lofty, centraltableland with numerous peaks, the highest Tallagalla, 8000 ft., and abroad border of well-watered plains. It was an ancient centre ofcivilisation; the soil is everywhere fertile; the climate is hot, butmore equitable than on the mainland; the chief products are tea,cinnamon, and tobacco; the forests yield satin-wood, ebony, &c.; thecocoa-nut palm abounds; there are extensive deposits of iron, anthracite,and plumbago; precious stones, sapphires, rubies, amethysts, &c., are inconsiderable quantities; the pearl fisheries are a valuable governmentmonopoly. The chief exports are tea, rice, cotton goods, and coals.Two-thirds of the people are Singhalese and Buddhists, there are 6000Europeans. The island is a crown colony, the largest in the BritishEmpire, administered by a governor with executive and legislativecouncils; the capital and chief port is Colombo (127).

Chabas, François, a French Egyptologist, born in Briançon; his workshave contributed much to elucidate the history of the invasion andrepulsion of the Hyksos in Egypt (1817-1882).

Chabot, a member of the National Convention of France, a “disfrockedCapuchin,” adjured “Heaven,” amid enthusiasm, “that at least they mayhave done with kings”; guillotined (1759-1794).

Chacktaw Indians. SeeChocktaw.

Chad, Lake, a shallow lake in the Sahara, of varied extent,according as the season is dry or rainy, at its largest covering an areaas large as England, and abounding in hippopotamuses, rhinoceroses, &c.,as well as waterfowl and fish.

Chadband, Rev. Mr., a character in “Bleak House.”

Chadwick, Sir Edwin, an English social reformer, born in Manchester,associated with measures bearing upon sanitation and the improvement ofthe poor-laws, and connected with the administration of them (1801-1890).

Chæronea, a town in Boeotia, where Philip of Macedon defeated theAthenians, and extinguished the liberties of Greece.

Chalais, Count de, a favourite of Louis XIII., accused of conspiracyagainst Richelieu, arrested at Nantes, and beheaded (1599-1626).

Chalaza, one of the two filaments attached to the ends of the yokeof an egg to steady it in the albumen.

Chalcedon, a city of Bithynia, at the entrance of the ThracianBosphorus, where the fourth Council of the Church was held in 451, whichdefined the orthodox conception of Christ as God-man.

Chalcidicé, the 3-fingered peninsula of the Balkan territorystretching into the Ægean Sea.

Chalcis, the ancient capital of Euboea or Negropont.

Chaldea, ancient name for Babylonia.

Chalier, a Piedmontese, head of the party of the Mountain at Lyons;his execution the signal for an insurrection at Lyons against theConvention (1747-1793).

Challenger Expedition, a scientific expedition sent out by theBritish Government in theChallenger in 1872 in the interest ofscience, and under the management of scientific experts, to variousstations over the globe, to explore the ocean, and ascertain all mannerof facts regarding it open to observation, an expedition which concludedits operations in 1876, of which as many as 50 volumes of reports havebeen compiled.

Challis, James, an astronomer, born in Essex, noted the position ofthe planet Neptune before its actual discovery (1803-1882).

Challoner, Richard, a Roman Catholic bishop, born at Lewes; azealous Catholic, author of “Garden of the Soul,” a popular devotionalbook, as well as several controversial books (1691-1781).

Chalmers, Alexander, a miscellaneous writer, born at Aberdeen;settled in London; edited the “British Essayists” in 45 vols., and authorof “A General Biographical Dictionary.”

Chalmers, George, an English publicist, born at Fochabers, author of“An Account, Historical and Topographical, of North Britain” (1742-1825).

Chalmers, Thomas, a celebrated Scotch ecclesiastic and pulpitorator, born at Anstruther, Fife; studied for the Church, and entered theministry; after he did so was for some years more engrossed with physicalstudies and material interests than spiritual, but he by-and-by woke upto see and feel that the spiritual interest was the sovereign one, and tothe promotion of that he henceforth devoted himself body and soul; it wasfor the sake of the spiritual he took the interest he did in theecclesiastical affairs of the nation, and that the Church might havescope and freedom to discharge its spiritual functions was one chiefruling passion of his life, and it is no wonder he bent all his energieson a movement in the Church to secure this object; he was not much of ascholar or even a theologian, but a great man, and a great force in thereligious life of his country; though the first pulpit-orator of his day,and though he wrote largely, as well as eloquently, he left no writingsworthy of him except the “Astronomical Discourses” perhaps, to perpetuatehis memory; he was distinguished for his practical sagacity, and was anexpert at organisation; in his old age he was a most benignant,venerable-looking man: “It is a long time,” wrote Carlyle to his mother,just after a visit he had paid him a few days before he died—“it is along time since I have spoken to sogood and really pious-hearted andbeautiful old man” (1780-1847).

Châlons-sur-Marne (25), capital of the French dep. of Marne, 100 m.E. of Paris, where Attila was defeated by the Romans and Goths in 451;Napoleon III. formed a camp near it for the training of troops.

Châlons-sur-Saône (24), a trading centre some 80 m. N. of Lyons;manufactures machinery, glass, paper, and chemicals.

Chains, chief town of the French dep. of Haute Vienne, where RichardCoeur de Lion was mortally wounded in 1199 by a shot with an arrow.

Cham, the pseudonym of the French caricaturist Amédee de Noé, famousfor his humorous delineations of Parisian life (1819-1884).

Chamber of Commerce, an association of merchants to promote andprotect the interests of trade, particularly of the town or the districtto which they belong.

Chamber of Deputies, a French legislative assembly, elected now byuniversal suffrage.

Chamberlain, Right Hon. Joseph, born in London, connected as abusiness man with Birmingham; after serving the latter city in amunicipal capacity, was elected the parliamentary representative in 1876;became President of the Board of Trade under Mr. Gladstone in 1880, andchief promoter of the Bankruptcy Bill; broke with Mr. Gladstone on hisHome Rule measure for Ireland, and joined the Liberal-Unionists;distinguished himself under Lord Salisbury as Colonial Secretary;b.1836.

Chambers, Ephraim, an English writer, born in Kendal, author of acyclopædia which bears his name, and which formed the basis of subsequentones, as Johnson confessed it did of his Dictionary (1680-1750).

Chambers, George, an English marine painter, born at Whitby;d.1840.

Chambers, Robert, brother of the succeeding and in the same line oflife, but of superior accomplishments, especially literary andscientific, which served him well in editing the publications issued bythe firm; was the author of a great many works of a historical,biographical, and scientific, as well as literary interest; wrote the“Vestiges of Creation,” a book on evolutionary lines, which made no smallstir at the time of publication, 1844, and for a time afterwards, theauthorship of which he was slow to own (1802-1871).

Chambers, Sir William, born at Peebles; apprenticed to a booksellerin Edinburgh, and commenced business on his own account in a small way;edited with his brother the “Gazetteer of Scotland”; started, in 1832,Chambers's Edinburgh Journal to meet a demand of the time for popularinstruction in company with his brother founded a great printing andpublishing establishment, from which there has issued a number ofvaluable works in the interest especially of the propagation of usefulknowledge of all kinds; was a distinguished Edinburgh citizen, and didmuch for the expansion and improvement of the city (1800-1883)

Chambers, Sir William, architect, born at Stockholm, of Scotchorigin; architect of Somerset House; was of the Johnson circle of wits(1726-1796)

Chambéry (19), chief town of dep. of Savoy, in a beautiful district;is the ancient capital, and contains the castle, of the dukes of Savoy;manufactures cloth, wines, soap, and textile fabrics; is also a summerresort.

Chambeze, a head-stream of the Congo, N. of lake Nyassa.

Chambord, spacious château in the dep. of Loire-et-Cher, France,built by Francis I.; after being long a residence for royalty and peopleof distinction, was presented in 1821 to the Duc de Bordeaux, the Comtede Chambord.

Chambord, Comte de, Duc de Bordeaux, son of the Duc de Berri andgrandson of Charles X., born at Paris; exiled in 1830, he retired to thechâteau of Frohsdorf, in Austria, where he died without issue; his fatherand grandfather being dead, the monarchical party resolved to attempt arestoration in his behalf in 1872, but he refused to adopt the tricolorflag of the Revolution, and the scheme was abandoned, a like opportunityoffering itself twice before being let slip (1820-1883).

Chambre Ardente, a name given to certain courts of justiceestablished to try certain cases that required to be sharply dealt with;they were held at night, and even when held in the daytime with lightedtorches; a court of the kind was instituted for trial of the Huguenots in1530, and again in 1680 and 1716.

Chamfort, a French wit and littérateur, born in Auvergne; took tothe Revolution, but offended the leaders, and being threatened witharrest committed suicide, “cutting and slashing with frantic, uncertainhand, gaining, not without difficulty, the refuge of death”; he was aborn cynic, and was famous for his keen insight into human nature and hissharp criticisms of it, summed up in a collection of maxims he left, aswell as for his anecdotes in incisive portraiture of character. “He was aman,” says Professor Saintsbury, “soured by his want of birth, health,and position, and spoilt by hanging on to the great persons of his time.But for a kind of tragi-comic satire, asoeva indignatio, taking theform of contempt for all that is exalted and noble, he has no equal inliterature except Swift” (1741-1794).

Chamillard, Minister of Finance and of War under Louis XIV.;“distinguished himself by his incapacity” (1651-1721).

Chamisso, Adalbert von, a German naturalist and littérateur born inFrance, but educated in Berlin; is famous for his poetical productions,but especially as the author of “Peter Schlemihl,” the man who lost hisshadow, which has been translated into nearly every European language; hewrote several works on natural history (1781-1838).

Chamouni, or Chamonix, a village in the dep. of Haute-Savoie, 33 m.SE. of Geneva, in a valley forming the upper basin of the Arve, famousfor its beauty and for its glaciers; it is from this point that theascent of Mont Blanc is usually made.

Chamousset, a French philanthropist, born in Paris; the originatorof mutual benefit societies (1717-1773).

Champagne, an ancient province of France, 180 m. long by 150 broad,annexed to the Crown 1286, and including the deps. of Aube, Haute-Marne,Marne, and Ardennes; the province where the wine of the name isprincipally manufactured.

Champ-de-Mars, a large space, of ground in Paris, between the frontof the École Militaire and the left bank of the Seine; the site of recentExpositions, and the scene of the Federation Féte, 14th July 1790.

Champlain`, a beautiful lake between the States of New York andVermont; it is 100 m. in length, and from 1 m. at its S. end to 14 m. atits N. end broad.

Champlain, Samuel de, a French navigator, born at Brouage, inSaintonge, was founder of Quebec, and French Governor of Canada; wrote anaccount of his voyages (1570-1635).

Champollion, Jean François, a celebrated French Egyptologist, bornin Figeac, dep. of Lot; early gave himself to the study of Coptic andEgyptian antiquities; was the first to decipher the hieroglyphics ofancient Egypt, a great discovery; conducted a scientific expedition toEgypt in 1828, and returned in 1830 with the fruits of his researches; achair of Egyptology was in consequence instituted in the College ofFrance, and he was installed as the first professor; his writings on thescience, of which he laid the foundation, are numerous (1790-1832).

Champs-Elysées, a Parisian promenade between the Place de laConcorde and the Arc de Triomphe.

Chancellor, Richard, an English seaman, voyaging in northern parts,arrived in the White Sea, and travelled to Moscow, where he concluded acommercial treaty with Russia on behalf of an English company; wrote aninteresting account of his visit; after a second visit, in which hevisited Moscow, was wrecked on the coast of Aberdeenshire in 1556.

Chandernagore (25), a small town and territory on the Hooghly, 22 m.N. of Calcutta, belonging to France.

Chandler, Richard, a learned Hellenistic archæologist, born inHants; travelled in Asia Minor and Greece, along with two artists, toexamine and describe the antiquities; the materials collected werepublished in his “Ionian Antiquities,” “Travels in Asia Minor,” &c.(1738-1810).

Chandos, an English title inherited by the Grenville family, ofNorman origin.

Chandos, John, a celebrated English general in the 14th century; waspresent at Crécy, governor of English provinces in France ceded by treatyof Bretigny; defeated and took prisoner Du Guesclin of Auray; servedunder the Black Prince, and was killed near Poitiers, 1369.

Changarnier, Nicolas, French general, born at Autun; distinguishedhimself in Algeria, was exiled after thecoup-d'état, returned in 1870,served in the Franco-German war; surrendered at Metz, at the close of thewar came back, and assisted in reorganising the army (1793-1877).

Channel, The English, an arm of the Atlantic between France andEngland, 280 m. long and 100 m. wide at the mouth; the French call itLaManche (the sleeve) from its shape.

Channel Islands (92), a group of small islands off the NW. coast ofFrance, of which the largest are Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, and Sark;formerly part of the Duchy of Normandy, and now all that remains toBritain of her French dominions, being subject to it since 1066; have adelightful climate mild and bright, and varied and beautiful scenery;the soil is fertile; flowers and fruit are grown for export to Britain,also early potatoes for the London market; Guernsey pears and Jersey cowsare famous; valuable quarries of granite are wrought; the language isNorman-French.

Channing, William Ellery, a Unitarian preacher and miscellaneouswriter, born at Newport, Rhode Island, U.S.; a man of the most liberalsentiments, who shrank from being classed with any sect; ranked high inpoint of moral character; was a vigorous thinker, and eloquent with thepen; “a man of faithful, long-continued striving towards what is Best”(1780-1842).

Chanson De Gestes (i. e. Songs of Deeds), poems of a narrativekind much in favour in the Middle Ages, relating in a legendary style thehistory and exploits of some famous hero, such as the “Chanson deRoland,” ascribed to Théroulde, a trouvère of the 9th century.

Chantrey, Sir Francis, an English sculptor, born in Derbyshire; wasapprenticed to a carver and gilder in Sheffield; displayed a talent fordrawing and modelling; received a commission to execute a marble bust forthe parish, church, which was so successful as to procure him further andfurther commissions; executed four colossal busts of admirals forGreenwich Hospital; being expert at portraiture, his busts werelikenesses; executed busts of many of the most illustrious men of thetime, among them of Sir Walter Scott, Wordsworth, Southey, andWellington, as well as of royal heads; made a large fortune, and left itfor the encouragement of art (1781-1841).

Chanzy, a French general, born at Nouart, Ardennes; served inAlgeria; commanded the army of the Loire in 1870-71; distinguishedhimself by his brilliant retreat from Mans to Laval; was afterwardsGovernor-General in Algeria; died suddenly, to the regret of his country(1823-1883).

Chaos, a name in the ancient cosmogomy for the formless void out ofwhich everything at first sprang into existence, or the wide-spreadconfusion that prevailed before it shaped itself into order under thebreath of the spirit of life.

Chapelain, a French poet, protégé of Richelieu, born at Paris;composed a pretentious poem on Joan of Arc, entitled “Pucelle,” which waslaughed out of existence on the appearance of the first half, consistingof only 12 of the 24 books promised, the rest having never passed beyondthe MS. stage (1595-1674).

Chapman, George, English dramatic poet, born at Hitchin,Hertfordshire; wrote numerous plays, both in tragedy and comedy, as wellas poems, of unequal merit, but his great achievement, and the one onwhich his fame rests, is his translation into verse of the works ofHomer, which, though not always true to the letter, is instinct withsomewhat of the freshness and fire of the original; his translation isreckoned the best yet done into English verse, and the best renderinginto verse of any classic, ancient or modern (1559-1634).

Chappell, musical amateur, collector and editor of old English airs,and contributor to the history of English national music; was one of thefounders of the Musical Hungarian Society, and the Percy Society(1809-1888).

Chaptal, a distinguished French chemist and statesman, born atNogaret, Lozère; author of inventions in connection with the manufactureof alum and saltpetre, the bleaching and the dyeing of cotton; heldoffice under Napoleon, and rendered great service to the arts andmanufactures of his country (1756-1832).

Charcot, Jean Martin, a French pathologist; made a special study ofnervous diseases, including hypnotism, and was eminent for his works inconnection therewith (1823-1893).

Chardin, Sir John, traveller, born in Paris; author of “Travels inIndia and Persia,” valuable for their accuracy (1643-1713).

Charente (360), a dep. of France, W. of the Gironde, capitalAngoulême; with vast chestnut forests; produces wines, mostly distilledinto brandy.

Charente-Inférieure (456), a maritime dep. of France, W. of theformer; includes the islands of Rhé, Oléron, Aix, and Madame; capital, LaRochelle.

Chariva`ri, a satirical journal, such as the EnglishPunch;originally a discordant mock serenade.

Charlemagnei. e. Charles or Karl the Great, the firstCarlovingian king of the Franks, son and successor of Pepin le Bref (theShort); became sole ruler on the death of his brother Carloman in 771; hesubjugated by his arms the southern Gauls, the Lombards, the Saxons, andthe Avares, and conducted a successful expedition against the Moors inSpain, with the result that his kingdom extended from the Ebro to theElbe; having passed over into Italy in support of the Pope, he was onChristmas Day 800 crowned Emperor of the West, after which he devotedhimself to the welfare of his subjects, and proved himself as great inlegislation as in arms; enacted laws for the empire called capitularies,reformed the judicial administration, patronised letters, and establishedschools; kept himself in touch andau courant with everything over hisvast domain; he died and was buried at Aix-la-Chapelle (742-814).

Charleroi (21), a manufacturing town in Hainault, Belgium, 35 m. SE.of Brussels.

Charles II., surnamedThe Bald, son of Louis “le Débonnaire”;after conquering his brother Lothaire at Fontenoy in 841, became by thetreaty of Verdun king of France, 843; was unable to defend his kingdomagainst the Normans; went to Italy, and had himself crowned emperor atRome:d. 877.

Charles III., surnamedThe Simple, became king of France in893; his reign one long struggle against the Normans, which ended byconceding Normandy to Rollo; was conquered by Hugh Capet, a rival for thecrown, at Soissons, and dethroned in 922; died in captivity, 929.

Charles IV., The Fair, third son of Philip the Fair, king of Francefrom 1322 to 1328; lost to France Guienne, which was taken from him bythe English; was the last of the Capetians;d. 1328.

Charles V., The Wise, son of John II., king of France from 1361 to1380; recovered from the English almost all the provinces they hadconquered, successes due to his own prudent policy, and especially theheroism of Du Guesclin, De Clisson, and De Boucicaut; France owed to himimportant financial reforms, the extension of privileges to theuniversities, and the establishment of the first national library, intowhich were gathered together thousands of MSS.; the Bastille was foundedin his reign.

Charles VI., The Well-Beloved, king of France from 1380 to 1422, wasson and successor of Charles V.; began his reign under the guardianshipof his uncles, who rifled the public treasury and provoked rebellion bytheir exactions; gained a victory at Rossbach over the Flemings, then inrevolt, and a little after dismissed his uncles and installed in theirstead the wise councillors of his father, whose sage, upright, andbeneficent administration procured for him the title of “Well-Beloved,” astate of things, however, which did not last long, for the harassments hehad been subjected to drove him insane, and his kingdom, torn in piecesby rival factions, was given over to anarchy, and fell by treaty ofTroyes almost entirely into the hands of the English conquerors atAgincourt (1368-1422).

Charles VII., The Victorious, son of Charles VI., became king ofFrance in 1422; at his accession the English held possession of almostthe whole country, and he indolently made no attempt to expel them, butgave himself up to effeminate indulgences; was about to lose his wholepatrimony when the patriotism of the nation woke up at the enthusiasticsummons of Joan of Arc; her triumphs and those of her associates weakenedthe English domination, and even after her death the impulse she gavecontinued to work, till at the end of 20 years the English were drivenout of France, and lost all they held in it except the town of Calais,along with Havre, and Guines Castle (1403-1461).

Charles VIII., king of France, son and successor of Louis XI.;during his minority the kingdom suffered from the turbulence and revoltsof the nobles; married Anne of Brittany, heiress of the rich duchy ofthat name, by which it was added to the crown of France; sacrificed theinterests of his kingdom by war with Italy to support the claims ofFrench princes to the throne of Naples, which, though successful in amilitary point of view, proved politically unfruitful (1470-1498).

Charles IX., second son of Henry II. and Catharine de' Medici,became king of France in 1560; the civil wars of the Huguenots andCatholics fill up this reign; the first war concluded by the peace ofAmboise, during which Francis of Guise was assassinated; the secondconcluded by the peace of Longjumeau, during which Montmorency fell; thethird concluded by the peace of St. Germain, in which Condé andMoncontour fell, which peace was broken by the massacre of St.Bartholomew, into the perpetration of which Charles was inveigled by hismother and the Guises; incensed at this outrage the Huguenots commenced afourth war, and were undertaking a fifth when Charles died, haunted byremorse and in dread of the infinite terror (1550-1574).

Charles X., brother of Louis XVI. and Louis XVIII., the latter ofwhom he succeeded on the throne of France in 1824; was unpopular inFrance as Duc d'Artois in the time of the Revolution, and had to flee thecountry at the outbreak of it, and stayed for some time as an exile inHolyrood, Edinburgh; on his accession he became no less unpopular fromhis adherence to the old régime; at an evil hour in 1830 he issuedordinances in defiance of all freedom, and after an insurrection of threedays in the July of that year had again to flee; abdicating in favour ofhis son, found refuge for a time again in Holyrood, and died at Görtz inhis eightieth year (1757-1837).

Charles V., (I. of Spain), emperor of Germany, son of Philip,Archduke of Austria, born at Ghent; became king of Spain in 1516, on thedeath of his maternal grandfather Ferdinand, and emperor of Germany in1519 on the death of his paternal grandfather Maximilian I., beingcrowned at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1520; reigned during one of the mostimportant periods in the history of Europe; the events of the reign aretoo numerous to detail; enough to mention his rivalry with Francis I. ofFrance, his contention as a Catholic with the Protestants of Germany, theinroads of the Turks, revolts in Spain, and expeditions against thepirates of the Mediterranean; the ambition of his life was thesuppression of the Protestant Reformation and the succession of his sonPhilip to the Imperial crown; he failed in both; resigned in favour ofhis son, and retired into the monastery of St. Yuste, in Estremadura,near which he built a magnificent retreat, where, it is understood,notwithstanding his apparent retirement, he continued to take interest inpolitical affairs, and to advise in the management of them (1500-1558).

Charles VI., emperor of Germany from 1711 to 1740, as well as kingof Spain from 1703, was son of the Emperor Leopold I., and father ofMaria Theresa.

Charles XII., king of Sweden, son of Charles XI., a warlike prince;ascended the throne at the age of 15; had to cope with Denmark, Russia,and Poland combined against him; foiled the Danes at Copenhagen, theRussians at Narva, and Augustus II. of Poland at Riga; trapped in Russia,and cooped up to spend a winter there, he was, in spring 1709, attackedby Peter the Great at Pultowa and defeated, so that he had to take refugewith the Turks at Bender; here he was attacked, captured, and conveyed toDemotica, but escaping, he found his way miraculously back to Sweden, andmaking peace with the Czar, commenced an attack on Norway, but was killedby a musket-shot at the siege of Friedrickshall; “the last of the Swedishkings”; “his appearance, among the luxurious kings and knights of theNorth” at the time, Carlyle compares to “the bursting of a cataract ofbombshells in a dull ballroom” (1697-1718).

Charles I., king of England, third son of James I., born atDunfermline; failing in his suit for the Infanta of Spain, marriedHenrietta Maria, a French princess, a devoted Catholic, who had greatinfluence over him, but not for good; had for public advisers Straffordand Laud, who cherished in him ideas of absolute power adverse to theliberty of the subject; acting on these ideas brought him into collisionwith the Parliament, and provoked a civil war; himself the first to throwdown the gauntlet by raising the royal standard at Nottingham; in the endof which he surrendered himself to the Scots army at Newark, whodelivered him to the Parliament; was tried as a traitor to his country,condemned to death, and beheaded, 30th January, at Whitehall (1600-1649).

Charles II., king of England, son of Charles I., horn at St. James'sPalace, London; was at The Hague, in Holland, when his father wasbeheaded; assumed the royal title; was proclaimed King by the Scots;landed in Scotland, and was crowned at Scone; marching into England, wasdefeated by Cromwell at Worcester, 3rd September 1651; fled to France; bythe policy of General Monk, after Cromwell's death, was restored to hiscrown and kingdom in 1660, an event known as the Restoration; he was aneasy-going man, and is known in history as the “Merry Monarch”; his reignwas an inglorious one for England, though it is distinguished by thepassing of the Habeas Corpus Act, one of the great bulwarks of Englishliberty next to the Magna Charta (1630-1685).

Charles, a French physicist, born at Beaugency; was the first toapply hydrogen to the inflation of balloons (1746-1823).

Charles, Archduke, of Austria, son of the Emperor Leopold II. andyounger brother of Francis II., one of the ablest generals of Austria inthe wars against the French Republic and the Empire; lost the battle ofWagram, after which, being wounded, he retired into private life(1771-1847).

Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, succeeded Charles Felix in 1831;conceived a design to emancipate and unite Italy; in the pursuit of thisobject he declared war against Austria; though at first successful, wasdefeated at Novara, and to save his kingdom was compelled to resign infavour of his son Victor Emmanuel; retired to Oporto, and died of abroken heart (1798-1849).

Charles Edward, the Young Pretender, grandson of James II. ofEngland, born at Rome, landed in Scotland (1745); issued a manifesto inassertion of his father's claims; had his father proclaimed king atEdinburgh; attacked and defeated General Cope at Prestonpans; marched atthe head of his adherents into England as far as Derby; returned, anddefeated the king's force at Falkirk, but retired before the Duke ofCumberland, who dispersed his army at Culloden; wandered about thereafterin disguise; escaped to France, and died at Florence (1721-1789).

Charles Martel (i. e. “Charles the Hammer”), son of Pépind'Héristal and grandfather of Charlemagne; became mayor of the Palace,and as such ruler of the Franks; notable chiefly for his signal victoryover the Saracens at Poitiers in 732, whereby the tide of Mussulmaninvasion was once for all rolled back and the Christianisation of Europeassured; no greater service was ever rendered to Europe by any otherfighting man (689-741).

Charles of Anjou, brother of St. Louis, king of Naples; lost Sicilyafter the Sicilian Vespers (1220-1285).

Charles of Valois, third son of Philip the Bold, one of the greatestcaptains of his age (1270-1324).

Charles the Rash, last Duke of Burgundy, son of Philip the Good,born at Dijon; enemy of Louis XI. of France, his feudal superior; wasambitious to free the duchy from dependence on France, and to restore itas a kingdom, and by daring enterprises tried hard to achieve this; onthe failure of the last effort was found lying dead on the field(1433-1477).

Charles's Wain, the constellation of Ursa Major, a wagon without awagoner.

Charleston (56), the largest city in S. Carolina, and the chiefcommercial city; also a town in Western Virginia, U.S., with a spaciousland-locked harbour; is the chief outlet for the cotton and rice of thedistrict, and has a large coasting trade.

Charlet, Nicolas Toussaint, a designer and painter, born in Paris;famous for his sketches of military subjects and country life, in whichhe displayed not a little humour (1792-1845).

Charleville (17), a manufacturing and trading town in the dep. ofArdennes, France; exports iron, coal, wines, and manufactures hardwareand beer.

Charlevoix, a Jesuit and traveller, born at St. Quentin, exploredthe St. Lawrence and the Mississippi (1682-1761).

Charlotte, Princess, daughter and only child of George IV. ofEngland, married to Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, afterwards king ofBelgium; died after giving birth to a still-born boy, to the great griefof the whole nation (1796-1817).

Charlotte Elizabeth of Bavaria, second wife of the Duke of Orleans,brother of Louis XIV., called the Princess Palatine (1652-1722).

Charlottenburg (76), a town on the Spree, 3 m. W. of Berlin, with apalace, the favourite residence of Sophie Charlotte, the grandmother ofFrederick the Great, and so named by her husband Frederick I. after herdeath; contains the burial-place of William I., emperor of Germany.

Charlottetown (13), the capital of Prince Edward Island.

Charmettes, a picturesque hamlet near Chambéry, a favourite retreatof Rousseau's.

Charnay, a French traveller; a writer on the ancient civilisation ofMexico, which he has made a special study;b. 1828.

Charon, in the Greek mythology the ferryman of the ghosts of thedead over the Styx into Hades, a grim old figure with a mean dress and adirty beard, peremptory in exacting from the ghosts he ferried over theobolus allowed him for passage-money.

Charondas, a Sicilian law-giver, disciple of Pythagoras; is said tohave killed himself when he found he had involuntarily broken one of hisown laws (600 B.C.).

Charron, Pierre, a French moralist and theologian, as well as pulpitorator, born in Paris; author of “Les Trois Vérités,” the unity of God,Christianity the sole religion, and Catholicism the only Christianity;and of a sceptical treatise “De la Sagesse”; a friend and disciple ofMontaigne, but bolder as more dogmatic, with lessbonhommie andoriginality, and much of a cynic withal (1541-1603).

Charterhouse, a large London school, originally a Carthusianmonastery, and for a time a residence of the dukes of Norfolk.

Chartier, Alain, an early scholarly French poet and prose writer ofnote, born at Bayeux; secretary to Charleses V., VI., and VII. of France,whom Margaret, daughter of James I. of Scotland and wife of Louis XI.,herself a poetess, once kissed as he lay asleep for the pleasure hispoems gave her; was a patriot, and wrote as one (1390-1458).

Chartism, a movement of the working-classes of Great Britain forgreater political power than was conceded to them by the Reform Bill of1832, and which found expression in a document called the “People'sCharter,” drawn up in 1838, embracing six “points,” as they were called,viz., Manhood Suffrage, Equal Electoral Districts, Vote by Ballot, AnnualParliaments, Abolition of a Property Qualification in the ParliamentaryRepresentation, and Payment of Members of Parliament, all which took theform of a petition presented to the House of Commons in 1839, and signedby 1,380,000 persons. The refusal of the petition gave rise to greatagitation over the country, which gradually died out in 1848.

Chartres (23), the capital of the French dep. of Eure-et-Lois, 55 m.SW. of Paris; gave title of Duke to the eldest of the Orleanist Bourbons.

Chartreuse, La Grande, a monastery founded by St. Bruno in 1084 inthe dep. of Isère, 14 m. NE. of Grenoble; famous as the original place ofthe manufacture of the Chartreuse liqueur, held in much repute; it washonoured by a visit of Queen Victoria in 1887; Ruskin was disappointedwith both monks and monastery.

Charybdis. SeeScylla.

Chase, Salmon Portland, Chief-Justice of the United States; a greatanti-slavery advocate and leader of the Free-Soil party; aimed at thePresidency, but failed (1773-1808).

Chasi`dim, a party among the Jews identified with the Pharisees,their supreme concern the observance of their religion in its purity.

Chasles, Michel, an eminent French mathematician, and held one ofthe first in the century; on the faith of certain autographs, which wereafterwards proved to be forgeries, he in 1867 astonished the world byascribing to Pascal the great discoveries of Newton, but had to admit hewas deceived (1793-1880).

Chasles, Philarète, a French littérateur, born near Chartres, adisciple of Rousseau; lived several years in England, and wroteextensively on English subjects, Shakespeare, Mary Stuart, Charles I.,and Cromwell among the chief (1799-1873).

Chassé, David Hendrik, Baron, a Dutch soldier; served France underNapoleon, who called him “General Baïonnette,” from his zealous use ofthe bayonet; fought at Waterloo on the opposite side; as governor ofAntwerp, gallantly defended its citadel in 1832 against a French andBelgian force twelve times larger than his own (1765-1849).

Chassepot, a French breech-loading rifle named from the inventor.

Chasseurs, picked bodies of light cavalry and infantry in the Frenchservice, called respectivelyChasseurs-à-cheval andChasseurs-à-pied.

Chastelard, Pierre de Boscosel de, grandson of Bayard; conceived aninsane passion for Queen Mary, whom he accompanied to Scotland; wassurprised in her bedchamber, under her bed, and condemned to death, itbeing his second offence (1540-1562).

Chat Moss, a large bog in Lancashire, 7 m. W. of Manchester, whichis partly reclaimed and partly, through the ingenuity of GeorgeStephenson, traversed by the Liverpool and Manchester Railway.

Châteaubriand, François René de, eminent French littérateur, born inSt. Malo, younger son of a noble family of Brittany; travelled to N.America in 1791; returned to France on the arrest of Louis XVI., andjoined theEmigrants (q. v.) at Coblenz; was wounded at thesiege of Thionville, and escaped to England; wrote an “Essay onRevolutions Ancient and Modern,” conceived on liberal lines; was temptedback again to France in 1800; wrote “Atala,” a story of life in the wildsof America, which was in 1802 followed by his most famous work, “Génie duChristianisme”; entered the service of Napoleon, but withdrew on themurder of the Duc d'Enghien; though not obliged to leave France, made ajourney to the East, the fruit of which was his “Itinéraire de Paris àJerusalem”; hailed with enthusiasm the restoration of the Bourbons in1814; supported the Bourbon dynasty all through, though he waveredsometimes in the interest of liberty; withdrew from public life on theelevation of Louis Philippe to the throne; he was no thinker, but he wasa fascinating writer, and as such exercised no small influence on theFrench literature of his day; he lived in a transition period, andhovered between legitimism and liberty, the revolution and reaction, andbelonged to the Romantic school of literature—was perhaps the father ofit in France (1766-1848).

Châteaux en Espagne, castles in Spain, visionary projects.

Châtelet, Marquise de, a learned Frenchwoman, born at Paris, withwhom Voltaire kept up an intimate acquaintanceship (1706-1749).

Châtellerault (18), a town in the dep. of Vienne, 24 m. NE. ofPoitiers; gave title to the Scottish regent, the Earl of Arran;manufactures cutlery and small-arms for the Government.

Chatham (59), a town in Kent, on the estuary of the Medway, afortified naval arsenal; is connected with Rochester.

Chatham, William Pitt, Earl of, a great British statesman andorator, born in Cornwall; determined opponent of Sir Robert Walpole;succeeded in driving him from power, and at length installing himself inhis place; had an eye to the greatness and glory of England, summoned theEnglish nation to look to its laurels; saw the French, the rivals ofEngland, beaten back in the four quarters of the globe; driven at lengthfrom power himself, he still maintained a single regard for the honour ofhis country, and the last time his voice was heard in the Parliament ofEngland was to protest against her degradation by an ignoble alliancewith savages in the war with America; on this occasion he fell back in afaint into the arms of his friends around, and died little more than amonth after; “for four years” (of his life), says Carlyle, “king ofEngland; never again he; never again one resembling him, nor indeed canever be.” SeeSmelfungus on his character and position inCarlyle's “Frederick,” Book xxi. chap. i. (1708-1775).

Chatham Islands, a group of islands 360 m. E. of New Zealand, andpolitically connected with it; the chief industry is the rearing ofcattle.

Chatsworth, the palatial seat of the Duke of Devonshire, inDerbyshire, 8 m. W. of Chesterfield, enclosed in a park, with gardens, 10m. in circumference.

Chatterton, Thomas, a poet of great promise, had a tragic fate, bornat Bristol, passed off while but a boy as copies of ancient MSS., andparticularly of poems which he ascribed to one Rowley, a monk of the 17thcentury, what were compositions of his own, exhibiting a genius of nosmall literary, not to say lyric, power; having vainly endeavoured topersuade any one of their genuineness, though he had hopes of thepatronage of Sir Robert Walpole, he left Bristol for London, and madevehement efforts with his pen to bespeak regard, but failed; grewdesperate, and committed suicide at the early age of 18 (1752-1770).

Chaucer, Geoffrey, the great early English poet, and father ofEnglish poetry, the son of a vintner and taverner, born probably inLondon, where he lived almost all his days; when a lad, served as page inthe royal household; won the favour and patronage of the king, EdwardIII. and his son, John of Gaunt, who pensioned him; served in anexpedition to France; was made prisoner, but ransomed by the king; wasoften employed on royal embassies, in particular to Italy; heldresponsible posts at home; was thus a man of the world as well as a manof letters; he comes first before us as a poet in 1369; his poetic powersdeveloped gradually, and his best and ripest work, which occupied him atintervals from 1373 to 1400, is his “Canterbury Tales” (q. v.),characterised by Stopford Brooke as “the best example of Englishstory-telling we possess”; besides which he wrote, among othercompositions, “The Life of St. Cecilia,” “Troilus and Cressida,” the“House of Fame,” and the “Legend of Good Women”; his influence on Englishliterature has been compared to that of Dante on Italian, and hisliterary life has been divided into three periods—the French, theItalian, and the English, according as the spirit of it was derived froma foreign or a native source (1340-1400).

Chaumette, Pierre Gaspard, a violent member of the extreme party inthe French Revolution, could “recognise the suspect from the very face ofthem”; provoked the disgust of even Robespierre, and was arrested amidjeers and guillotined (1763-1794).

Chautauqua, a summer resort on a lake of the name in the W. of NewYork State, centre of a novel institution, which prescribes a four years'course of private readings, and grants diplomas to those who anywhereachieve it.

Chauvinism, a name among the French for what is known as Jingoismamong the English,i. e. an extravagant zeal for the glory of one'scountry or party, from oneChauvin, who made threatening displays ofhis devotion to Napoleon after his fall in 1815.

Cheddar, a village in Somersetshire, on the Mendip Hills, famous forits cheese.

Cheke, Sir John, a zealous Greek scholar, born at Cambridge, andfirst regius professor of Greek there; did much to revive in England aninterest in Greek and Greek literature; was tutor to Edward VI., whogranted him landed estates; favouring the cause of Lady Jane Grey on theaccession of Mary, left the country, was seized, and sent back; for fearof the stake abjured Protestantism, but never forgave himself, and diedsoon after; he introduced the mode of pronouncing Greek prevalent inEngland (1514-1557).

Chelmsford (11), the county town of Essex, on the Chelmer.

Chelsea (96), a western suburb of London, on the N. of the Thames;famous for its hospital for old and disabled soldiers, and the place ofresidence of sundry literary celebrities, among others Sir Thomas More,Swift, Steele, and Carlyle.

Cheltenham (49), a healthy watering-place and educational centre inGloucestershire; first brought into repute as a place of fashionableresort by the visits of George III. to it; contains a well-equippedcollege, where a number of eminent men have been educated.

Chelyuskin, Cape, in Siberia, the most northerly point in theEastern hemisphere.

Chemical Affinity, the tendency elementary bodies have to combineand remain in combination.

Chemism, in the Hegelian philosophy “the mutual attraction,interpenetration, and neutralisation of independent individuals whichunite to form a whole.”

Chemistry, the science that treats of elementary bodies and theircombinations:inorganic, relating to physical compounds;organic,relating to vegetable and animal compounds.

Chemnitz (160), a manufacturing town in Saxony, called the “SaxonManchester,” at the foot of the Erzgebirge, in a rich mineral district;manufactures cottons, woollens, silks, machinery, &c.

Chemnitz, Martin, an eminent Lutheran theologian, born inBrandenburg, a disciple of Melanchthon; author of “Loci Theologici,” asystem of theology; took a leading part in procuring the adoption of the“Formula of Concord”; his chief work “Examen Concilii Tridentini”(1522-1586).

Chemosh, the national god of the Moabites, akin to Moloch, and theirstay in battle, but an abomination to the children of Jehovah.

Chemulpo, a town on the W. coast of Corea; a thriving town since itbecame a treaty-port in 1883.

Chenab`, an affluent on the left bank of the Indus, and one of thefive rivers, and the largest, which give name to the Punjab; is 750 m.long.

Chenery, Thomas, a journalist; became editor of theTimes; wasdistinguished for his knowledge of Arabic and Hebrew, and was one of theOld Testament revisers (1826-1884).

Chénier, Marie-André, French poet, greatest in the 18th century,born at Constantinople; author of odes, idylls, and elegies, which placehim high among French poets; took part in the Revolution as a lover oforder as well as of liberty; offended Robespierre, and was guillotinedtwo days before the fall of Robespierre; as a poet he was distinguishedfor the purity of his style and his originality (1762-1794).

Chenonceaux, a magnificent château near Amboise, in, France; builtby Francis I. for the Duchesse d'Etampes, afterwards the property of theCondés, and afterwards of Madame Dupont.

Chenu, a French naturalist; author of an “Encyclopædia of NaturalHistory” (1808-1879).

Cheophren, king of Egypt, brother and successor of Cheops; built thesecond great pyramid.

Cheops, king of Memphis, in Egypt, of the 4th dynasty; builder ofthe largest of the pyramids about 3000 B.C.

Chepstow (4), a port on the Wye, Monmouthshire, 17 m. N. of Newport;with a tubular suspension bridge, and where the tides are higher thananywhere else in Britain.

Cher, an affluent of the Loire below Tours; also the dep. in France(359) to which it gives name; an agricultural and pastoral district;capital Bourges.

Cherbourg (40), a French port and arsenal in the dep. of Manche,opposite the Isle of Wight, 70 m. distant, on the construction andfortifications of which immense sums were expended, as much as eightmillions; the fortifications were begun by Vauban.

Cherbuliez, Victor, novelist, critic, and publicist, born at Geneva,of a distinguished family; professor of Greek at Geneva; holds a highplace, and is widely known, as a writer of a series of works of fiction;b. 1826.

Cher`ibon (11), a seaport of Java, on the N. of the island.

Cherith, a brook E. of the Jordan, Elijah's hiding-place.

Cherokees, a tribe of American Indians, numbering some 20,000, inthe NW. of the Indian Territory, U.S.; civilised, self-governing, andincreasing; formerly occupied the region about the Tennessee River.

Cherone`a, a town in Boeotia, where Philip of Macedon conquered theAthenians and Thebans, 338 B.C., and Sulla defeated Mithridates, 86 B.C.;the birthplace of Plutarch, who is hence called the Cheronean Sage.

Cherra Punji (5), a village in the Khasi Hills, Assam, with theheaviest rainfall of any place on the globe.

Chersone`sus (i. e. continent island), a name which the Greeksgave to several peninsulas, viz., the Tauric C., the Crimea, the ThracianC., Gallipoli; the Cimbric C., Jutland; the Golden C., the MalayPeninsula.

Chertsey (11), a very old town of Surrey, 21 m. SW. of London, onthe right bank of the Thames.

Cherubim, an order of angelic beings conceived of as accompanyingthe manifestations of Jehovah, supporting His throne and protecting Hisglory, guarding it from profane intrusion; winged effigies of themovershadowed theMercy Seat (q. v.).

Cherubim, a character in the “Mariage de Figaro”; also the 11thHussars, from their trousers being of a cherry colour.

Cherubini, a celebrated musical composer, born at Florence;naturalised in France; settled in Paris, the scene of his greatesttriumphs; composed operas, of which the chief were “Iphigenia in Aulis,”and “Les deux Journeés; or, The Water-Carrier,” his masterpiece; also anumber of sacred pieces and requiems, all of the highest merit; there isa portrait of him by Ingres (1842) in the Louvre, representing the Museof his art extending her protecting hand over his head (1760-1842).

Chéruel, Adolphe, French historian, born at Rouen; author of“History of France during the Minority of Louis XIV.”; published the“Memoirs of Saint-Simon” (1809-1891).

Cherusci, an ancient people of Germany, whose leader was Arminius,and under whom they defeated the Romans, commanded by Varus, in 9 A.D.

Chesapeake Bay, a northward-extending inlet on the Atlantic coast ofthe United States, 200 m. long and from 10 to 40 m. broad, cuttingMaryland in two.

Cheselden, William, an English anatomist and surgeon, whose work,“Anatomy of the Human Body,” was long used as a text-book on that science(1688-1752).

Cheshire (730), a western county of England, between the Mersey andthe Dee, the chief mineral products of which are coal and rock-salt, andthe agricultural, butter and cheese; has numerous manufacturing towns,with every facility for inter-communication, and the finest pasture-landin England.

Cheshunt (9), a large village in Hertfordshire, 14 m. N. of London,with rose gardens, and a college founded by the Countess of Huntingdon.

Chesil Beach, a neck of land on the Devonshire coast, 15 m. long,being a ridge of loose pebbles and shingle.

Chesney, C. Cornwallis, professor of Military History, nephew of thesucceeding, author of “Waterloo Lectures” (1826-1876).

Chesney, Francis Rawdon, explorer, born in co. Down, Ireland;explored with much labour the route to India by way of the Euphrates,though his labours were rendered futile by the opposition of Russia;proved, by survey of the isthmus, the practicability of the Suez Canal(1798-1872).

Chester (41), the county town of Cheshire, on the Dee, 16 m. SE. ofLiverpool; an ancient city founded by the Romans; surrounded by wallsnearly 2 m. long, and from 7 to 8 ft. thick, forming a promenade withparapets; the streets are peculiar; along the roofs of the lower storeysof the houses there stretch piazzas called “Rows,” at the original levelof the place, 16 ft. wide for foot-passengers, approached by steps; itabounds in Roman remains, and is altogether a unique town.

Chesterfield (22), a town in Derbyshire, 21 m. N. of Derby; in amineral district; manufactures cotton, woollen, and silk; has a canalconnecting it with the Trent.

Chesterfield, Philip Dormer Stanhope, Earl of, statesman, orator,and man of letters, eldest son of the third earl, born in London; sat inthe House of Commons from 1716 to 1726; was an opponent of Walpole; heldoffice under the Pelhams; in 1748 retired from deafness, or perhapsdisgust, into private life; celebrated for his “Letters to his Son,”models of elegance, though of questionable morality, which it appears henever intended to publish, and for the scorn with which Dr. Johnsontreated him when he offered to help him, after he no longer needed any,in a letter which gave the death-blow to the patronage of literature; iscredited by Carlyle with having predicted the French Revolution; itshould be added, the “Letters” were printed by his son's widow(1694-1773).

Chevalier, Michel, a celebrated French economist, born at Limoges;originally a Socialist of the St. Simonian school; for defendingSocialism was imprisoned, but recanted, and wrote ably against Socialism;was a free-trader and coadjutor of Cobden (1806-1879).

Chevalier, Sulpice. SeeGavarni.

Chevalier d'Industrie, one who lives by his wits, specially byswindling.

Chevalier St. George, the Pretender.

Chevaux-de-Frise, a military fence composed of a beam or a bar armedwith long spikes, literally Friesland horses, having been first used inFriesland.

Chevert, a French general, born at Verdun; “a bit of right soldierstuff”; distinguished himself in many engagements, and especially at thesiege of Prague in 1757 (1696-1773).

Cheviot Hills, a range on the borders of England and Scotland,extending 35 m. south-westwards, the highest in Northumberland 2676 ft.,the Carter Fell being 2020 ft.; famous for its breed of sheep.

Chevreul, Michel Eugène, a French chemist, born at Angers; an expertin the department of dyeing, and an authority on colours, as well as thechemistry of fats; was director in the dyeing department in the Gobelinsmanufactory; he lived to witness the centenary of his birth (1786-1889).

Chevreuse, Duchesse de, played an important part in the Fronde andin the plots against Richelieu and Mazarin; her Life has been written byVictor Cousin (1600-1679).

Chevron, in heraldry an ordinary of two bands forming an angledescending to the extremities of the shield; representing the two raftersof a house, meeting at the top.

Chevy Chase, the subject and title of a highly popular old Englishballad, presumed to refer to an event in connection with the battle ofOtterburn; there were strains in it which Sir Philip Sidney said movedhis heart more than with a trumpet.

Cheyenne Indians, a warlike tribe of Red Indians, now much reduced,and partially settled in the Indian Territory, U.S.; noted for theirhorsemanship.

Cheyne, George, a physician and medical writer, born inAberdeenshire, in practice in London; suffered from corpulency, being 32stone in weight, but kept it down by vegetable and milk diet, which herecommended to others in the like case; wrote on fevers, nervousdisorders, and hygiene; wrote also on fluxions (1671-1743).

Cheyne, Thomas Kelly, an eminent Biblical scholar, born in London;Oriel Professor of Scripture Exegesis, Oxford, and canon of Rochester;author of numerous works on the Old Testament, particularly on “Isaiah”and the “Psalms,” in which he advocates conclusions in accord with moderncritical results;b. 1841.

Chézy, De, a French Orientalist, born at Neuilly; the first tocreate in France an interest in the study of Sanskrit (1773-1832).

Chiabrera, Gabriello, an Italian lyric poet, born at Savona;distinguished, especially for his lyrics; surnamed the “Pindar of Italy,”Pindar being a Greek poet whom it was his ambition to imitate(1552-1637).

Chia`na, a small, stagnant, pestilential affluent of the Tiber, nowdeepened into a healthful and serviceable stream, connecting the Tiberwith the Arno.

Chiapas, Las (270), a Pacific State of Mexico, covered with forests;yields maize, sugar, cacao, and cotton.

Chiaroscuro, the reproduction in art of the effects of light andshade on nature as they mutually affect each other.

Chibchas orMuyscas, a civilised people, though on a lowerstage than the Peruvians, whom the Spaniards found established in NewGranada in the 16th century, now merged in the Spanish population; theyworship the sun.

Chica, an orange-red colouring matter obtained from boiling theleaves of theBignonia chica, and used as a dye.

Chicago (1,700), the metropolis of Illinois, in the NE. of theState, on the SW. shore of Lake Michigan, is the second city in theUnion; its unparalleled growth, dating only from 1837—in 1832 a merelog-fort, and now covering an area of 180 sq. m., being 21 m. in lengthand 10 m. in breadth—is due to its matchless facilities forcommunication. Situated in the heart of the continent, a third of theUnited States railway system centres in it, and it communicates with allCanada, and with the ocean by the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River;laid out with absolute regularity, it has many magnificent buildings,enormously tall office “sky-scrapers,” and an unrivalled system of parksand avenues; there are a university, medical, commercial, and theologicalcolleges, an art institute, libraries, and observatory; it sufferedseverely from fire in 1871 and 1874; it is the greatest grain and porkmarket in the world, and its manufactures include almost every variety ofproduction; the population is a mixture of all European peoples;native-born Americans are a small minority, outnumbered by the Germansand almost equalled by the Irish.

Chicard, the harlequin of the modern French carnival, grotesquelydressed up.

Chicheley, Henry, archbishop of Canterbury, a scholar and statesman,often employed on embassies, a moderate churchman; accompanied Henry V.to Agincourt (1362-1442).

Chichester (9), a cathedral city in the W. of Sussex, 17 m. NE. ofPortsmouth, with a port on the Channel 2 m. SW. of it; chief trade inagricultural produce.

Chichevache, a monster fabled to feed on good women, and starved,from the scarcity of them, to skin and bone, in contrast with anothercalled Bicorn, that fed on good men, who are more plentiful, and was fatand plump.

Chickasaws, N. American Indians, allied to the Chocktaws, settled ina civilised state in the Indian Territory like the Cherokees.

Chiclana (12), a watering-place 12 m. SB. of Cadiz, with mineralbaths.

Chief, the upper part of an escutcheon cut off by a horizontal line.

Chiem-see, a high-lying lake in Upper Bavaria, 48 m. from Münich,adorned with three islands; famous for its fish.

Chien de Jean de Nivelle, the dog that never came when it wascalled. See Nivelle.

Chië`ti (22), a city in Central Italy, 78 m. NE. of Rome, with afine Gothic cathedral.

Chigi, a distinguished Italian family, eminent in the Church.

Chigoe, an insect which infests the skin of the feet, multipliesincredibly, and is a great annoyance to the negro, who, however, ispretty expert in getting rid of it.

Chihua`hua (25), a town in Mexico; capital of a State (298), thelargest in Mexico, of the same name, with famous silver and also coppermines.

Child, Francis James, an American scholar, born in Boston; professorof Anglo-Saxon and Early English Literature at Harvard; distinguished asthe editor of Spenser and of “English and Scottish Ballads,” “amonumental collection”;b. 1825.

Child, Lydia Maria, an American novelist and anti-slavery advocate(1802-1880).

Child, Sir Joshua, a wealthy London merchant, author of “Discourseon Trade,” with an appendix against usury; advocated the compulsorytransportation of paupers to the Colonies (1630-1699).

Childe, the eldest son of a nobleman who has not yet attained toknighthood, or has not yet won his spurs.

Childe Harold, a poem of Byron's, written between 1812 and 1819,representing the author himself as wandering over the world in quest ofsatisfaction and returning sated to disgust; it abounds in strikingthoughts and vivid descriptions; in his “Dernier Chant of C. H.”Lamartine takes up the hero where Byron leaves him.

Childerbert I., son of Clovis, king of Paris, reigned from 511 to558.C. II., son of Siegbert and Brunhilda, king of Austrasia,reigned from 575 to 596.C. III., son of Thierri III., reigned overall France from 695 to 711, under the mayor of the palace, Pépind'Héristal.

Childerbrand, a Frank warrior, who figures in old chronicles as thebrother of Charles Martel, signalised himself in the expulsion of theSaracens from France.

Childéric I., the son of Merovig and father of Clovis, king of theFranks;d. 481.C. II., son of Clovis II., king of Austrasia in660, and of all France in 670; assassinated 673.C. III., son of thepreceding, last of the Merovingian kings, from 743 to 752; was deposed byPepin le Bref; died in the monastery of St. Omer in 755.

Childermas, a festival to commemorate the massacre of the childrenby Herod.

Childers, Robert C., professor of Pâli and Buddhistic Literature inUniversity College, and author of Pâli Dictionary (1809-1876).

Children of the Wood, two children, a boy and girl, left to the careof an uncle, who hired two ruffians to murder them, that he might inherittheir wealth; one of the ruffians relented, killed his companion, andleft the children in a wood, who were found dead in the morning, aredbreast having covered their bodies with strawberry leaves; the unclewas thereafter goaded to death by the furies.

Chile (2,867), the most advanced and stable of the S. AmericanStates, occupies a strip of country, 100 m. broad, between the Andes andthe Pacific Ocean, and stretching from Cape Horn northward 2200 m. toPeru, with Argentine and Bolivia on its eastern borders. The climate isnaturally various. In the N. are rainless tracts of mountains rich incopper, manganese, silver, and other metals, and deserts with wonderfuldeposits of nitrate. In the S. are stretches of pastoral land and virginforest, with excessive rains, and cold, raw climate. The central portionenjoys a temperate climate with moderate rainfall, and produces excellentwheat, grapes, and fruits of all kinds. The Andes tower above thesnow-line, Aconcagua reaching 23,500 ft. The rivers are short and rapid,of little use for navigation. The coast-line is even in the N., butexcessively rugged and broken in the S., the most southerly regions beingweird and desolate. The people are descendants of Spaniards, mingled withAraucanian Indians; but there is a large European element in all thecoast towns. Mining and agriculture are the chief industries;manufactures of various kinds are fostered with foreign capital. Thechief trade is with Britain: exports nitre, wheat, copper, and iodine;imports, textiles, machinery, sugar, and cattle. Santiago (250) is thecapital; Valparaiso (150) and Iquique the principal ports. The governmentis republican; Roman Catholicism the State religion; education is fairlywell fostered; there is a university at Santiago. The country was firstvisited by Magellan in 1520. In 1540 Pedro Valdivia entered it from Peruand founded Santiago. During colonial days it was an annex of Peru. In1810 the revolt against Spain broke out. Independence was gained in 1826.Settled government was established in 1847. Since then a revolution in1851, successful wars with Spain 1864-66, with Bolivia and Peru 1879-81,and a revolution in 1891, have been the most stirring events in itshistory.

Chillianwalla, a village in the Punjab, 80 m. NW. of Lahore, thescene in 1849 of a bloody battle in the second Sikh War, in which theSikhs were defeated by Gen. Gough; it was also the scene of a battlebetween Alexander the Great and Porus.

Chillingham, a village in Northumberland, 8 m. SW. of Belford, witha park attached to the castle, the seat of the Earl of Tankerville,containing a herd of native wild cattle.

Chillingworth, William, an able English controversial divine, whothought forcibly and wrote simply, born at Oxford; championed the causeof Protestantism against the claims of Popery in a long-famous work, “TheReligion of Protestants the Safe Way to Salvation,” summing up hisconclusion in the oft-quoted words, “The Bible, the Bible alone, is thereligion of Protestants”; though a Protestant, he was not a Puritan or aman of narrow views, and he suffered at the hands of the Puritans as anadherent of the Royalist cause (1602-1643).

Chillon, Castle of, a castle and state prison built on a rock, 62ft. from the shore, at the eastern end of the Lake of Geneva; surnamedthe Bastille of Switzerland, in which Bonivard, the Genevese patriot,was, as celebrated by Byron, incarcerated for six years; it is now anarsenal.

Chiloë (77), a thickly wooded island off the coast, and forming aprovince, of Chile, 115 m. long from N. to S., and 43 m. broad; inhabitedchiefly by Indians; exports timber; is said to contain vast deposits ofcoal.

Chiltern Hills, a range of chalk hills extending about 70 m. NE.from the Thames in Oxfordshire through Bucks, from 15 to 20 m. broad, thehighest Wendover, 950 ft.

Chiltern Hundreds, a wardship of beech forests on the Chiltern Hillsagainst robbers, that at one time infested them; now a sinecure office,the acceptance of which enables a member of Parliament to resign his seatif he wishes to retire, the office being regarded as a Government one.

Chimæra, a fire-breathing monster of the Greek mythology, with agoat's body, a lion's head, and a dragon's tail; slain by Bellerophon,and a symbol of any impossible monstrosity.

Chimbora`zo, one of the loftiest peaks of the Andes, in Ecuador,20,700 ft.; is an extinct volcano, and covered with perpetual snow.

Chimpanzee, a large African ape, from 3 to 4 ft. in height, and moreallied in several respects to man than any other ape: it is found chieflyin W. Africa.

China (300,000 to 400,000), which, with Tibet, Mongolia (from whichit is separated by the Great Wall), and parts of Turkestan, forms theChinese Empire; is a vast, compact, and densely peopled country inEastern Asia; bounded on the N. by Mongolia; W. by Tibet and Burmah; S.by Siam, Annam, and the China Sea; and E. by the Pacific. In the W. arelofty mountain ranges running N. and S., from which parallel ranges runE. and W., rising to greatest height in the S. Two great rivers traversethe country, the Hoang-ho and the Yangtse-kiang, the latter with manylarge lakes in its course, and bearing on its waters an innumerable fleetof boats and barges. Between the lower courses of these rivers lies theGreat Plain, one of the vastest and richest in the world, whose yellowsoil produces great crops with little labour and no manure. Thecoast-line is long and much indented, and out of it are bitten the gulfsof Pe-che-lee, the Yellow Sea, and Hang-chou. There are many smallislands off the coast; the mountainous Hainau is the only large one stillChinese. The climate in the N. has a clear frosty winter, and warm rainysummer; in the S. it is hot. The country is rich in evergreens andflowering plants. In the N. wheat, millet, and cotton are grown; in theS. rice, tea, sugar, silk, and opium. Agriculture is the chief industry,and though primitive, it is remarkably painstaking and skilful. Forestshave everywhere been cleared away, and the whole country is marvellouslyfertile. Its mineral wealth is enormous. Iron, copper, and coal abound invast quantities; has coal-fields that, it is said, if they were worked,“would revolutionise the trade of the world.” The most importantmanufactures are of silk, cotton, and china. Commerce is as yet chieflyinternal; its inter-provincial trade is the largest and oldest in theworld. Foreign trade is growing, almost all as yet done with Britain andher Colonies. Tea and silk are exported; cotton goods and opium imported.About twenty-five ports are open to British vessels, of which the largestare Shanghai and Canton. There are no railways; communication inland isby road, river, and canals. The people are a mixed race of Mongol type,kindly, courteous, peaceful, and extremely industrious, and in their ownway well educated. Buddhism is the prevailing faith of the masses,Confucianism of the upper classes. The Government is in theory apatriarchal autocracy, the Emperor being at once father and high-priestof all the people, and vicegerent of heaven. The capital is Pekin (500),in the NE. Chinese history goes back to 2300 B.C. English intercoursewith the Chinese began in 1635 A.D., and diplomatic relations betweenLondon and Pekin were established this century. The Anglo-Chinese wars of1840, 1857, and 1860 broke down the barrier of exclusion previouslymaintained against the outside world. The Japanese war of 1894-95betrayed the weakness of the national organisation; and the seizure ofFormosa by Japan, the Russo-Japanese protectorate over Manchuria andCorea, the French demand for Kwang-si and Kwang-tung, enforced lease ofKiao-chau to Germany, and of Wei-hai-wei to Britain (1898), seem toforebode the partition of the ancient empire among the more energeticWestern nations.

China, the Great Wall of, a wall, with towers and forts atintervals, about 2000 m. long, from 20 to 30 ft. high, and 25 ft. broad,which separates China from Mongolia on the N., and traverses high hillsand deep valleys in its winding course.

Chinampas, floating gardens.

Chincha Islands, islands off the coast of Peru that had beds ofguano, often 100 ft. thick, due to the droppings of penguins and othersea birds, now all but, if not quite, exhausted.

Chinchilla, a rodent of S. America, hunted for its fur, which issoft and of a grey colour; found chiefly in the mountainous districts ofPeru and Chile.

Chinese Gordon, General Gordon, killed at Khartoum; so called forhaving, in 1851, suppressed a rebellion in China which had lasted 15years.

Chinook, a tribe of Indians in Washington Territory, noted forflattening their skulls.

Chinsura, a Dutch-built town on the right bank of the Hoogly, 20 m.N. of Calcutta, with a college; is famous for cheroots.

Chinz, a calico printed with flowers and other devices in differentcolours; originally of Eastern manufacture.

Chioggia (25), a seaport of Venetia, built on piles, on a lagoonisland at the mouth of the Brenta, connected with the mainland by abridge with 43 arches.

Chios, orScio (25), a small island belonging to Turkey, in theGrecian Archipelago; subject to earthquakes; yields oranges and lemons ingreat quantities; claims to have been the birthplace of Homer.

Chippendale, Thomas, a cabinet-maker, born in Worcestershire; famousin the last century for the quality and style of his workmanship; hiswork still much in request.

Chippeways, a Red Indian tribe, some 12,000 strong, located inMichigan, U.S., and in Canada adjoining; originally occupied the N. andW. of Lake Superior.

Chiquitos, Indians of a low but lively type in Bolivia and Brazil.

Chiriqui, an archipelago and a lagoon as well as province in CostaRica.

Chiron, a celebrated Centaur, in whose nature the animal element wassubject to the human, and who was intrusted with the education of certainheroes of Greece, among others Peleus and Achilles; was endowed with thegift of prophecy, and skilled in athletics as well as music and thehealing art. SeeCentaurs.

Chislehurst (6), a village in Kent, 10 m. SE. of London, whereNapoleon III. died in exile in 1873.

Chiswick (21), a suburb of London, 7 m. SW. of St. Paul's; theChurch of St. Nicholas has monuments to several people of distinction.

Chitin, a white horny substance found in the exoskeleton of severalinvertebrate animals.

Chitral, a State on the frontier of India, NW. of Cashmere; since1895 occupied by the British; a place of great strategical importance.

Chittagong (24), a seaport in the Bay of Bengal, 220 m. E. ofCalcutta; exports rice, gum, tobacco, and jute.

Chittim, the Bible name for Cyprus.

Chivalry, a system of knighthood, for the profession of which thequalifications required were dignity, courtesy, bravery, generosity; theaim of which was the defence of right against wrong, of the weak againstthe strong, and especially of the honour and the purity of women, and thespirit of which was of Christian derivation; originally a militaryorganisation in defence of Christianity against the infidel.

Chivalry, Court of, a court established by Edward III., which tookcognisance of questions of honour and heraldry, as well as militaryoffences.

Chladni, Friedrich, a physicist, born at Wittenberg; one of theearliest investigators of the phenomena of sound; wrote also on aërolites(1756-1827).

Chlopicki, Joseph, a Polish hero, born in Galicia; fought againstRussia under Napoleon; was chosen Dictator in 1830, but was forced toresign; fought afterwards in the ranks, and was severely wounded(1771-1854).

Chloral, a colourless narcotic liquid, obtained at first by theaction of chlorine on alcohol; treated with water it produceschloralhydrate.

Chlorine, elementary, greenish-yellow gas obtained from common salt;powerful as a disinfectant, and a bleaching agent.

Chloris, the wife of Zephyrus, the goddess of flowers.

Chloroform, a limpid, volatile liquid, in extensive use as ananæsthetic; produced by treating alcohol with chloride of lime.

Chlorophyll, the green colouring matter in plants, especially theleaves; due to the presence and action of light.

Chlorosis, green sickness, a disease incident to young females at acritical period of life, causing a pale-greenish complexion.

Chocolate, a paste made by grinding the kernels of cocoa-nuts.

Chocktaws, orChactaws, a tribe of American Indians, settled tocivilised life in the Indian Territory, U.S.; the Chactaw Indian, withhis proud array of scalps hung up in his wigwam, is, with Carlyle, thesymbol of the pride of wealth acquired at the price of the lives of menin body and soul.

Choiseul, Duc de, minister of Louis XV.; served his master invarious capacities; was rewarded with a peerage; effected many reforms inthe army, strengthened the navy, and aided in bringing about the familycompact of the Bourbons; exercised a great influence on the politics ofEurope; was nicknamed by Catharine of RussiaLe Cocher de l'Europe,“the Driver of Europe”; but becoming obnoxious to Mme. du Barry, “in whomhe would discern nothing but a wonderfully dizened scarlet woman,” wasdismissed from the helm of affairs, Louis's “last substantial man”(1719-1795).

Choisy, Abbé, a French writer, born in Paris; author of a “Historyof the Church” (1644-1724).

Cholera Morbus, an epidemic disease characterised by violentvomiting and purging, accompanied with spasms, great pain, and debility;originated in India, and has during the present century frequently spreaditself by way of Asia into populous centres of both Europe and America.

Cholet (15), a French manufacturing town, 32 m. SW. of Angers.

Cholula, an ancient city, 60 m. SE. of Mexico; the largest city ofthe Aztecs, with a pyramidal temple, now a Catholic church.

Chopin, a musical composer, born near Warsaw, of Polish origin; hisgenius for music early developed itself; distinguished himself as apianist first at Vienna and then in Paris, where he introduced themazurkas; became the idol of thesalons; visited England twice, in 1837and 1848, and performed to admiration in London and three of theprincipal cities; died of consumption in Paris; he suffered much fromgreat depression of spirits (1809-1849).

Chorley (23), a manufacturing town in N. Lancashire, 25 m. NE. ofLiverpool, with mines and quarries near it.

Chorus, in the ancient drama a group of persons introduced on thestage representing witnesses of what is being acted, and givingexpression to their thoughts and feelings regarding it; originally a bandof singers and dancers on festive occasions, in connection particularlywith the Bacchus worship.

Chosroës I., surnamed the Great, king of Persia from 531 to 579, awise and beneficent ruler; waged war with the Roman armies successfullyfor 20 years.Ch. II., his grandson, king from 590 to 625; madeextensive inroads on the Byzantine empire, but was defeated and drivenback by Heraclius; was eventually deposed and put to death.

Chouans, insurrectionary royalists in France, in particularBrittany, during the French Revolution, and even for a time under theEmpire, when their head-quarters were in London; so named from theirmuster by night at the sound of thechat-huant, the screech-owl, anocturnal bird of prey which has a weird cry.

Chrétien, orChrestien, de Troyes, a French poet or trouvèreof the last half of the 12th century; author of a number of vigorouslywritten romances connected with chivalry and the Round Table.

Chriemhilde, a heroine in the “Niebelungen” and sister of Gunther,who on the treacherous murder of her husband is changed from a gentlewoman into a relentless fury.

Chrisaor, the sword of Sir Artegal in the “Faërie Queene”; itexcelled every other.

Christ Church, a college in Oxford, founded by Wolsey 1525; wasGladstone's college and John Ruskin's, as well as John Locke's.

Christabel, a fragmentary poem of Coleridge's; characterised byStopford Brooke as, for “exquisite metrical movement and for imaginativephrasing,” along with “Kubla Khan,” without a rival in the language.

Christadelphians, an American sect, called also Thomasites, whosechief distinctive article of faith is conditional immortality, that is,immortality only to those who believe in Christ, and die believing inhim.

Christchurch (16), capital of the province of Canterbury, NewZealand, 5 m. from the sea; Littleton the port.

Christian, the name of nine kings of Denmark, of whom the firstbegan to reign in 1448 and the last in 1863, and the following deservenotice:Christian II., conquered Sweden, but proving a tyrant, wasdriven from the throne by Gustavus Vasa in 1522, upon which his ownsubjects deposed him, an act which he resented by force of arms, in whichhe was defeated in 1531, his person seized, and imprisoned for life;characterised by Carlyle as a “rash, unwise, explosive man” (1481-1559).Christian IV., king from 1588 to 1648; took part on the Protestantside in the Thirty Years' War, and was defeated by Tilly; he was a goodruler, and was much beloved by his subjects; was rather unsteady in hishabits, it is said (1577-1648).Christian IX., king from 1863; sonof Duke William of Sleswick-Holstein, father of the Princess of Wales,George I., king of Greece, and the dowager Empress of Russia;b. 1818.

Christian Connection, a sect in the United States which acknowledgesthe Bible alone as the rule of faith and manners.

Christian King, the Most, a title of the king of France conferred bytwo different Popes.

Christian Knowledge, Society for Promoting (S. P. C. K.), a religiousassociation in connection with the Church of England, under the patronageof the Queen and the presidency of the Archbishop of Canterbury,established 1698, the object of which is to disseminate a knowledge ofChristian doctrine both at home and abroad by means of churches, schools,and libraries, and by the circulation of Bibles and Christian literature.

Christiania (130), the capital of Norway, romantically situated atthe head of Christiania Fiord; the residence of the king and the seat ofgovernment; a manufacturing and trading city, but it is blocked upagainst traffic for four months in the year.

Christianity,Belief (q. v.) that there is in Christ, as inno other, from first to last a living incarnation, a flesh and bloodembodiment, for salvation of the ever-living spirit of the ever-livingGod and Father of man, and except that by eating His flesh and drinkingHis blood, that is, except by participating in His divine-human life, orexcept in His spirit, there is no assurance of life everlasting to anyman; but perhaps it has never been defined all round with greater brevityand precision than it is by Ruskin in his “Præterita,” under theimpression that the time is come when one should say a firm wordconcerning it: “The total meaning of it,” he says, “was, and is, that theGod who made earth and its creatures, took, at a certain time upon theearth, the flesh and form of man; in that flesh sustained the pain anddied the death of the creature He had made; rose again after death intoglorious human life, and when the date of the human race is ended, willreturn in visible human form, and render to every mail according to hiswork.Christianity is the belief in, and love of, God thus manifested.Anythingless than this,” he adds, “the mere acceptance of the sayingsof Christ, or assertion of any less than divine power in His Being, maybe, for aught I know, enough for virtue, peace, and safety; but they donot make people Christians, or enable them to understand the heart of thesimplest believer in the old doctrine.”

Christiansand (12), a town and seaport in the extreme S. of Norway,with a considerable trade.

Christie, William Henry Mahoney, astronomer-royal, born at Woolwich,of Trinity College, Cambridge; author of “Manual of ElementaryAstronomy”;b. 1845.

Christina, queen of Sweden, daughter and only child of GustavusAdolphus; received a masculine education, and was trained in manlyexercises; governed the country well, and filled her court with learnedmen, but by-and-by her royal duties becoming irksome to her, she declaredher cousin as her successor, resigned the throne, and turned Catholic;her cousin dying, she claimed back her crown, but her subjects would notnow have her; she stayed for a time in France, but was obliged to leave;retired to Rome, where she spent 20 years of her life engaged inscientific and artistic studies, and died (1628-1689).

Christina, Maria, daughter of Francis I. of Naples, and wife ofFerdinand VII. of Spain, on whose death she acted for four years asregent, during the infancy of her daughter Isabella (1806-1878).

Christison, Sir Robert, toxicologist, born at Edinburgh, andprofessor, first of Medical Jurisprudence and then of Materia Medica, inhis native city; wrote a “Treatise on Poison,” a standard work(1797-1882).

Christmas, the festival in celebration of the birth of Christ nowcelebrated all over Christendom on 25th December, as coinciding with anold heathen festival celebrated at the winter solstice, the day of thereturn of the sun northward, and in jubilation of the prospect of therenewal of life in the spring.

Christology, the department of theology which treats of the personof Christ.

Christophe, Henri, a negro, born in Grenada; one of the leaders ofthe insurgent slaves in Hayti, who, proving successful in arms againstthe French, became king under the title of Henry I., but rulingdespotically provoked revolt, and shot himself through the heart; he wasa man of powerful physique;b. 1820.

Christopher, St., (the Christ-Bearer), according to Christian legenda giant of great stature and strength, who, after serving the devil for atime, gave himself up to the service of Christ by carrying pilgrimsacross a bridgeless river, when one day a little child, who happened tobe none else than Christ Himself, appeared to be carried over, but,strange to say, as he bore Him across, the child grew heavier andheavier, till he was nearly baffled in landing Him on the opposite shore.The giant represented the Church, and the increasing weight of the childthe increasing sin and misery which the Church has from age to age tobear in carrying its Christ across the Time-river; the giant isrepresented in art as carrying the infant on his shoulder, and as havingfor staff the stem of a large tree.

Christopher North, the name assumed byJohn Wilson (q. v.)inBlackwood's Magazine.

Christopher's, St., (30), popularly calledSt. Kitts, one of theLeeward Islands, discovered by Columbus (1493), who named it afterhimself; belongs to England; has sugar plantations.

Christ's Hospital, the Blue-Coat School, London, was founded in1547, a large institution, on the foundation of which there are now 2170pupils instead of 1200 as formerly; entrance to it is gained partly bypresentation and partly by competition, and attached are numerousexhibitions and prizes; among thealumni have been several noted men,such as Bishop Stillingfleet, Coleridge, Leigh Hunt, and Charles Lamb.

Chromatics, that department of optics which treats of colours, andresolves the primary colours into three—red, yellow, and blue.

Chroniclers, The Rhyming, a series of writers who flourished inEngland in the 13th century, and related histories of the country inrhyme, in which the fabulous occupies a conspicuous place, among whichLayamon's “Brut” (1205) takes the lead.

Chronicles i andii., two historical books of the OldTestament, the narratives of which, with additions and omissions, runparallel with those of Samuel and Kings, but written from a priestlystandpoint, give the chief prominence to the history of Judah as thesupport in Jerusalem of the ritual of which the priests were thecustodians; Ezra and Nehemiah are continuations.

Chrysëis, the daughter of Chryses, priest of Apollo, a beautifulmaiden who fell among the spoils of a victory to Agamemnon, and becamehis slave, and whom he refused to restore to her father until a deadlyplague among the Greeks, at the hands of Apollo, whose priest her fatherwas, compelled him to give her up.

Chrysippus, a Greek philosopher, born at Soli, in Cilicia, and livedin Athens; specially skilled in dialectic; the last and greatestexpounder and defender of the philosophy of the Stoa, so pre-eminent,that it was said of him, “If Chrysippus were not, the Stoa were not”; issaid to have written 705 books, not one of which, however, has come downto us save a few fragments (280-208 B.C.). SeeStoicism.

Chrysolo`ras, a Grecian scholar, born at Constantinople, left hisnative country and lived in Florence, where he, in the 14th century,became a teacher of Greek literature, and contributed thereby to therevival of letters in Italy;d. 1415.

Chrysostom, St. John, that is, Mouth of Gold, so called from hiseloquence, born at Antioch; converted to Christianity from a mildpaganism; became one of the Fathers of the Church, and Patriarch ofConstantinople; he was zealous in suppressing heresy, as well ascorruption in the Church, and was for that reason thrice over subjectedto banishment; in the course of the third of which and while on the way,he died, though his remains was brought to Constantinople and theredeposited with great solemnity; he left many writings behindhim—sermons, homilies, commentaries, and epistles, of which his“Homilies” are most studied and prized (347-407). Festival, Jan. 27.

Chubb, Thomas, an English Deist, born near Salisbury; he regardedChrist as a divine teacher, but held reason to be sovereign in matters ofreligion, yet was on rational grounds a defender of Christianity; had nolearning, but was well up in the religious controversies of the time, andbore his part in them creditably (1679-1746).

Chunder Sen, one of the founders of theBrahmo-Somaj (q.v.); he visited Europe in 1870, and was welcomed with open arms by therationalist class of Churchmen and Dissenters.

Chuquisa`ca (20), (i. e. Bridge of Gold), the capital of Bolivia,in a sheltered plain 9000 ft. above the sea-level; is a cathedral city;has a mild climate; it was founded in 1538 by the Spaniards on the siteof an old Peruvian town.

Church, Richard William, dean of St. Paul's, born in Lisbon; ascholarly man; distinguished himself first as such by his “Essays andReviews,” wrote thoughtful sermons, and “A Life of Anselm,” also essayson eminent men of letters, such as Dante, Spenser, and Bacon (1815-1890).

Church, States of the, the Papal States, extending irregularly fromthe Po to Naples, of which the Pope was the temporal sovereign, now partof the kingdom of Italy.

Churchill, Charles, an English poet, born at Westminster; began lifeas a curate, an office which he was compelled to resign from his unseemlyways; took himself to the satire, first of the actors of the time in his“Rosciad,” then of his critics in his “Apology,” and then of Dr. Johnsonin the “Ghost”; he wrote numerous satires, all vigorous, his happiestbeing deemed that against the Scotch, entitled “The Prophecy of Famine”;his life was a short one, and not wisely regulated (1731-1764).

Churchill, Lord Randolph, an English Conservative politician, thirdson of the 7th Duke of Marlborough, who, though a man of mark, and morethan once in office, could never heart and soul join any party and settledown to steady statesmanship; set out on travel, took ill on the journey,and came home in a state of collapse to die (1849-1895).

Chuzzlewit, Martin, the hero of a novel by Dickens of the name.James, a character in the same novel, a man distinguished for hismean and tyrannical character.

Chusan (30 or 40), principal island in the Chusan Archipelago, 18 m.long and 10 broad; near the estuary of the Yangtse-kiang, has been called“the Key of China.”

Chyle, a fluid of a milky colour, separated from the chyme by theaction of the pancreatic juice and the bile, and which, being absorbed bythe lacteal vessels, is gradually assimilated into blood.

Chyme, the pulpy mass into which the food is converted in thestomach prior to the separation in the small intestines of the chyle.

Cialdini, Enrico, an Italian general and politician, born at Modena;distinguished himself in Spain against the Carlists, and both as asoldier and diplomatist in connection with the unification of Italy(1811-1892).

Cibber, Colley, actor and dramatist, of German descent; was managerand part-proprietor of Drury Lane; wrote plays, one in particular, whichprocured for him the post of poet-laureate, which he held till his death;was much depreciated by Pope; wrote an “Apology for his Life,” the mostamusing autobiography in the language (1671-1757).

Cibrario, Luigi, an Italian historian and statesman, born at Turin;he held office under Charles Albert of Sardinia (1802-1870).

Cicero, Marcus Tullius, a Roman orator, statesman, and man ofletters, born near Arpinum, in Latium; trained for political life partlyat Rome and partly at Athens; distinguished himself as the first oratorat the Roman bar when he was 30, and afterwards rose through thesuccessive grades of civic rank till he attained the consulship in 63B.C.; during this period he acquired great popularity by his exposure anddefeat of the conspiracy of Catiline, by which he earned the title ofFather of his Country, though there were those who condemned his actionand procured his banishment for a time; on his recall, which wasunanimous, he took sides first with Pompey, then with Cæsar afterPharsalia, on whose death he delivered a Philippic against Antony; wasproscribed by the second triumvirate, and put to death by Antony'ssoldiers; he was the foremost of Roman orators, the most elegant writerof the Latin language, and has left behind him orations, letters, andtreatises, very models of their kind; he was not a deep thinker, and hisphilosophy was more eclectic than original (100-43 B.C.).

Cicero of Germany, John III., Elector of Brandenburg, “could speak'four hours at a stretch, in elegantly flowing Latin,' with a fair shareof meaning in it too” (1455-1499).

Cicognara, Count, an Italian writer, born at Ferrara; author of a“History of Sculpture” (1767-1834).

Cid Campeador, a famed Castilian warrior of the 11th century, bornat Burgos; much celebrated in Spanish romance; being banished fromCastile, in the interest of which he had fought valiantly, he became afree-lance, fighting now with the Christians and now with the Moors, tillhe made himself master of Valencia, where he set up his throne andreigned, with his faithful wife Ximena by his side, till the news of adefeat by the Moors took all spirit out of him, and he died of grief.Faithful after death, his wife had his body embalmed and carried to hisnative place, on the high altar of which it lay enthroned for 10 years;his real name was Don Rodrigo Diaz of Bivar, and the story of his lovefor Ximena is the subject of Corneille's masterpiece, “The Cid.”

Cigoli, a Florentine painter, called the Florentine Correggio, whomhe specially studied in the practice of his art; “The Apostle Healing theLame,” in St. Peter's, is by him, as also the “Martyrdom of St. Stephen,”in Florence (1559-1613).

Cilicia, an ancient province in S. of Asia Minor.

Cilician Gates, the pass across Mount Taurus by which Alexander theGreat entered Cilicia.

Cimabu`e, a Florentine painter, and founder of the Florentineschool, which ranked among its members such artists as Michael Angelo,Raphael, and Leonardo da Vinci; was the first to leave the stifftraditional Byzantine forms of art and copy from nature and the livingmodel, though it was only with the advent of his great disciple Giottothat art found beauty in reality, and Florence was made to see the divinesignificance of lowly human worth, at sight of which, says Ruskin, “allItaly threw up its cap”; his “Madonna,” in the Church of Santa Maria, hasbeen long regarded as a marvel of art, and of all the “Mater Dolorosas”of Christianity, Ruskin does not hesitate to pronounce his at Assisi thenoblest; “he was the first,” says Ruskin, “of the Florentines, first ofEuropean men, to see the face of her who was blessed among women, andwith his following hand to make visible the Magnificat of his heart”(1240-1302).

Cimarosa, Domenico, a celebrated Italian composer; composed between20 and 30 operas, mostly comic, his masterpiece being “II MatrimoneoSegreto”; he was imprisoned for sympathising with the principles of theFrench Revolution, and treated with a severity which shortened his life;said by some to have been poisoned by order of Queen Caroline of Naples(1754-1801).

Cimber, a friend of Cæsar's who turned traitor, whose act ofpresenting a petition to him was the signal to the conspirators to takehis life.

Cimbri, a barbarian horde who, with the Teutons, invaded Gaul in the2nd century B.C.; gave the Romans no small trouble, and were all butexterminated by Marius in 101 B.C.; believed to have been a Celtic race,who descended on Southern Europe from the N.

Cimerians, an ancient people N. of the shores of the Black Sea,fabled to inhabit a region unvisited by a single ray of the sun.

Cimon, an Athenian general, son of Miltiades; distinguished himselfin the struggle of Athens against Persia in 466 B.C.; gained twovictories over the Persians in one day, one by land and another by sea,was banished by the democratic party, and after four years recalled tocontinue his victories over his old foes, and died at Cyprus(510-449 B.C.).

Cincinnati (326), the metropolis of Ohio, stands on the Ohio River,opposite Covington and Newport, by rail 270 m. SE. of Chicago; the citystands on hilly ground, and is broken and irregular; there are many finebuildings, among them a Roman Catholic cathedral, and large parks; thereis a university, the Lane Theological Seminary (Presbyterian), schools ofmedicine, law, music, and art, an observatory, zoological garden, andlarge libraries; it is a centre of culture in the arts; manufacturesinclude clothing, tobacco, leather, moulding and machine shops; there issome boat-building and printing; but the most noted trade is in pork andgrain; is the greatest pork market in the world; a third of thepopulation is of German origin.

Cincinnatus, Lucius Quinctius, an old hero of the Roman republic,distinguished for the simplicity and austerity of his manners; was consulin 460 B.C., and on the defeat of a Roman army by the Æqui, called tothe dictatorship from the plough, to which he returned on the defeat ofthe Æqui; he was summoned to fill the same post a second time, when hewas 80, on the occasion of the conspiracy of Mælius, with the likesuccess.

Cincinnatus, the Order of, an American order founded by officers ofthe revolutionary army at its dissolution in 1753; was denounced byFranklin as anti-republican in its spirit and tendency; it still survivesin a feeble way; the order is hereditary.

Cincinnatus of the Americans, George Washington.

Cinderella (the little cinder-girl), the youngest member of a familywho must drudge at home while her elder sisters go to balls, till one daya fairy befriends her and conveys her to a ball, where she shines as thecentre of attraction, and wins the regard of a prince. On quitting thehall she leaves a slipper behind her, by means of which she is identifiedby the prince, who finds that hers is the only foot that the slipper willfit, and marries her. The story in one version or another is a veryancient and wide-spread one.

Cineas, the minister of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus; was the ablestorator of his time, and his master was in the habit of saying of him,that his eloquence had gained him more cities than his own arms; sent ona mission to Rome, the senate refused to hear him, lest his eloquenceshould prove too fascinating.

Cingalese, a native of Ceylon.

Cinna, Lucius Cornelius, a Roman patrician, a friend and supporterof Marius; drove Sulla from Rome and recalled Marius from exile;participated in the murders which followed his recall, and after thedeath of Marius was assassinated when organising an expedition againstSulla, 84 B.C.

Cinnabar, a sulphide of mercury from which the mercury of commerceis obtained.

Cinq-Mars, Henri, Marquis de, a French courtier, a favourite ofLouis XIII.; a man of handsome figure and fascinating manners; died onthe scaffold for conspiring with his friend De Thou against Richelieu(1620-1642).

Cinqué Cento (lit. five hundred), the Renaissance in literatureand art in the 16th century, the expression 5 hundred standing for 15hundred.

Cinque Ports, the five ports of Hastings, Romney, Hythe, Dover, andSandwich, to which were added Winchelsea and Rye, which possessed certainprivileges in return for supplying the royal power with a navy; the LordWarden of the Cinque Ports is only an honorary dignity.

Cintra, a Portuguese town, 17 m. NW. of Lisbon, where a muchreprobated convention between the French under Marshal Junot and theEnglish under Sir Hew Dalrymple was signed in 1808, whereby the formerwere let off with all their arms and baggage on condition of evacuatingPortugal.

Cipango, an island on the Eastern Ocean, described by Marco Polo asa sort of El Dorado, an object of search to subsequent navigators, and anattraction among the number to Columbus, it is said.

Cipriani, an Italian painter and etcher, born in Florence; settledin London; was an original member of the Royal Academy, and designed thediploma (1727-1785).

Circars, The, a territory in India along the coast of the Bay ofBengal, from 18 to 100 m. wide; ceded first to the French and in 1766 tothe East India Company, now of course under the Crown, and forming partof the Madras Presidency.

Circassia, a territory on the Western Caucasus, now subject toRussia; celebrated for the sturdy spirit of the men and the beauty of thewomen; the nobles professing Mohammedanism and the lower classes acertain impure form of Christianity; they are of the Semite race, andresemble the Arabs in their manners.

Circe, a sorceress who figures in the “Odyssey.” Ulysses havinglanded on her isle, she administered a potion to him and his companions,which turned them into swine, while the effect of it on himself wascounteracted by the use of the herb moly, provided for him by Hermesagainst sorcery; she detained him with her for years, and disenchantedhis companions on his departure.

Circean poison, a draught of any kind that is magically and fatallyinfatuating, such as the effect often of popular applause.

Circuits, districts outside of London into which England is dividedfor judicial purposes, for the trial of civil as well as criminal casesconnected with them; are seven in number—the Midland, the Oxford, theNorth-Eastern, the South-Eastern, the Northern, the Western, and NorthWales and South Wales; the courts are presided over by a judge sent fromLondon, or by two, and are held twice a year, or oftener if the number ofcases require it.

Circulation of the Blood, the course of the blood from the heartthrough the arteries to the minute vessels of the body, and from theselast through the veins back to the heart again.

Circumcision, the practice of cutting away the foreskin, chiefly ofmales, as observed by the Jews and the Mohammedans, as well as othernations of remote antiquity; regarded by some as a mark of belonging tothe tribe, and by others as a sacrifice in propitiation by blood.

Circumlocution Office, a name employed by Dickens in “Little Dorrit”to designate the wearisome routine of public business.

Cisalpine Gaul, territory occupied by Gauls on the Italian or southside of the Alps.

Cisalpine Republic, a republic so called on both sides of the Po,formed out of his conquests by Napoleon, 1797; became the ItalianRepublic in 1802, with Milan for capital, and ceased to exist after thefall of Napoleon.

Cisleithania, Austria proper as distinguished from Hungary, which iscalled Transleithania, on account of the boundary between them beingformed by the river Leitha.

Cistercians, a monastic order founded by Abbot Robert in 1098 atCiteaux, near Dijon; they followed the rule of St. Benedict, who reformedthe Order after it had lapsed; became an ecclesiastical republic, andwere exempt from ecclesiastical control; contributed considerably to theprogress of the arts, if little to the sciences.

Cithæron, a wood-covered mountain on the borders of Boeotia andAttica; famous in Greek legend.

Cities of Refuge, among the Jews; three on the E. and three on theW. of the Jordan, in which the manslayer might find refuge from theavenger of blood.

Cities of the Plain, Sodom and Gomorrah, with adjoining cities underthe like doom.

Citizen King, Louis Philippe of France, so called as elected by thecitizens of Paris.

City of Bells, Strasburg.

City of Churches, Brooklyn, now incorporated with New York.

City of Destruction, Bunyan's name for the world as under divinejudgment.

City of God, Augustine's name for the Church as distinct from thecities of the world, and the title of a book of his defining it.

City of Palaces, Calcutta and Rome.

City of the Prophet, Medina, where Mahomet found refuge when drivenout of Mecca by the Koreish and their adherents.

City of the Seven Hills, Rome, as built on seven hills—viz., theAventine, Coelian, Capitoline, Esquiline, Palatine, Quirinal, andViminal.

City of the Sun,Baalbek (q. v.); and a work by Campanella,describing an ideal republic, after the manner of Plato and Sir ThomasMore.

City of the Violet Crown, Athens.

Ciudad Real (royal city) (13), a Spanish town in a province of thesame name, 105 m. S. of Madrid, where Sebastian defeated the Spaniards in1809.

Ciudad Rodrigo (8), a Spanish town near the Portuguese frontier, 50m. SW. of Salamanca; stormed by Wellington, after a siege of 11 days, in1812, for which brilliant achievement he earned the title of Earl inEngland, and Duke of Ciudad Rodrigo in Spain.

Çiva, orSiva, the third member of the Hindu Trinity, thedestroyer of what Vishnu is the preserver and Brahma is the creator, isproperly Brahma undoing what he has made with a view to reincarnation.

Civil Law, a system of laws for the regulation of civilisedcommunities formed on Roman laws, digested in the pandects of Justinian.

Civil List, the yearly sum granted by the Parliament of England atthe commencement of each reign for the support of the royal household,and to maintain the dignity of the Crown: it amounts now to £385,000.

Civil Service, the paid service done to the State, exclusive of thatof the army and navy.

Civilis, Claudius, a Batavian chief who revolted against Vespasian,but on defeat was able to conclude an honourable peace.

Civita Vecchia (11), a fortified port on the W. coast of Italy, 40m. NW. of Rome, with a good harbour, founded by Trajan; exports wheat,alum, cheese, &c.

Clackmannanshire (28), the smallest county in Scotland, lies betweenthe Ochils and the Forth; rich in minerals, especially coal.

Clair, St., a lake 30 m. long by 12 broad, connecting Lake Erie withLake Huron.

Clairaut, Alexis Claude, a French mathematician and astronomer, bornat Paris, of so precocious a genius, that he was admitted to the Academyof Sciences at the age of 18; published a theory of the figure of theearth, and computed the orbit of Halley's comet (1713-1765).

Clairvaux, a village of France, on the Aube, where St. Bernardfounded a Cistercian monastery in 1115, and where he lived and wasburied; now used as a prison or reformatory.

Clairvoyance, the power ascribed to certain persons in a mesmericstate of seeing and describing events at a distance or otherwiseinvisible.

Clan, a tribe of blood relations descended from a common ancestor,ranged under a chief in direct descent from him, and having a commonsurname, as in the Highlands of Scotland; at bottom a militaryorganisation for defensive and predatory purposes.

Clan-na-Gael, a Fenian organisation founded at Philadelphia in 1870,to secure by violence the complete emancipation of Ireland from Britishcontrol.

Clapham, a SW. suburb of London, in the county of Surrey, 4 m. fromSt. Paul's, and inhabited by a well-to-do middle-class community,originally of evangelical principles, and characterised as theClaphamSet.

Clapperton, Captain Hugh, an African explorer, born at Annan; bredin the navy, joined two expeditions into Central Africa to ascertain thelength and course of the Niger, but got no farther than Sokoto, where hewas attacked with dysentery and died (1788-1827).

Clärchen, a female character in Goethe's “Egmont.”

Clare (124), a county in Munster, Ireland; also an island at themouth of Clew Bay, county Mayo.

Clare, John, the peasant poet of Northamptonshire, born nearPeterborough; wrote “Poems Descriptive of Rural Life and Scenery,” whichattracted attention, and even admiration, and at length with othersbrought him a small annuity, which he wasted in speculation; fell intodespondency, and died in a lunatic asylum (1793-1864).

Clare, St., a virgin and abbess, born at Assisi; the founder of theOrder of Poor Clares (1193-1253). Festival, Aug. 12.

Claremont, a mansion in Surrey, 14 m. SW. of London, built by LordClive, where Princess Charlotte lived and died, as also Louis Philippeafter his flight from France; is now the property of the Queen, and theresidence of the Duchess of Albany.

Clarence, Duke of, brother of Edward IV.; convicted of treason, hewas condemned to death, and being allowed to choose the manner of hisdeath, is said to have elected to die by drowning in a butt of Malmseywine (1459-1478).

Clarenceux, orClarencieux, the provincial king-at-arms, whosejurisdiction extends from and includes all England S. of the Trent.

Clarendon, a place 2 m. SE. of Salisbury, where the magnates ofEngland, both lay and clerical, met in 1164 under Henry II. and issued aset of ordinances, called theConstitutions of Clarendon, 16 in number,to limit the power of the Church and assert the rights of the crown inecclesiastical affairs.

Clarendon, Edward Hyde, Earl of, sat in the Short Parliament and theLong on the popular side, but during the Civil War became a devotedRoyalist; was from 1641 one of the chief advisers of the king; on thefailure of the royal cause, took refuge first in Jersey, and then inHolland with the Prince of Wales; contributed to the Restoration; cameback with Charles, and became Lord Chancellor; fell into disfavour, andquitted England in 1667; died at Rouen; wrote, among other works, a“History of the Great Rebellion,” dignifiedly written, though oftencarelessly, but full of graphic touches and characterisations especiallyof contemporaries; it has been called an “epical composition,” as showinga sense of the central story and its unfolding. “Few historians,” addsProf. Saintsbury, “can describe a given event with more vividness. Notone in all the long list of the great practitioners of the art has suchskill in the personal character” (1608-1674).

Clarendon, George Villiers, Earl of, a Whig statesman; served as acabinet minister under Lord Melbourne, Lord John Russell twice, LordAberdeen, Lord Palmerston, and Mr. Gladstone; held the office of ForeignSecretary under the three preceding; was Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland atthe time of the potato failure, and represented Britain at the Congressof Paris; died in harness, deeply lamented both at home and abroad(1800-1870).

Clarétie, Jules, a French journalist, novelist, dramatic author, andcritic, born at Limoges; has published some 40 volumes ofcauseries,history, and fiction; appointed Director of the Theatre Français in 1893;b. 1840.

Clarissa Harlowe, the heroine of one of Richardson's novels,exhibiting a female character which, as described by him, is pronouncedto be “one of the brightest triumphs in the whole range of imaginativeliterature,” is described by Stopford Brooke “as the pure and ideal starof womanhood.”

Clark, Sir Andrew, an eminent London physician, born near Cargill,in Perthshire, much beloved, and skilful in the treatment of diseasesaffecting the respiratory and digestive organs (1826-1893).

Clark, Sir James, physician to the Queen, born in Cullen; anauthority on the influence of climate on chronic and pulmonary disease(1788-1870).

Clark, Thomas, chemist, born in Ayr; discovered the phosphate ofsoda, and the process of softening hard water (1801-1867).

Clarke, Adam, a Wesleyan divine, of Irish birth; a man ofconsiderable scholarship, best known by his “Commentary” on the Bible;author also of a “Bibliographical Dictionary” (1762-1832).

Clarke, Charles Cowden, a friend of Lamb, Keats, and Leigh Hunt;celebrated for his Shakespearian learning; brought out an annotatedShakespeare, assisted by his wife; lectured on Shakespeare characters(1787-1877).

Clarke, Dr. Samuel, an English divine, scholar and disciple ofNewton, born at Norwich; author, as Boyle lecturer, of a famous“Demonstration of the Being and Attributes of God,” as also independentlyof “The Evidences of Natural and Revealed Religion”; as a theologian heinclined to Arianism, and his doctrine of morality was that it wascongruity with the “eternal fitness of things” (1675-1729).

Clarke, Edward Daniel, a celebrated English traveller, born inSussex; visited Scandinavia, Russia, Circassia, Asia Minor, Syria,Palestine, Egypt, and Greece; brought home 100 MSS. to enrich the libraryof Cambridge, the colossal statue of the Eleusinian Ceres, and thesarcophagus of Alexander, now in the British Museum; his “Travels” werepublished in six volumes (1769-1822).

Clarke, Henri, Duc de Feltre, of Irish origin, French marshal, andminister of war under Napoleon; instituted the prevotal court, apro renata court without appeal (1767-1818).

Clarke, Mary Cowden,née Novello, of Italian descent, wife ofCharles Cowden, assisted her husband in his Shakespeare studies, andproduced amid other works “Concordance to Shakespeare,” a work whichoccupied her 16 years (1809-1898).

Clarke, William George, English man of letters; Fellow of TrinityCollege, Cambridge; edited the “Cambridge Shakespeare,” along with Mr.Aldis Wright (1821-1867).

Clarkson, Thomas, philanthropist, born in Wisbeach, Cambridgeshire;the great English anti-slavery advocate, and who lived to see in 1833 thefinal abolition in the British empire of the slavery he denounced, inwhich achievement he was assisted by the powerful advocacy in Parliamentof Wilberforce (1760-1846).

Classic Races, the English horse-races at Newmarket—Derby, theOaks, and the St. Leger.

Classics, originally, and often still, the standard authors in theliterature of Greece or Rome, now authors in any literature thatrepresent it at its best, when, as Goethe has it, it is “vigorous, fresh,joyous, and healthy,” as in the “Nibelungen,” no less than in the“Iliad.”

Claude, Jean, a French Protestant controversial divine, a powerfulantagonist of Bossuet and other Catholic writers, allowed only 24 hoursto escape on the eve of the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, thoughother Protestant ministers were allowed 15 days (1619-1687).

Claude Lorraine, a great landscape painter, born in Lorraine, ofpoor parents, and apprenticed to a pastry-cook; went as such to Rome;became servant and colour-grinder to Tassi, who instructed him in hisart; by assiduous study of nature in all her aspects attained to fame;was eminent in his treatment of aërial perspective, and an artist whom itwas Turner's ambition to rival; he was eminent as an etcher as well as apainter; Turner left one of his finest works to the English nation oncondition that it should hang side by side of a masterpiece of Claude,which it now does; his pictures are found in every gallery in Europe, anda goodly number of them are to be met with in England; there are in theSt. Petersburg gallery four pieces of exquisite workmanship, entitled“Morning,” “Noon,” “Evening,” and “Twilight” (1600-1682).

Claudian, a Latin epic poet of the 4th century, born in Alexandria,panegyrist of Stilicho on his victory over Alaric; a not unworthysuccessor of Catullus and Propertius, though his native tongue was Greek.

Claudius, Appius, a Roman decemvir and patrician in 451 B.C.;outraged Virginia, a beautiful plebeian damsel, whom her father, ondiscovering of the crime, killed with a knife snatched from a butcher'sstall, rousing thereby the popular rage against the decemvir, who wascast into prison, where he put an end to himself, 449 B.C.

Claudius, Appius, censor in 312-307 B.C.; wrought important changesin the Roman constitution; set on foot the construction of the Appian Wayand the Appian Aqueduct, named after him.

Claudius I, Tiberius Drusus, surnamedGermanicus, brother ofTiberius, emperor of Rome from 41 to 54, born at Lyons; after spending 50years of his life in private, occupying himself in literary study, was,on the death of Caligula, raised very much against his wish by thesoldiers to the imperial throne, a post which he filled with honour tohimself and benefit to the State; but he was too much controlled by hiswives, of whom he had in succession four, till the last of them,Agrippina, had him poisoned to make way for her son Nero.

Claudius II., surnamedGothicus, Roman emperor from 268 to 270;an excellent prince and a good general; distinguished himself by hisability and courage against the Goths and other hordes of barbarians.

Clausel, Bertrand, marshal of France, born at Mirepoix; served underNapoleon in Holland, Italy, Austria, and Spain; was defeated atSalamanca, executing thereafter a masterly retreat; left France forAmerica in 1815 on the fall of Napoleon, to whom he was devoted; returnedin 1830, became commander-in-chief in Algeria, and ultimately governor(1772-1842).

Clausewitz, Karl von, a Prussian general, born at Burg;distinguished himself against Napoleon in Russia in 1812; an authority onthe art of war, on which he wrote a treatise in three volumes, entitled“Vom Krieg” (1780-1831).

Clausius, Rudolf, an eminent German physicist, born at Köslin, inPomerania; professor of Natural Philosophy at Bonn; speciallydistinguished for his contributions to the science of thermo-dynamics,and the application of mathematical methods to the study, as also toelectricity and the expansion of gases (1822-1888).

Claverhouse, John Graham of, Viscount Dundee, commenced life as asoldier in France and Holland; on his return to Scotland in 1677 wasappointed by Charles II. to the command of a troop to suppress theCovenanters; was defeated at Drumclog 1679, but by the help of Monmouthhad his revenge at Bothwell Brig; affected to support the Revolution, butintrigued in favour of the Stuarts; raised in Scotland a force in theirbehalf; was met at Killiecrankie by General Mackay, where he fell(1643-1689).

Clavière, Minister of Finance in France after Necker, born atGeneva; projector of theMoniteur; friend of Mirabeau; committedsuicide in prison (1735-1793).

Clavije`ro, a Jesuit missionary, born in Vera Cruz; laboured for 40years as missionary in Mexico; on the suppression of his Order went toItaly, and wrote a valuable work on Mexico (1718-1793).

Clavigo, a drama by Goethe in five acts, the first work to which heput his name; was received with disfavour.

Clavileño, Don Quixote's wooden horse.

Clay, Henry, an American statesman, born in Virginia; bred for thebar, and distinguished for his oratory; was for many years Speaker of theHouse of Representatives; was a supporter of war with Britain in 1812-15,and party to the treaty which ended it; was an advocate of protection;aspired three times unsuccessfully to the Presidency; his public careerwas a long one, and an honourable (1777-1852).

Clear the Causeway Riots, bickerings in the streets of Edinburgh in1515 between the rival factions of Angus and Arran, to the utter rout ofthe former, or the Douglas party.

Cleanthes, a Stoic philosopher, born at Assos, in Troas, of the 3rdcentury B.C.; wrought as a drawer of water by night that he might earnhis fee as pupil of Zeno's by day; became Zeno's successor and the headof his school; regarded “pleasure as a remission of that moral energy ofthe soul, which alone is happiness, as an interruption to life, and as anevil, which was not in accordance with nature, and no end of nature.”

Clear, Cape, a headland S. of Clear Island, most southerly point ofIreland, and the first land sighted coming from America.

Clearchus, a Spartan general who accompanied Cyrus on his expeditionagainst Artaxerxes; commanded the retreat of the Ten Thousand; was put todeath by Tissaphernes in 401 B.C., and replaced by Xenophon.

Clearing-House, a house for interchanging the respective claims ofbanks and of railway companies.

Cleishbotham, Jedediah, an imaginary editor in Scott's “Tales of MyLandlord.”

Clelia, a Roman heroine, who swam the Tiber to escape from Porsenna,whose hostage she was; sent back by the Romans, she was set at liberty,and other hostages along with her, out of admiration on Porsenna's partof both her and her people.

Clemenceaux, Georges Benjamin, French politician, born in La Vendée;bred to medicine; political adversary of Gambetta; proprietor ofLaJustice, a Paris journal; an expert swordsman;b. 1841.

Clemencet, Charles, a French Benedictine, born near Autun; one ofthe authors of the great chronological work, “Art de Vérifier les Dates,”and wrote the history of the Port Royal (1703-1778).

Clemencin, Diego, a Spanish statesman and littérateur; his mostimportant work a commentary on “Don Quixote.”

Clemens, Samuel Langhorne, an American humorist with the pseudonymof “Mark Twain,” born at Florida, Missouri, U.S.; began his literarycareer as a newspaper reporter and a lecturer; his first book “TheJumping Frog”; visited Europe, described in the “Innocents Abroad”;married a lady of fortune; wrote largely in his peculiar humorous vein,such as the “Tramp Abroad”; produced a drama entitled the “Gilded Age,”and compiled the “Memoirs of General Grant”;b. 1835.

Clemens Alexandrinus, one of the Greek Fathers of the Church, of the2nd and 3rd centuries; had Origen for pupil; brought up in Greekphilosophy; converted in manhood to Christianity from finding in hisappreciation of knowledge over faith confirmations of it in hisphilosophy, which he still adhered to; his “Stromata” or “Miscellanies”contain facts and quotations found nowhere else.

Clement, the name of 14 Popes:C. I., Pope from 91 to 100; oneof the Apostolic Fathers; wrote an Epistle to the Church of Corinth, withreferences to the Canonical books.C. II., Pope from 1046 to 1047.C. III., Pope from 1187 to 1191.C. IV., Pope from 1265 to1268.C. V., Bertrand de Goth, Pope from 1305 to 1314; transferredthe seat of the Papacy to Avignon, and abolished the Order of the KnightsTemplars.C. VI. Pope from 1342 to 1352; resided at Avignon.C.VII., Giulio de Medici, Pope from 1523 to 1534; celebrated for hisquarrels with Charles V. and Henry VIII., was made prisoner in Rome bythe Constable of Bourbon; refused to sanction the divorce of Henry VIII.,and brought about the schism of England from the Holy See.C. VIII.,Pope from 1592 to 1605; a patron of Tasso's; readmitted Henry IV. to theChurch and the Jesuits to France.C. IX., Pope from 1667 to 1669.C. X., Pope from 1670 to 1676.C. XI., Pope from 1700 to 1721;as Francesco Albani opposed the Jansenists; issued the bullUnigenitusagainst them; supported the Pretender and the claims of the Stuarts.C.XII., Pope from 1738 to 1740.C. XIII., Pope from 1758 to 1769.C. XIV., Pope from 1769 to 1774, Ganganelli, an able,liberal-minded, kind-hearted, and upright man; abolished the Order of theJesuits out of regard to the peace of the Church; his death occurred notwithout suspicions of foul-play.

Clement, French critic, born at Dijon, surnamed by Voltaire from hisseverity the “Inclement” (1742-1812).

Clement, a French manufacturer and savant, born near Dijon; authorof a memoir on the specific heat of the gases (1779-1841).

Clement, Jacques, a Dominican monk; assassinated Henry III. ofFrance in 1589.

Clement, St., St. Paul's coadjutor, the patron saint of tanners; hissymbol an anchor.

Clementi, Muzio, a musical composer, especially of pieces for thepianoforte, born in Rome; was the father of pianoforte music; one of theforemost pianists of his day; was buried in Westminster (1752-1832).

Clementine, the Lady, a lady, accomplished and beautiful, inRichardson's novel, “Sir Charles Grandison,” in love with Sir Charles,who marries another he has no partiality for.

Cleobulus, one of the seven sages of Greece; friend of Plato; wrotelyrics and riddles in verse, 530 B.C.

Cleom`brotus, a philosopher of Epirus, so fascinated with Plato's“Phædon” that he leapt into the sea in the expectation that he wouldthereby exchange this life for a better.

Cleome`des, a Greek astronomer of the 1st or 2nd century; author ofa treatise which regards the sun as the centre of the solar system andthe earth as a globe.

Cleomenes, the name of three Spartan kings.

Cleomenes, an Athenian sculptor, who, as appears from an inscriptionon the pedestal, executed the statue of the Venus de Medici towards 220B.C.

Cleon, an Athenian demagogue, surnamed the Tanner, from hisprofession, which he forsook that he might champion the rights of thepeople; rose in popular esteem by his victory over the Spartans, butbeing sent against Brasidas, the Spartan general, was defeated and fellin the battle, 422 B.C.; is regarded by Thucydides with disfavour, andby Aristophanes with contempt, but both these writers were of thearistocracy, and possibly prejudiced, though the object of theirdisfavour had many of the marks of the vulgar agitator, and stands forthe type of one.

Cleopa`tra, Queen of Egypt, a woman distinguished for her beauty,her charms, and her amours; first fascinated Cæsar, to whom she bore ason, and whom she accompanied to Rome, and after Cæsar's death took MarkAntony captive, on whose fall and suicide at Actium she killed herself byapplying an asp to her arm, to escape the shame of being taken to Rome tograce the triumph of the victor (69-30 B.C.).

Cleopatra's Needle, an obelisk of 186 tons weight and 68½ ft. high,brought from Alexandria to London in 1878, and erected on the ThamesEmbankment, London.

Clerc, orLeclerc, Jean, a French theologian of the Arminianschool, born at Geneva; a prolific author; wrote commentaries on all thebooks of the Old Testament, on lines since followed by the Rationalistschool or Neologians of Germany (1657-1736).

Clerfayt, Comte de, an Austrian general, distinguished in the SevenYears' War; commanded with less success the Austrian army against theFrench armies of the Revolution (1733-1798).

Clerk, John, of Eldin, of the Penicuik family, an Edinburghmerchant, first suggested the naval manoeuvre of “breaking the enemy'slines,” which was first successfully adopted against the French in 1782(1728-1812).

Clerk, John, son of preceding, a Scottish judge, under the title ofLord Eldin, long remembered in Edinburgh for his wit (1757-1832).

Clerkenwell (66), a parish in Finsbury, London, originally anaristocratic quarter, now the centre of the manufacture of jewellery andwatches.

Clermont, Robert, Comte de, sixth son of St. Louis, head of thehouse of Bourbon.

Clermont Ferrand (45), the ancient capital of Auvergne and chieftown of the dep. Puy-de-Dôme; the birthplace of Pascal, Gregory of Tours,and Dessaix, and where, in 1095, Pope Urban II. convoked a council anddecided on the first Crusade; it has been the scene of seven ChurchCouncils.

Clermont-Tonnerre, Marquis, minister of France under the Restorationof the Bourbons (1779-1865).

Clery, Louis XVI.'s valet, who waited on him in his last hours, andhas left an account of what he saw of his touching farewell with hisfamily.

Cleveland, a hilly district in the North Riding of Yorkshire, richin iron-stone.

Cleveland (381), the second city of Ohio, on the shores of LakeErie, 230 m. NE. of Cincinnati; is built on a plain considerably abovethe level of the lake; the winding Cuyahoga River divides it into twoparts, and the industrial quarters are on the lower level of its banks;the city is noted for its wealth of trees in the streets and parks, hencecalled “The Forest City,” and for the absence of tenement houses; it hasa university, several colleges, and two libraries; it is the terminus ofthe Ohio Canal and of seven railways, and the iron ore of Lake Superiorshores, the limestone of Lake Erie Islands, and the Ohio coal are broughttogether here, and every variety of iron manufacture carried on; there isa great lumber market, and an extensive general trade.

Cleveland, Grover, President of the United States, born in NewJersey, son of a Presbyterian minister; bred for the bar; becamePresident in the Democratic interest in 1885; unseated for his free-tradeleaning by Senator Harrison, 1889; became the President a second time in1893; retired in 1897.

Cleveland, John, partisan of Charles I.; imprisoned for abetting theRoyalist cause against the Parliament, but after some time set at libertyin consequence of a letter he wrote to Cromwell pleading that he was apoor man, and that in his poverty he suffered enough; he was a poet, andused his satirical faculty in a political interest, one of his satiresbeing an onslaught on the Scots for betraying Charles I.;d. 1650.

Clèves (10), a Prussian town 46 m. NW. of Düsseldorf, once thecapital of a duchy connected by a canal with the Rhine; manufacturestextile fabrics and tobacco.

Clichy (30), a manufacturing suburb of Paris, on the NW. and rightbank of the Seine.

Clifford, George, Earl of Cumberland, a distinguished navalcommander under Queen Elizabeth, and one of her favourites (1558-1605).

Clifford, John, D.D., Baptist minister in London, author of “IsLife Worth Living?”b. 1836.

Clifford, Paul, a highwayman, the subject of a novel by BulwerLytton, who was subdued and reformed by the power of love.

Clifton (13), a fashionable suburb of Bristol, resorted to as awatering-place; romantically situated on the sides and crest of highcliffs, whence it name.

Climacteric, the Grand, the 63rd year of a man's life, and theaverage limit of it; a climacteric being every seven years of one's life,and reckoned critical.

Clinker, Humphry, the hero of Smollett's novel, a poor waif, reducedto want, who attracts the notice of Mr. Bramble, marries Mrs. Bramble'smaid, and proves a natural son of Mr. Bramble.

Clinton, George, American general and statesman; was governor of NewYork; became Vice-President in 1804 (1739-1812).

Clinton, Sir Henry, an English general; commanded in the Americanwar; censured for failure in the war; wrote an exculpation, which wasaccepted (1738-1795).

Clinton, Henry Fynes, a distinguished chronologist, author of “FastiHellenici” and “Fasti Romani” (1781-1852).

Clio, the muse of history and epic poetry, represented as seatedwith a half-opened scroll in her hand.

Clisson, Olivier de, constable of France under Charles VI.;companion in arms of Du Gueselin, and victor at Roosebeke (1326-1407).

Clisthenes, an Athenian, uncle of Pericles, procured the expulsionof Hippias the tyrant, 510 B.C., and the establishment ofOstracism (q. v.).

Clitus, a general of Alexander, and his friend, who saved his lifeat the battle of Granicus, but whom, at a banquet, he killed when heatedwith wine, to his inconsolable grief ever afterwards.

Clive, Robert, Lord Clive and Baron Plassey, the founder of thedominion of Britain in India, born in Shropshire; at 19 went out a clerkin the East India Company's service, but quitted his employment in thatcapacity for the army; distinguishing himself against the rajah ofTanjore, was appointed commissary; advised an attack on Arcot, in theCarnatic, in 1751; took it from and held it against the French, afterwhich, and other brilliant successes, he returned to England, and wasmade lieutenant-colonel in the king's service; went out again, andmarched against the nabob Surajah Dowlah, and overthrew him at the battleof Plassey, 1757; established the British power in Calcutta, and wasraised to the peerage; finally returned to England possessed of greatwealth, which exposed him to the accusation of having abused his power;the accusation failed; in his grief he took to opium, and committedsuicide (1725-1774).

Clodius, a profligate Roman patrician; notorious as the enemy ofCicero, whose banishment he procured; was killed by the tribune Milo, 52B.C.

Clodomir, the second son of Clovis, king of Orleans from 511 to 524;fell fighting with his rivals; his children, all but one, were put todeath by their uncles, Clotaire and Childebert.

Clootz, Anacharsis, Baron Jean Baptiste de Clootz, a FrenchRevolutionary, born at Clèves; “world-citizen”; his faith that “a worldfederation is possible, under all manner of customs, provided they holdmen”; his pronomen Anacharsis suggested by his resemblance to an ancientScythian prince who had like him a cosmopolitan spirit; was one of thefounders of the worship of Reason, and styled himself the “orator of thehuman race”; distinguished himself at the great Federation, celebratedon the Champ de Mars, by entering the hall on the great Federation Day,June 19, 1790, “with the human species at his heels”; was guillotinedunder protest in the name of the human race (1755-1794).

Clorinda, a female Saracen knight sent against the Crusaders, whomTancred fell in love with, but slew on an encounter at night; beforeexpiring she received Christian baptism at his hands.

Clotaire I., son and successor of Clovis, king of the Franks from558; cruel and sanguinary; along with Childebert murdered the sons of hisbrother Clodomir.C. II., son of Chilpéric and Fredigonda, king ofthe Franks from 613 to 628; caused Brunhilda to be torn in pieces.C.III., son of Clovis II., King of Neustria and Burgundy from 656 to670.C. IV., king of ditto from 717 to 720.

Clothes, Carlyle's name in “Sartor Resartus” for the guises whichthe spirit, especially of man, weaves for itself and wears, and by whichit both conceals itself in shame and reveals itself in grace.

Clotho, that one of the three Fates which spins the thread of humandestiny.

Clotilda, St., the wife of Clovis I.; persuaded her husband toprofess Christianity; retired into a monastery at Tours when he died(475-545). Festival, June 3.

Cloud, St., the patron saint of smiths.

Cloud, St., orClodoald, third son of Clodomir, who escaped thefate of his brothers, and retired from the world to a spot on the leftbank of the Seine, 6 m. SW. of Paris, named St. Cloud after him.

Clouds, The, the play in which Aristophanes exposes Socrates toridicule.

Clough, Arthur Hugh, a lyric poet, born at Liverpool; son of acotton merchant; educated at Rugby under Dr. Arnold, whom he held in thehighest regard; was at Oxford, as a Fellow of Oriel, at the time of theTractarian movement, which he arrayed himself against, and at lengthturned his back upon and tore himself away from by foreign travel; on hisreturn he was appointed examiner in the Education Office; falling illfrom overwork he went abroad again, and died at Florence; he was allalive to the tendencies of the time, and his lyrics show his sense ofthese, and how he fronted them; in the speculative scepticism of the timehis only refuge and safety-anchor was duty; Matthew Arnold has written inhis “Thyrsis” a tribute to his memory such as has been written over few;his best-known poem is “The Bothie of Tober-na-Vuolich” (1819-1861).

Clovis I., king of the Franks, son of ChildéricI.; conqueredthe Romans at Soissons 486, which he made his centre; marriedClotilda (q. v.) 493; beat the Germans near Cologne 496, byassistance, as he believed, of the God of Clotilda, after which he wasbaptized by St. Remi at Rheims; and overthrew the Visigoths under AlaricII. near Poitiers in 507, after which victories he made Paris hiscapital.C. II., son of Dagobert; was king of Neustria and Burgundyfrom 638 to 656.C. Ill, son of Thierry III., and king of ditto from691 to 695, and had Pépin d'Héristal for mayor of the palace.

Cluny (3), a town in the dep. of Saône-et-Loire, on an affluent ofthe Saône; renowned in the Middle Ages for its Benedictine abbey, foundedin 910, and the most celebrated in Europe, having been the motherestablishment of 2000 others of the like elsewhere; in ecclesiasticalimportance it stood second to Rome, and its abbey church second to noneprior to the erection of St. Peter's; a great normal school wasestablished here in 1865.

Clusium, the ancient capital of Etruria and Porsenna's.

Clutha, the largest river in New Zealand, in Otago, very deep andrapid, and 200 m. long.

Clutterbuck, the imaginary author of the “Fortunes of Nigel,” andthe patron to whom the “Abbot” is dedicated.

Clyde, a river in the W. of Scotland which falls into a large inletor firth, as it is called, the commerce on which extends over the world,and on the banks of which are shipbuilding yards second to none in anyother country; it is deepened as far as Glasgow for ships of a heavytonnage.

Clyde, Lord. SeeCampbell, Colin.

Clytemnestra, the wife of Agamemnon, and the mother of Iphigenia,Electra, and Orestes; killed her husband, and was killed by her son,Orestes, seven years after.

Clytie, a nymph in love with Apollo, god of the sun, who did notrespond to her; but, with all the passion he durst show to her, turnedher into a sunflower.

Coanza, a W. African river, which rises in the Mossamba Mountains,falling into the sea after a course of 600 m.; owing to falls isnavigable for only 140 m. from its mouth.

Coast Range, a range in the U.S., W. of the Sierra Nevada, parallelto it, with the Sacramento Valley between.

Cobbett, William, a political and miscellaneous writer, born atFarnham, Sussex; commenced life as a farm labourer, and then as copyingclerk; enlisted, and saw seven years' service in Nova Scotia; beingdischarged, travelled in France and America; on his return started theWeekly Register, at first Tory, then Radical; published a libel againstthe Government, for which he was imprisoned; on his release issued hisRegister at a low price, to the immense increase of its circulation;vain attempts were made to crush him, against which he never ceased toprotest; after the passing of the Reform Bill he got into Parliament, butmade no mark; his writings were numerous, and include his “Grammar,” his“Cottage Economy,” his “Rural Rides,” and his “Advice to Young Men”; hispolitical opinions were extreme, but his English was admirable(1762-1835).

Cobbler Poet,Hans Sachs (q. v.).

Cobden, Richard, a great political economist and the Apostle of FreeTrade, born near Midhurst, Sussex; became partner in a cotton-tradingfirm in Manchester; made a tour on the Continent and America in theinterest of political economy; on the formation of the Corn-Law League in1838, gave himself heart and soul to the abolition of the Corn Laws;became Member of Parliament for Stockport in 1841; on the conversion ofSir Robert Peel to Free-Trade principles saw these laws abolished in1846; for his services in this cause he received the homage of hiscountry as well as of Continental nations, but refused all civic honours,and finished his political career by negotiating a commercial treaty withFrance (1804-1865).

Cobentzell, Comte de, an Austrian diplomatist, born at Brussels;negotiated the treaties of Campo Formio and Lunéville; founded theAcademy of Sciences at Brussels (1753-1808).

Coblenz (32), a fortified city, manufacturing and trading town, inPrussia, at the junction of the Rhine and the Moselle, so called as atthe confluence of the two; opposite it is Ehrenbreitstein.

Coburg (18), capital of the duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, on the Itz,the old castle on a height 500 ft. above the town; gave shelter toLuther in 1530, and was besieged by Wallenstein.

Coburg, field-marshal of Austria; vanquished Dumouriez atNeerwinden; was conquered by Moreau and Jourdan (1737-1815).

Cocaine, an alkaloid from the leaf of the coca plant, used as ananæsthetic.

Cocceius, orKoch, Johann, a Dutch divine, professor at Leyden;held that the Old Testament was a type or foreshadow of the New, and wasthe founder of the federal theology, or the doctrine that God enteredinto a threefold compact with man, first prior to the law, second underthe law, and third under grace (1603-1669).

Cocceji, Henry, learned German jurist, born at Bremen; an authorityon civil law; was professor of law at Frankfurt (1644-1719).

Cocceji, Samuel, son of the preceding; Minister of Justice andChancellor of Prussia under Frederick the Great; a prince of lawyers, and“a very Hercules in cleansing law stables” as law-reformer (1679-1755).

Cochabamba (14), a high-lying city of Bolivia, capital of adepartment of the name; has a trade in grain and fruits.

Cochin (722), a native state in India N. of Travancore, cooped upbetween W. Ghâts and the Arabian Sea, with a capital of the same name,where Vasco da Gama died; the first Christian church in India was builthere, and there is here a colony of black Jews.

Cochin-China (2,034), the region E. of the Mekong, or Annam proper,calledHigh Cochin-China (capital Hué), andLow Cochin-China, aState S. of Indo-China, and S. of Cambodia and Annam; belonging toFrance, with an unhealthy climate; rice the chief crop; grows also teak,cotton, &c.; capital Saigon.

Cochlæus, Johann, an able and bitter antagonist of Luther's;d.1592.

Cochrane, the name of several English naval officers of theDundonald family;Sir Alexander Forrester Inglis (1758-1832);SirThomas John, his son (1798-1872); andThomas, Lord. SeeDundonald.

Cock Lane Ghost, a ghost which was reported in a lane of the name inSmithfield, London, in 1762, to the excitement of the public, due to agirl rapping on a board in bed.

Cockaigne, an imaginary land of idleness and luxury, from asatirical poem of that name (coquina, a kitchen), where the monks livein an abbey built of pasties, the rivers run with wine, and the geese flythrough the air ready roasted. The name has been applied to London andParis.

Cockatrice, a monster with the wings of a fowl, the tail of adragon, and the head of a cock; alleged to have been hatched by a serpentfrom a cock's egg; its breath and its fatal look are in mediæval art theemblem of sin.

Cockburn, Sir Alexander, Lord Chief-Justice of England from 1859;called to the bar in 1829; became Liberal member for Southampton in 1847,and Solicitor-General in 1850; was prosecutor in the Palmer case, judgein the Tichborne, and an arbitrator in theAlabama (1802-1880).

Cockburn, Alison, author of “Flowers of the Forest”; in her day theleader of Edinburgh society; was acquainted with Burns, and recognised inhis boyhood the genius of Scott (1713-1795).

Cockburn, Sir George, an English admiral, born in London; rose byrapid stages to be captain of a frigate; took an active part in theexpedition to the Scheldt, in the defence of Cadiz, and of the coast ofSpain; was second in command of the expedition against the United States;returned to England in 1815, and was selected to convey Napoleon to St.Helena (1771-1853).

Cockburn, Henry, Lord, an eminent Scotch judge, born in Edinburgh;called to the bar in 1800; one of the first contributors to theEdinburgh Review; was Solicitor-General for Scotland in 1830, andappointed a judge four years after; was a friend and colleague of LordJeffrey; wrote Jeffrey's Life, and left “Memorials of His Own Time” and“Journals”; he was a man of refined tastes, shrewd common-sense, quiethumour, and a great lover of his native city and its memories; describedby Carlyle as “a bright, cheery-voiced, hazel-eyed man; a Scotch dialectwith plenty of good logic in it, and of practical sagacity; a gentleman,and perfectly in the Scotch type, perhaps the very last of that peculiarspecies” (1779-1854).

Cocker, Edward, an arithmetician, and a schoolmaster by profession;wrote an arithmetic, published after his death, long the text-book on thesubject, and a model of its kind; gave rise to the phrase “according toCocker” (1631-1672).

Cockney, a word of uncertain derivation, but meaning one born andbred in London, and knowing little or nothing beyond it, and betrayinghis limits by his ideas, manners, and accent.

Cockney School, a literary school, so called by Lockhart, asinspired with the idea that London is the centre of civilisation, andincluding Leigh Hunt, Hazlitt, and others.

Cockpit of Europe, Belgium, as the scene of so many battles betweenthe Powers of Europe.

Cockton, Henry, a novelist, born in London, author of “ValentineVox” (1807-1853).

Cocles, Horatius, a Roman who defended a bridge against the army ofPorsenna till the bridge was cut down behind him, when he leapt into theriver and swam across scatheless amid the darts of the enemy.

Cocos Islands, a group of 20 small coral islands about 700 m. SW. ofSumatra.

Cocytus, a dark river which environed Tartarus with bitter and muddywaters.

Codrington, Sir Edward, a British admiral; entered the navy at 13;served under Howe at Brest, in the capacity of captain of theOrion atTrafalgar, in the Walcheren expedition, in North America, and at Navarinoin 1827, when the Turkish fleet was destroyed; served also in Parliamentfrom 1832 to 1839, when he was appointed Commander-in-Chief at Portsmouth(1770-1851).

Codrington, Sir William John, a British general; served in theCrimean war, and Commander-in-Chief after the death of General Simpson(1800-1884).

Codrus, the last king of Athens; sacrificed his life to fulfil anoracle, which promised victory to the side whose king fell in anengagement between the Athenians and Dorians in 1132 B.C.

Coehoorn, Baron van, a Dutch military engineer; fortified Namur, anddefended it against Vauban; was successful in besieging many towns duringthe war of the Spanish Succession; author of a treatise on fortification(1641-1704).

Coelebs (a bachelor), the title of a novel by Hannah More.

Coele-Syria (the Howe of Syria), orEl Buka'a, a valley betweenthe Lebanons, about 100 m. long by 10 m. broad.

Coelian, one of the seven hills of Rome, S. of the Capitoline.

Coello, the name of two Spanish painters in the 16th and 17thcenturies, whose works are in the Escurial.

Coeur, Jacques, a rich merchant of Bourges, financier to CharlesVII., for whom he provided the sinews of war against the English, but whobanished him at the instigation of detractors; he was reinstated underLouis XI. (1400-1456).

Coeur de Lion (lion-hearted), a surname on account of their couragegiven to Richard I. of England (1151), Louis VIII. of France (1181), andBoselas I. of Poland (960).

Cogito, ergo sum, “I think, therefore I am.” Descartes' principle ofcertainty, and on which, as on a stable basis, he reared his wholephilosophy. SeeDescartes. “Alas, poor cogitator,” Carlyleexclaims, “this takes us but a little way. Sure enough, I am; and latelywas not; but Whence? How? Whereto?”

Cognac (17), a French town in the dep. of Charente, birthplace ofFrancis I.; famous for its vines and the manufacture of brandy.

Cogniet, a French painter, author of “Tintoret painting his DeadDaughter” (1794-1880).

Coila, a poetic name for Kyle, the central district of Ayrshire.

Coimbatore (46), a town of strategic importance in the MadrasPresidency, 30 m. SW. of Madras, situated in a gorge of the Ghâts, 1437ft. above the sea-level, in a district (2,004) of the same name.

Coimbra (14), a rainy town in Portugal, of historical interest, 110m. NNE. of Lisbon, with a celebrated university, in which George Buchananwas a professor, where he was accused of heresy and thrown into prison,and where he translated the Psalms into Latin.

Coke, coal with a residue of carbon and earthy matter after thevolatile constituents are driven off by heat in closed spaces.

Coke, Sir Edward, Lord Chief-Justice of England, born at Milcham,Norfolk; being a learned lawyer, rose rapidly at the bar and in officesconnected therewith; became Lord Chief-Justice in 1613; was deposed in1617 for opposing the king's wishes; sat in his first and thirdParliaments, and took a leading part in drawing up the Petition ofRights; spent the last three years of his life in revising his works, his“Institutes,” known as “Coke upon Littleton,” and his valuable “Reports”(1549-1634).

Colbert, Jean Baptiste, a French statesman, of Scotch descent, bornin Rheims, the son of a clothier; introduced to Louis XIV. by Mazarin,then first minister; he was appointed Controller-General of the Financesafter the fall of Fouquet, and by degrees made his influence felt in allthe departments of State affairs; he favoured, by protectionistmeasures—free trade not yet being heard of—French industry andcommerce; was to the French marine what Louvois was to the army, andencouraged both arts and letters; from 1671 his influence began todecline; he was held responsible for increased taxation due to LouisXIV.'s wars, while the jealousy of Louvois weakened his credit at Court;he became so unpopular that on his death his body was buried at night,but a grateful posterity has recognised his services, and done homage tohis memory as one of the greatest ministers France ever had (1619-1683).

Colburn, Zerah, an American youth, with an astonishing power ofcalculation, born in Vermont, and exhibited as such, a faculty which helost when he grew up to manhood (1804-1840).

Colchester (35), the largest town in Essex, 51 m. from London, onthe right bank of the Colne, of great antiquity, and with Roman remains;has been long famous for its oyster fishery; has silk manufactures; isthe port of outlet of a large corn-growing district.

Colchester, Charles Abbot, Lord, English statesman; sometime ChiefSecretary of Ireland, and Speaker of the House of Commons; raised to thepeerage in response to an address of the House of Commons (1757-1829).

Colchis, a district on the E. of the Black Sea, and S. of Caucasus,where the Argonauts, according to Greek tradition, found and conqueredthe Golden Fleece; the natives had a reputation for witchcraft andsorcery.

Coldstream Guards, one of the three regiments of Foot Guards; wasraised by General Monk in Scotland in 1660, and marched under him fromColdstream to place Charles II. on the throne; originally called Monk'sregiment.

Cole, Henry an English ecclesiastical zealot, who held handsomepreferments under Henry VIII. and Mary, but was stripped of them underEdward VI. and Elizabeth.

Cole, King, a legendary jovial British king, celebrated in song.

Colebrooke, Henry Thomas, a celebrated Indianist, born in London;served under the East India Company, and devoted his spare time to Indianliterature; studied the Sanskrit language, wrote on the Vedas, translatedthe “Digest of Hindu Law” compiled by Sir William Jones, compiled aSanskrit Dictionary, and wrote various treatises on the law andphilosophy of the Hindus; he was one of the first scholars in Europe toreveal the treasures that lay hid in the literature of the East(1765-1837).

Colenso, Dr., an English clergyman and mathematician; was appointedbishop of Natal in 1845; applied himself to the study of the Zululanguage, and translated parts of the Bible and Prayer-book into it;calling in question the accuracy and Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch,was deposed by his metropolitan, which deposition was declared null andvoid by the Privy Council; besides his theological work, producedtext-books on arithmetic and algebra; died at Durban, Natal; he favouredthe cause of the Zulus against the Boers, and did his utmost to avert theZulu war (1814-1883).

Coleridge, Hartley, an English man of letters, eldest son of SamuelTaylor Coleridge, born at Clevedon, Somerset; lived with his father inthe Lake District, and grew up in the society of Wordsworth, De Quincey,and others; gained a Fellowship at Oxford, but forfeited it throughintemperance; tried school-mastering at Ambleside, but failed, and tookto literature, in which he did some excellent work, both in prose andpoetry, though he led all along a very irregular life; had his father'sweaknesses, and not a little of his ability; his best memorials as a poetare his sonnets, of which two have been especially admired, “The Soul ofMan is Larger than the Sky,” and “When I Survey the Course I have Run”(1796-1849).

Coleridge, Henry Nelson, nephew of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and agreat admirer; editor of many of his works, his “Table Talk” in especial(1800-1843).

Coleridge, John Duke, Lord, an English lawyer, cousin of HartleyColeridge; after serving in inferior appointments, appointed LordChief-Justice of England in 1880; when at the bar he was prominent inconnection with Tichborne case.

Coleridge, Sir John Taylor, an English judge, nephew of SamuelTaylor Coleridge; was editor of theQuarterly, edited “Blackstone,”&c.; wrote a “Memoir of the Rev. John Keble” (1790-1876).

Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, poet, philosopher, and critic, born inDevonshire; passionately devoted to classical and metaphysical studies;educated at Christ's Hospital; had Charles Lamb for schoolmate; atCambridge devoted himself to classics; falling into debt enlisted as asoldier, and was, after four months, bought off by his friends; gavehimself up to a literary life; married, and took up house nearWordsworth, in Somersetshire, where he produced the “Ancient Mariner,”“Christabel,” and “Remorse”; preached occasionally in Unitarian pulpits;visited Germany and other parts of the Continent; lectured in London in1808; when there took to opium, broke off the habit in 1816, and went tostay with the Gillmans at Highgate as their guest, under whose roof,after four years' confinement to a sick-room, he died; among his workswere “The Friend,” his “Biographia Literaria,” “Aids to Reflection,” &c.,published in his lifetime, and “Confessions of an Inquiring Spirit,”“Literary Remains,” and “Table Talk” after his death; he was a man ofsubtle and large intellect, and exercised a great influence on thethinkers of his time, though in no case was the influence a decisive one,as it had the most opposite effects on different minds; his philosophywas hazy, and his life was without aim, “once more the tragic story of ahigh endowment with an insufficient will” (1772-1834). See Carlyle'sestimate of him in the “Life of Sterling.”

Coleridge, Sarah, poetess, only daughter of preceding; her solepoem, “Phantasmion”; left “Letters” of interest (1803-1852).

Coles, Cowper Phipps, an English naval captain and architect;entered the navy at 11; distinguished himself at Sebastopol; designer ofthe turret-ship theCaptain, which capsized off Finisterre, himself onboard, and drowned with a crew of 500 men (1819-1870).

Colet, John, dean of St. Paul's, a patron of learning, a friend andscholar of Erasmus, a liberal and much persecuted man; far in advance ofhis time; founded and endowed St. Paul's School; wrote a number of works,chiefly theological, and “Letters to Erasmus”' (1466-1519).

Colet, Louise, a French literary lady, born at Aix; wrote numerousworks for the young (1808-1876).

Coligny, Gaspard de, French admiral, born at Châtillon; a leader ofthe Huguenots; began his life and distinguished himself as a soldier;when the Guises came into power he busied himself in procuring tolerationfor the Huguenots, and succeeded in securing in their behalf what isknown as the Pacification of Amboise, but on St. Bartholomew's Eve hefell the first victim to the conspiracy in his bed; was thrown out of thewindow, and exposed to every manner of indignity in the streets, thoughit is hard to believe that the Duke of Guise, as is said, demeanedhimself to kick the still living body (1517-1572).

Colima (25), capital of a State of the same name in Mexico.

Colin Clout, the name Spenser assumes in the “Shepherd's Calendar.”

Colin Tampon, the nickname of a Swiss, as John Bull of anEnglishman.

Colise`um, a magnificent amphitheatre in Rome, begun under Vespasianand finished under Titus; it rose from the area by 80 tiers of seats, andcould contain 80,000 spectators; it was here the gladiators fought withwild beasts, and also the early Christians.

Collatinus, the nephew of Tarquinius Priscus, the husband ofLucretia, and with Brutus, her avenger, the first consul of Rome.

Collectivism, the Socialistic doctrine that industry should becarried on by capital as the joint property of the community.

Collège de France, an institution founded at Paris by Francis I. in1530, where instruction is given to advanced students in severaldepartments of knowledge.

Collier, Arthur, an English metaphysician, born in Wilts; studiedDescartes and Malebranche, and who, anticipating Berkeley, published a“Demonstration of the Non-Existence and the Impossibility of an ExternalWorld” (1680-1732). SeeBerkeley.

Collier, Jeremy, an English non-juring divine, refused to take oathat the Revolution; was imprisoned for advocating the rights of theStuarts; had to flee the country at length, and was outlawed; wrote witheffect against “The Profaneness and Immorality of the Stage,” as well asan “Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain,” and a translation of the“Meditations of Marcus Aurelius” (1650-1726).

Collier, John Payne, a Shakespearian commentator and critic; wrote agreat deal on various subjects, but got into trouble by his emendationsof Shakespeare (1789-1883).

Collingwood, Cuthbert, Lord, a celebrated English admiral, enteredthe navy at 13; his career was intimately connected all along with thatof Nelson; succeeded in command when Nelson fell at Trafalgar, and whenhe died himself, which happened at sea, his body was brought home andburied beside Nelson's in St. Paul's Cathedral (1740-1810).

Collins, Anthony, an English deist, an intimate friend of Locke; hisprincipal works were “Discourse on Freethinking,” “Philosophical Inquiryinto Liberty and Necessity,” and “Grounds and Reasons of the ChristianReligion,” which gave rise to much controversy; he was a necessitarian,and argued against revelation (1676-1729).

Collins, Mortimer, a versatile genius, born at Plymouth; wrotepoems, novels, and essays; was the author of “Who was the Heir?” and“Sweet Anne Page”; was a tall, handsome man, fond of athletics, adelightful companion, and dear to his friends (1827-1876).

Collins, Wilkie, English novelist, son of the succeeding, born inLondon; tried business, then law, and finally settled to literature; hisnovel “The Woman in White” was the first to take with the public, and waspreceded and succeeded by others which have ensured for him a high placeamong the writers of fiction (1824-1889).

Collins, William, a gifted and ill-fated English poet, born atChichester; settled in London; fell into dissipated habits and straitenedcircumstances; had £2000 left him by an uncle, but both health andspirits were broken, and he died in mental imbecility; his “Odes” havenot been surpassed, among which the most celebrated are the “Odes to thePassions,” to “Simplicity,” and to “Evening” (1720-1756).

Collins, William, R.A., a distinguished English painter, born inLondon; he made his reputation by his treatment of coast and cottagescenes, and though he tried his skill in other subjects, it was in thesubjects he started with that he achieved his greatest triumphs; amonghis best-known works are “The Blackberry Gatherers,” “As Happy as aKing,” “The Fisherman's Daughter,” and “The Bird-Catchers” (1788-1847).

Collinson, Peter, an English horticulturist, to whom we are indebtedfor the introduction into the country of many ornamental shrubs(1694-1768).

Collot d'Herbois, Jean Marie, a violent French Revolutionary,originally a tragic actor, once hissed off the Lyons stage, “tearing apassion to rags”; had his revenge by a wholesale butchery there; marched209 men across the Rhône to be shot; by-and-by was banished beyond seasto Cayenne, and soon died there (1750-1790).

Collyer, Joseph, an eminent stipple engraver, born in London(1768-1827).

Colman, George, an English dramatist, born at Florence; bred for andcalled to the bar; author of a comedy entitled “The Jealous Wife,” alsoof “The Clandestine Marriage”; became manager of Drury Lane, then of theHaymarket (1733-1794).

Colman, George, son of the preceding, and his successor in theHaymarket; author of “The Iron Chest,” “John Bull,” “The Heir at Law,”&c. (1762-1836).

Colmar (30), the chief town of Upper Alsace, on the Lauch, on aplain near the Vosges, 42 m. SW. of Strasburg; passed into the hands ofthe French by treaty of Ryswick in 1697, was ceded to Germany in 1871.

Colocetronis, a Greek patriot, born in Messina, distinguishedhimself in the War of Independence, which he chiefly contributed to carrythrough to a successful issue (1770-1843).

Cologne (282), in GermanKöln, capital of Rhenish Prussia, anda fortress of first rank, on the left bank of the Rhine, 175 m. SE. ofRotterdam; is a busy commercial city, and is engaged in eau-de-Cologne,sugar, tobacco, and other manufactures. It has some fine old buildings,and a picture gallery; but its glory is its great cathedral, founded inthe 9th century, burnt in 1248, since which time the rebuilding wascarried on at intervals, and only completed in 1880; it is one of themasterpieces of Gothic architecture.

Cologne, The Three Kings of, the three Magi who paid homage to theinfant Christ, and whose bones were consigned to the archbishop in 1164;they were called Gaspar, Melchior, and Balthazar.

Colombia (4,000), a federal republic of nine States, occupying theisthmus of Panama and the NW. corner of S. America, between Venezuela andEcuador. The country, nearly three times the size of France, though ithas only a ninth of the population, comprises in the W. three chains ofthe Andes and the plateaus between them, in the E. plains well watered bytributaries of the Orinoco. The upper valleys of the Magdalena and Caucaare the centres of population, where the climate is delightful, and graingrows. Every climate is found in Colombia, from the tropical heats of theplains to the Arctic cold of the mountains. Natural productions are asvarious: the exports include valuable timbers and dye-woods, cinchonabark, coffee, cacao, cotton, and silver ore. Most of the trade is withBritain and the United States. Manufactures are inconsiderable. Themineral wealth is very great, but little wrought. The Panama Railway,from Colon to Panama, connects the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans, andis a most important highway of commerce. The people are descendants ofSpaniards and Indians; education is meagre, but compulsory; the StateChurch is Roman Catholic. The capital is Bogotá. Panama and Cartagena thechief ports.

Colombo (126), the capital of Ceylon, and the chief port on the W.coast; it is surrounded on three sides by the sea, and on the other by alake and moat; is supplied with water and gas; has many fine buildings;has a very mixed population, and has belonged to Britain since 1796;communicates with Kandy by railway.

Colon, a town at the Atlantic terminus of the Panama Railway. SeeAspinwall.

Colonna, an illustrious Italian family, to which belonged popes,cardinals, and generals.

Colonna, Victoria, a poetess, married to a member of the abovefamily, who consoled herself for his early death by cultivating herpoetic gift; one of her most devoted friends was Michael Angelo(1490-1547).

Colonne, Edouard, musical conductor, born at Bordeaux, conductor ofwhat are known as “Colonne Concerts”;b. 1838.

Colonus, a demos of Attica, a mile NW. of Athens, the birthplace ofSophocles.

Colophon, an Ionian city in Asia Minor, N. of Ephesus, is supposedto give name to the device at the end of books, the cavalry of the placebeing famous for giving the finishing stroke to a battle.

Colora`do (412), an inland State of the American Union, traversed bythe Rocky Mountains, and watered by the upper reaches of the S. Platteand Arkansas Rivers, is twice as large as England. The mountains are thehighest in the States (13,000 to 14,000 ft.), are traversed by loftypasses through which the railways run, have rich spacious valleys orparks among them, and have great deposits of gold, silver, lead, andiron. There are also extensive coal-beds; hence the leading industriesare mining and iron working. The eastern portion is a level, treelessplain, adapted for grazing. Agriculture, carried on with irrigation,suffers from insect plagues like the Colorado potato beetle. The climateis dry and clear, and attracts invalids. Acquired partly from France in1804, and the rest from Mexico in 1848; the territory was organised in1861, and admitted to the Union in 1876. The capital is Denver (107).There is a small Spanish-speaking population in the S.

Colossæ, a city in the S. of Phrygia, in Asia Minor, and the site ofone of the earliest Christian churches.

Colossians, The Epistle to the, by St. Paul, directed mainly againsttwo errors of that early date, that the fleshly nature of man is noadequate vehicle for the reception and revelation of the divine nature,and that for redemption recourse must be had to direct mortification ofthe flesh.

Colossus, any gigantic statue, specially one of Apollo in bronze,120 ft. high, astride over the mouth of the harbour at Rhodes, reckonedone of the seven wonders of the world, erected in 280 B.C., destroyed byan earthquake 56 years after, and sold to a Jew centuries later for oldmetal; besides this are celebrated the statue of Memnon at Thebes, theColossi of Athene in the Parthenon at Athens, and of Zeus at Olympia andat Tarentum, as well as others of modern date; for instance, Germania,112 ft. high, in the Niederwald, and Liberty enlightening the World, 160ft. high, in New York harbour.

Colot, the name of a family of French surgeons in the 16th and 17thcentury, distinguished for their skill in operating in the case of stone.

Colour-blindness, inability, still unaccounted for, to distinguishbetween colours, and especially between red and green, more common amongmen than women; a serious disqualification for several occupations, suchas those connected with the study of signals.

Colour-sergeant, a sergeant whose duty is to guard the colours andthose who carry them.

Colquhoun, John, a noted sportsman and writer on sport in Scotland,born in Edinburgh (1805-1885).

Colston, Edward, an English philanthropist, founded and endowed aschool in Bristol for the education of 100 boys, as well as almshouseselsewhere (1636-1721).

Colt, Samuel, the inventor of the revolver, born in Hartford,Connecticut, U.S.; having difficulty in raising money to carry out hisinvention it proved a commercial failure, but being adopted by theGovernment in the Mexican war it proved a success, since which time ithas been everywhere in use (1814-1862).

Columba, St., the apostle of Christianity to the Scots, born inDonegal; coming to Scotland about 563, in his forty-second year, foundeda monastery in Iona, and made it the centre of his evangelisticoperations, in which work he was occupied incessantly till 596, when hishealth began to fail, and he breathed his last kneeling before the altar,June 9, 597.

Columban, St., an Irish missionary, who, with twelve companions,settled in Gaul in 585; founded two monasteries, but was banished for theoffence of rebuking the king; went to Italy, founded a monastery atBobbio, where he died 616.

Columbia, a district of 70 sq. m. in the State of Maryland, U.S.,in which Washington, the capital of the Union, stands.

Columbia, British (100), the most westerly province in Canada, liesbetween the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific, the United States andAlaska, and is four times the size of Great Britain. It is a mountainouscountry, rugged and picturesque, containing the highest peaks on thecontinent, Mount Hooker, 15,700 ft., and Mount Brown, 16,000 ft, with arichly indented coast-line, off which lie Queen Charlotte Islands andVancouver. The chief river is the Frazer, which flows from the Lakeregion southwards through the centre and then westward to the Gulf ofGeorgia; the upper waters of the Columbia flow southward through the E.of the State. The climate resembles that of northern England, but is insome parts very rainy. The chief industries are lumbering—the forestsare among the finest in the world, fishing—the rivers abound in salmonand sturgeon, and mining—rich deposits of gold, silver, iron, copper,mercury, antimony, and many other valuable minerals are found; there aregreat coal-fields in Vancouver. In Vancouver and in the river valleys ofthe mainland are extensive tracts of arable and grazing land; but neitheragriculture nor manufactures are much developed. Made a Crown colony in1858, it joined the Dominion as a province in 1871. The completion of theCanadian Pacific Railway in 1885 joined it to the eastern provinces. Thecapital is Victoria (17), in the S. of Vancouver.

Columbus (125), capital of Ohio, U.S., a manufacturing town.

Columbus, Bartholomew, cosmographer, brother of ChristopherColumbus; accompanied him to St. Domingo, and became governor;d. 1514.

Columbus, Christopher, discoverer of America, on Oct. 12, 1492,after two months of great peril and, in the end, mutiny of his men, bornin Genoa; went to sea at 14; cherished, if he did not conceive, the ideaof reaching India by sailing westward; applied in many quarters forfurtherance; after seven years of waiting, was provided with three smallvessels and a crew of 120 men; first touched land at the Bahamas, visitedCuba and Hayti, and returned home with spoils of the land; was hailed andhonoured as King of the Sea; he made three subsequent visits, and on thethird had the satisfaction of landing on the mainland, which SebastianCabot and Amerigo Vespucci had reached before him; he became at last thevictim of jealousy, and charges were made against him, which so cut himto the heart that he never rallied from the attack, and he died atValladolid, broken in body and in soul; Carlyle, in a famous passage,salutes him across the centuries: “Brave sea-captain, Norse sea-king,Columbus my hero, royalist sea-king of all” (1438-1506).

Columella, Junius, a Latin writer of the 1st century, born at Cadiz;author of “De Re Rustica,” in 12 books, on the same theme as Virgil's“Georgics,” viz., agriculture and gardening; he wrote also “DeArboribus,” on trees.

Colu`thus, a Greek epic poet of 6th century, born in Egypt; wrotethe “Rape of Helen.”

Colvin, Sidney, Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, SladeProfessor of Art at Cambridge, born at Norwood; contributor to thejournals on art and literature; has written Lives of Keats and Landor;friend of Robert Louis Stevenson, and his literary executor;b. 1845.

Comacchio (10), a walled town, 30 m. SE. of Ferrara; famous forfish, specially eel-culture in a large lagoon adjoining, 90 in. incircumference.

Combe, Andrew, M.D., a physician and physiologist, born inEdinburgh; studied under Spurzheim in Edinburgh and Paris, but on hisreturn to his native city was seized with pulmonary consumption, whichrendered him a confirmed invalid, so that he had to spend his wintersabroad; was eminent as a physician; was a believer in phrenology;produced three excellent popular works on Physiology, Digestion, and theManagement of Infancy (1797-1847).

Combe, George, brother of the preceding, born in Edinburgh; trainedto the legal profession; like his brother, he became, under Spurzheim, astanch phrenologist and advocate of phrenology; but his ablest andbest-known work was “The Constitution of Man,” to the advocacy of theprinciples of which and their application, especially to education, hedevoted his life; he married a daughter of the celebrated Mrs. Siddons(1788-1858).

Combe, William, born in Bristol; author of the “Three Tours of Dr.Syntax”; inherited a small fortune, which he squandered by an irregularlife; wrote some 86 works (1741-1823).

Combermere, Viscount, a British field-marshal, born in Denbighshire;served in Flanders, at the Cape of Good Hope, and in India; was presentat the siege of Seringapatam; was sent to Spain in 1808; distinguishedhimself in the Peninsula, and particularly at Talavera; received apeerage in 1827; was made commander-in-chief in India, and Constable ofthe Tower in succession to Wellington in 1832 (1773-1865).

Comenius, John Amos, a Moravian educational reformer, particularlyas regards the acquisition of languages in their connection with thethings they denote; his two most famous books are his “Janua Linguarum”and his “Orbis Sensualium Pictus”; his principle at bottom was, wordsmust answer to and be associated with things and ideas of things, aprinciple still only very partially adopted in education, and that onlyat the most elementary stages.

Comet, a member of the solar system under control of the sun,consisting of a bright nucleus within a nebulous envelope, generallyextended into a tail on the rear of its orbit, which is extremelyeccentric, pursuing its course with a velocity which increases as itapproaches the sun, and which diminishes as it withdraws from it; thesebodies are very numerous, have their respective periods of revolution,which have been in many cases determined by observation.

Comines, a French town in the dep. of Nord, France, 15 m. SW. ofCourtrai.

Comines, Philippe de, a French chronicler, born at Comines; was ofFlemish origin; served under Charles the Bold, then under Louis XI. andCharles VIII.; author of “Memoires,” in seven vols., of the reigns ofthese two monarchs, which give a clear and faithful picture of the timeand the chief actors in it, but with the coolest indifference as to themoral elements at work, with him the end justifying the means, andsuccess the measure of morality (1443-1509).

Comitia, constitutional assemblies of the Roman citizens forelecting magistrates, putting some question to the vote of the people,the declaration of war, &c.

Comity of nations, the name given for the effect given in onecountry to the laws and institutions of another in dealing with a nativeof it.

Commandite, Société en, partnership in a business by a supply offunds, but without a share in the management or incurring furtherliability.

Commelin, Isaac, Dutch historian; wrote the “Lives of theStadtholders William I. and Maurice” (1598-1676).

Commentaries of Julius Cæsar, his memoirs of the Gallic and CivilWars, reckoned the most perfect model of narration that in suchcircumstances was ever written, and a masterpiece.

Committee of Public Safety, a committee of nine created by theFrench Convention, April 6, 1793, to concentrate the power of theexecutive, “the conscience of Marat, who could see salvation in one thingonly, in the fall of 260,000 aristocrats' heads”; notable, therefore, forits excesses in that line; was not suppressed till Oct. 19, 1796, on theadvent of the Directory to power.

Com`modus, Lucius Aurelius, Roman emperor, son and successor ofMarcus Aurelius; carefully trained, but on his father's death threw upthe reins and gave himself over to every form of licentiousness; poisonadministered by his mistress Marcia being slow in operating, he wasstrangled to death by a hired athlete in 162.

Common Law is law established by usage and confirmed by judicialdecision.

Common-sense, Philosophy of, the philosophy which rests on theprinciple that the perceptions of the senses reflect things as theyactually are irrespectively of them.

Commune, The, a revolutionary power installed in Paris after the“admonitory” insurrection of March 18, 1871, and overthrown in the end ofMay.

Communism, community of property in a State.

Comne`nus, name of a dynasty of six emperors of Constantinople.

Como, Lake of, one of the chief lakes of Lombardy and the third insize, at the foot of the Pennine Alps, 80 m. long and 2½ at greatestbreadth; is traversed by the Adda, and is famed for the beauty and richvariety of its scenery.

Comorin, Cape, a low sandy point, the most southerly of India, fromwhich the seaman is beckoned off by a peak 18 m. inland.

Comoro Isles (63), an archipelago of four volcanic islands at the N.of the channel of Mozambique; under the protectorate of France since1886; the people are Mohammedans, and speak Arabic.

Comparetti, an Italian philologist; his writings are numerous;b.1835.

Compiègne (14), a quiet old town in the dep. of Oise, 50 m. NE. ofParis; has some fine old churches, but the chief edifice is the palace,built by St. Louis and rebuilt by Louis XIV., where the marriage ofNapoleon to Maria Louisa was celebrated; here Joan of Arc was madeprisoner in 1430, and Louis Napoleon had hunting ground.

Compton, Henry, bishop of London, son of the Earl of Northampton;fought bravely for Charles I.; was colonel of dragoons at theRestoration; left the army for the Church; was made bishop; crownedWilliam and Mary when the archbishop, Sancroft, refused;d. 1713.

Comrie (8), a village in Perthshire, on the Earn, 20 m. W. of Perth,in a beautiful district of country; subject to earthquakes from time totime; birthplace of George Gilfillan.

Comte, Auguste, a French philosopher, born at Montpellier, thefounder ofPositivism (q. v.); enough to say here, it consistedof a new arrangement of the sciences into Abstract and Concrete, and anew law of historical evolution in science from a theological through ametaphysical to a positive stage, which last is the ultimate and crowningand alone legitimate method, that is, observation of phenomena and theirsequence; Comte was first a disciple of St. Simon, but he quarrelled withhim; commenced a “Cours de Philosophie Positive” of his own, in sixvols.; but finding it defective on the moral side, he instituted aworship of humanity, and gave himself out as the chief priest of a newreligion, a very different thing from Carlyle's hero-worship (1795-1857).

Comus, the Roman deity who presided over festive revelries; thetitle of a poem by Milton, “the most exquisite of English or any masks.”

Comyn, John (the Black Comyn), Lord of Badenoch, a Scottish noble ofFrench descent, his ancestor, born at Comines, having come over with theConqueror and got lands given him; was one of the competitors for theScottish crown in 1291, and lost it.

Comyn, John (the Red Comyn), son of the preceding; as one of thethree Wardens of Scotland defended it against the English, whom hedefeated at Roslin; but in 1304 submitted to Edward I., and falling undersuspicion of Bruce, was stabbed by him in a monastery at Dumfries in1306.

Concepcion (24), a town in Chile, S. of Valparaiso, with its port,Talcahuano, 7 m. off, one of the safest and most commodious in thecountry, and ranks next to Valparaiso as a trading centre.

Conception of our Lady, an order of nuns founded in Portugal in1484; at first followed the rule of the Cistercians, but afterwards thatof St. Clare.

Conciergerie, a prison in the Palais de Justice, Paris.

Conclave, properly the room, generally in the Vatican, where thecardinals are confined under lock and key while electing a Pope.

Concord, a town in U.S., 23 m. NW. of Boston; was the residence ofEmerson, Thoreau, and Hawthorne; here the first engagement took place inthe American war in 1775.

Concord (17), capital of New Hampshire, U.S., a thriving tradingplace.

Concordat, The, a convention of July 15, 1801, between Bonaparte andPius V., regulative of the relations of France with the Holy See.

Concorde, Place de la, a celebrated public place, formed by LouisXV. in 1748, adorned by a statue of him; at the Revolution it was calledPlace de la Revolution; here Louis XVI. and his queen were guillotined.

Concordia, the Roman goddess of peace, to whom Camillus the dictatorin 367 B.C. dedicated a temple on the conclusion of the strife betweenthe patricians and plebeians.

Condé, Henry I., Prince of, fought in the ranks of the Huguenots,but escaped the massacre of St. Bartholomew by an oath of abjuration(1552-1588).

Condé, House of, a collateral branch of the house of Bourbon, themembers of which played all along a conspicuous rôle in the history ofFrance.

Condé, Louis I., Prince of, founder of the house of Condé, a brave,gallant man, though deformed; distinguished himself in the wars betweenHenry II. and Charles V., particularly in the defence of Metz; affrontedat court, and obnoxious to the Guises, he became a Protestant, and joinedhis brother the king of Navarre; became the head of the party, and wastreacherously killed after the battle of Jarnac; he had been party,however, to the conspiracy of Amboise, which aimed a death-blow at theGuises (1530-1569).

Condé, Louis II., Prince of, named “the Great Condé,” born at Paris;was carefully educated; acquired a taste for literature, which stood himin good stead at the end of his career; made his reputation by hisvictory over the Spaniards at Recroi; distinguished himself at Fribourg,Nordlingen, and Lens; the settlement of the troubles of the Frondealienated him, so that he entered the service of Spain, and servedagainst his country, but was by-and-by reconciled; led the French army tosuccess in Franche-Comté and Holland, and soon after retired toChantilly, where he enjoyed the society of such men as Molière, Boileau,and La Bruyère, and when he died Bossuet pronounced a funeral orationover his grave (1621-1686).

Condé, Louis Joseph, Prince de, born at Chantilly; served in theSeven Years' War; attended in the antechamber in the palace when LouisXV. lay dying; was one of the first to emigrate on the fall of theBastille; seized every opportunity to save the monarchy; was declared atraitor to the country, and had his estates confiscated for threateningto restore Louis XVI.; organised troops to aid in the Restoration;settled at Malmesbury, in England, during the Empire; returned to Francewith Louis XVIII. (1736-1818).

Condillac, Étienne Bonnot, a French philosopher, born at Grenoble,of good birth; commenced as a disciple of Locke, but went further, forwhereas Locke was content to deduce empirical knowledge from sensationand reflection, he deduced reflection from sensation, and laid thefoundation of a sensationalism which, in the hands of his successors,went further still, and swamped the internal in the external, and whichis now approaching the stage of self-cancelling zero; he lived as arecluse, and had Rousseau and Diderot for intimate friends (1715-1780).

Conditional Immortality, the doctrine that only believers in Christhave any future existence, a dogma founded on certain isolated passagesof Scripture.

Condorcet, Marquis de, a French mathematician and philosopher, bornnear St. Quentin; contributed to the “Encyclopédie”; was of theEncyclopedist school; took sides with the Revolutionary party in theinterest of progress; voted with the Girondists usually; suspected by theextreme party; was not safe even under concealment; “skulked round Parisin thickets and stone-quarries; entered a tavern one bleared May morning,ragged, rough-bearded, hunger-stricken, and asked for breakfast; having aLatin Horace about him was suspected and haled to prison, breakfastunfinished; fainted by the way with exhaustion; was flung into a dampcell, and found next morning lying dead on the floor”; his works arevoluminous, and the best known is his “Exquisse du Progrès de l'EspritHumain”; he was not an original thinker, but a clear expositor(1743-1794).

Condottie`ri, leaders of Italian free-lances, who in the 14th and15th centuries lived by plunder or hired themselves to others for a sharein the spoils.

Confederate States, 11 Southern States of the American Union, whichseceded in 1861 on the question of slavery, and which occasioned a civilwar that lasted till 1865.

Confederation of the Rhine, a confederation of 16 German States,which in 1806 dissolved their connection with Germany and leagued withFrance, and which lasted till disaster overtook Napoleon in Russia, andthen broke up; the Germanic Confederation, or union of all the States,took its place, till it too was dissolved by the defeat of Austria in1866, and which gave ascendency to Prussia and ensured the erection ofthe German empire on its ruins.

Conference, a stated meeting of Wesleyan ministers for thetransaction of the business of their Church.

Confessions of Faith, are statements of doctrine very similar toCreeds, but usually longer and polemical, as well as didactic; they arein the main, though not exclusively, associated with Protestantism; the16th century produced many, including theSixty-seven Articles of theSwiss reformers, drawn up by Zwingli in 1523; theAugsburg Confessionof 1530, the work of Luther and Melanchthon, which marked the breach withRome; theTetrapolitan Confession of the German Reformed Church, 1530;theGallican Confession, 1559; and theBelgic Confession of 1561. InBritain theScots Confession, drawn up by John Knox in 1560; theThirty-nine Articles of the Church of England in 1562; theIrishArticles in 1615; and theWestminster Confession of Faith in 1647;this last, the work of the Westminster Assembly of Divines, has by itsforce of language, logical statement, comprehensiveness, and dependenceon Scripture, commended itself to the Presbyterian Churches of allEnglish-speaking peoples, and is the most widely recognised Protestantstatement of doctrine; it has as yet been modified only by the UnitedPresbyterian Church of Scotland, which adopted a Declaratory Statementregarding certain of its doctrines in 1879, and by the Free Church ofScotland, which adopted a similar statement in 1890.

Confessions of Rousseau, memoirs published after his death in 1788,in which that writer makes confession of much that was good in him andmuch that was bad.

Confessions of St. Augustine, an account which that Father of theChurch gives of the errors of his youth and his subsequent conversion.

Confucius, the Latin form of the name of the great sage of China,Kung Futsze, and the founder of a religion which is based on the worshipand practice of morality as exemplified in the lives and teachings of thewise men who have gone before, and who, as he conceived, have made theworld what it is, and have left it to posterity to build upon the samebasis; while he lived he was held in greater and greater honour bymultitudes of disciples, till on his death he became an object ofworship, and even his descendants came to be regarded as a kind of sacredcaste; he flourished about 550 B.C.

Congé d'élire, a warrant granted by the Crown to the dean andchapter of a cathedral to elect a particular bishop to a vacant see.

Congo, the second in length and largest in volume of the Africanrivers, rises NE. of the Muchinga Mountains in Rhodesia, flows SW.through Lake Bangueola, then N. to the equator; curving in a greatsemicircle it continues SW., passes in a series of rapids through thecoast range, and enters the S. Atlantic by an estuary 6 m. broad. Itbrings down more water than the other African rivers put together. Thelargest affluents are the Kassai on the left, and the Mobangi on theright bank; 110 m. are navigable to ocean steamers, then the cataractsintervene, and 250 m. of railway promote transit; the upper river is 2 to4 m. broad, and navigable for small craft up to Stanley Falls, 1068 m.The name most associated with its exploration is H. M. Stanley; duringits course of 3000 m. it bears several names.

Congo, French (5,000), a continuous and connected territoryextending westward along the right bank of the Congo from Brazzaville tothe mouth of the Mobangi, and as far as 4° N. run N. behind theCameroons, and along the E. of Shari to Lake Tchad.

Congo Free State embraces most of the basin of the Congo, touchingBritish territory in Uganda and Rhodesia, with a very narrow outlet tothe Atlantic at the river mouth. It is under the sovereignty of LeopoldII. of Belgium, who, in 1890, made over his rights to Belgium with powerto annex the State in 1900. It is nine times the size of Great Britain,and continual native unrest gives great trouble to its administrators.Its waters are open to all nations, and traders exchange manufacturedgoods for ivory, palm-oil, coffee and caoutchouc, bees-wax and fruits.The climate is tropical, on the lower levels malarial. The population isfrom 20 to 40 millions. The centre of administration is Boma, 80 m. fromthe sea.

Congregationalism, the ecclesiastical system which regards eachcongregation of believers in Christ a church complete in itself, and freefrom the control of the other Christian communities, and which extends toeach member equal privileges as a member of Christ's body. It took itsrise in England about 1571, and the most prominent name connected withits establishment is that ofRobert Brown (q. v.), who secededfrom the Church of England and formed a church in Norwich in 1580. Thebody was called Brownists after him, and Separatists, as well as“Independents.” The several congregations are now united in what iscalled “The Congregational Union of England and Wales.”

Congress is a diplomatic conference at which the representatives ofsovereign States discuss matters of importance to their severalcountries, the most celebrated of which are those of Münster andOsnabrück, which issued in the treaty of Westphalia in 1648, at the endof the Thirty Years' War; of Rastadt, at the end of Spanish SuccessionWar, in 1797; of Vienna, at the end of Napoleon's wars, in 1815; ofParis, in 1856, at the end of Russian War; and of Berlin, in 1878, at theend of Russo-Turkish war; but the name has come to be applied in federalrepublics to the legislative assembly which directs national as distinctfrom State concerns. In the United States, Congress consists of theSenate, elected by the State legislatures and the House ofRepresentatives, elected directly by the people. It meets on the firstMonday in December, and receives the President's message for the year. Itimposes taxes, contracts loans, provides for national defence, declareswar, looks after the general welfare, establishes postal communication,coins money, fixes weights and measures, &c. &c., but it is prohibitedfrom preferential treatment of the several States, establishing orinterfering with religion, curtailing freedom of speech, or pursuingtowards any citizen, even under legal forms, a course of conduct which isunjust or even oppressive.

Congress, the Belgian Constituent Assembly, 1830-1831.

Congreve, Richard, author of political tracts, was a pupil of Dr.Arnold's, and a disciple of Comte in philosophy;b. 1818.

Congreve, William, English comic dramatist, born near Leeds; entereda student of the Middle Temple, but soon abandoned law for literature;the “Old Bachelor” first brought him into repute, and a commissionershipof substantial value; the production of “Love for Love” and the “MourningBride,” a stilted tragedy, added immensely to his popularity, but hiscomedy “The Way of the World” being coldly received, he gave up writingplays, and only wrote a few verses afterwards; he was held in greatesteem by his contemporaries, among others Dryden, Pope, and Steele(1670-1729).

Congreve, Sir William, an English artillery officer, inventor of therocket which bears his name (1772-1828).

Coningsby, a novel by Disraeli.

Conington, John, classical scholar and professor of Latin at Oxford,born at Boston, translator of the “Æneid” of Virgil, “Odes, Satires, andEpistles” of Horace, and 12 books of the “Iliad” into verse, as well asof other classics; his greatest work is his edition of “Virgil”(1823-1869).

Conisburgh Castle, an old round castle referred to in “Ivanhoe,” 5in. SW. of Doncaster.

Coniston Water, a lake 5 m. long and ½ m. broad, at the foot ofConiston Fells, in Lancashire, with Brantwood on the E. side of it, theresidence of John Ruskin.

Conkling, Roscoe, an American politician, a leading man on theRepublican side; was a member of the House of Representatives, and alsoof the Senate; retired from politics, and practised law at New York(1828-1888).

Connaught (724), a western province of Ireland, 105 m. long and 92m. broad, divided into five counties; is the smallest and most barren ofthe provinces, but abounds in picturesque scenery; the people are pureCelts.

Connaught, Duke of, the third son of Queen Victoria, bred for thearmy, has held several military appointments; was promoted to the rank ofgeneral in 1893, and made commander-in-chief at Aldershot;b. 1850.

Connecticut (746), southernmost of the New England States, is washedby Long Island Sound, has New York on the W., Rhode Island on the E., andMassachusetts on the N. It is the third smallest State, rocky and unevenin surface, unfertile except in the Connecticut River valley. Streamsabound, and supply motive-power for very extensive manufactures ofclocks, hardware, india-rubber goods, smallwares, textiles, and firearms.There are iron-mines in the NW., stone-quarries, lead, copper, and cobaltmines. Climate is healthy, changeable, and in winter severe. Education isexcellently provided for. Yale University, at New Haven, is thoroughlyequipped; there are several divinity schools, Trinity College atHartford, and the Wesleyan University at Middleton. The capital isHartford (53); New Haven (81) is the largest town and chief port. Theoriginal colony was a democratic secession from Massachusetts in 1634.The constitution of 1639 was the first written democratic constitution onrecord. Its present constitution as a State dates from 1818.

Connecticut, a river in the United States which rises on theconfines of Canada, and, after a course of 450 m., falls into theAtlantic at Long Island.

Connemara, a wild district with picturesque scenery in W. of co.Galway, Ireland.

Conolly, John, physician, born in Lincolnshire, studied atEdinburgh, settled in London, distinguished for having introduced andadvocated a more rational and humane treatment of the insane (1794-1866).

Conrad, Cadet of the House of Hohenzollern, served under theillustrious Barbarossa; proved a capable young fellow under him; marriedthe heiress of the Vohburgs; was appointed Burggraf of Nürnberg, 1170,and prince of the empire; “he is the lineal ancestor of Frederick theGreat, twentieth in direct ascent, let him wait till nineteengenerations, valiantly like Conrad, have done their part, Conrad willfind he has come to this,” that was realised in Frederick and his time.

Conrad, Marquis of Tyre, threw himself into Tyre when beset bySaladin, and held it till Richard Coeur de Lion and Philip Augustusarrived; was assassinated by emissaries of the Old Man of the Mountain in1192.

Conrad I., count of Franconia, elected on the extinction of theCarlovingian line Emperor of the Germans, which he continued to be from911 to 915; fell wounded in battle with the Huns, egged on by a rival.

Conrad II., the Salic, of the same family as the preceding; electedEmperor of Germany in 1024; reigned 15 years, extending the empire,suppressing disorders, and effecting reforms.

Conrad III., founder of the Hohenstaufen dynasty; elected Emperor ofGermany in 1138; had Henry the Proud, as head of the German Guelfs, forrival; crushed him at Weinsberg; joined Louis VII. of France on a thirdcrusade, and returning, overthrew the Guelfs again, leaving Barbarossa ashis heir;d. 1152.

Conrad of Thüringia, a proud, quick, fiery-tempered magnate, seizedthe archbishop of Mainz once, swung him round, and threatened to cut himin two; stormed, plundered, and set fire to an imperial free town for anaffront offered him; but admonished of his sins became penitent, andreconciled himself by monastic vow to the Pope and mankind about 1234.

Conradin the Boy, orConrad V., the last representative of theHohenstaufen dynasty of Romish Kaisers, had fallen into the Pope'sclutches, who was at mortal feud with the empire, and was put to death byhim on the scaffold at Naples, October 25, 1265, the “bright and brave”lad, only 16, “throwing out his glove (in symbolic protest) amid the darkmute Neapolitan multitudes” that idly looked on. SeeCarlyle's“Frederick the Great” for the Conrads.

Consalvi, Italian cardinal and statesman, born at Rome, secretary ofPius VII.; concluded the Concordat with Napoleon in 1801; represented thePope at the Congress of Vienna; was a liberal patron of literature,science, and arts; continued minister of the Pope till his death(1757-1824).

Conscience, Hendrik, a brilliant Flemish novelist, born at Antwerp;rose to popularity among his countrymen by his great national romance the“Lion of Flanders,” a popularity which soon extended all over Europe; hiswritings display great descriptive power and perfect purity of sentiment(1812-1883).

Conscript Fathers, the collective name of members of the RomanSenate, and addressed as such, fathers as seniors and conscripts asenrolled.

Conservation of Energy, the doctrine that, however it may betransformed or dissipated, no fraction of energy is ever lost, that theamount of force, as of matter, in the universe, under all mutationremains the same.

Conservatism, indisposition to change established laws and customsthat have wrought beneficially in the past and contributed to the welfareof the country; in practical politics often a very different thing, andregarded by Carlyle in his time “a portentous enbodied sham; accursed ofGod, and doomed to destruction, as all lies are.”

Considérant, Victor Prosper, a French Socialist and disciple ofFourier; founded a colony in Texas on Fourier's principles, which proveda failure; wrote much in advocacy of his principles, of which the mostimportant is “La Destinée Sociale”;b. 1808.

Consols, the Consolidated Fund, loans to Government made atdifferent times and at different rates of interest, consolidated forconvenience into one common loan, bearing interest at 3 per cent.,reduced in 1830 to 2¾, and in 1893 to 2½.

Constable, a high officer of State in the Roman empire, in France,and in England, charged at one time with military, judicial, andregulative functions.

Constable, Archibald, Edinburgh publisher, born in Carnbee, Fife;started as a bookseller near the Cross in Edinburgh; published theScotsMagazine, theEdinburgh Review, and the “Encyclopædia Britannica,” andfrom 1802 to 1826 the works of Sir Walter Scott, when the bankruptcyconnected with the publication of these so affected him that it ruinedhis health, though he lived after the crash came to start the“Miscellany” which bears his name (1774-1827).

Constable, Henry, English poet, author of sonnets, 28 in number,under the title of “Diana” (1560-1612).

Constable, John, an eminent landscape-painter, born in Suffolk; hisworks were more generously appreciated in France than in his own country,as they well might be, where they had not, as in England, to standcomparison with those of Turner; but he is now, despite the depreciationof Ruskin, becoming recognised among us as one of our foremostlandscapists, and enormous prices have been given of late for his bestpictures; some of his best works adorn the walls of the National Gallery;Ruskin allows his art is original, honest, free from affectation, andmanly (1776-1837).

Constable de Bourbon, Charles, Duc de Bourbon, a brilliant militaryleader, and a powerful enemy of Francis I.; killed when leading theassault on Rome (1489-1527).

Constance (16), a city of the Grand-Duchy of Baden, on the S. bankof the Rhine, at its exit from the lake; famous for the seat of thecouncil (1414-1418) which condemnedJohn Huss and Jerome of Prague todeath; long famous for its linen manufacture.

Constance, Lake, orBodensee, partly in Germany and partly inSwitzerland; is about 44 m. long and 9 m. broad at most; is traversed bythe Rhine from W. to E., is 1306 ft. above sea-level; is surrounded byvineyards, cornfields, and wooded slopes; its waters are hardly everfrozen, and often rise and fall suddenly.

Constant, Benjamin, a highly popular French painter of the Realisticschool, born at Paris; his first picture was “Hamlet and the King”;afterwards he took chiefly to Oriental subjects, which afforded the bestscope for his talent; occupies a high place in the modern French school,and has been promoted to the rank of Officer of the Legion of Honour;b. 1845.

Constant de Rebecque, Henry Benjamin de, a French politician, ofliberal constitutional principles, born at Lausanne, of Huguenot parents;settled in Paris at the commencement of the Revolution, where hedistinguished himself by his political writings and speeches; wasexpelled from France in 1802, along with Mme. de Staël, for denouncingthe military ascendency of Napoleon; lived for a time at Weimar in thesociety of Goethe and Schiller; translated Schiller's “Wallenstein”;returned to France in 1814; declared for the Bourbons, and pled in favourof constitutional liberty; he was a supporter of Louis Philippe, and arationalist in religion, and declared himself opposed to the supernaturalelement in all religions (1760-1830).

Constantia, a wine district of Cape Colony under E. flank of TableMountain.

Constantine (50), inland city of Algeria, on a rocky height;leather-working its staple industry.

Constantine, the name of 13 emperors who reigned at Rome orByzantium between 306 and 1453.

Constantine I., called the Great, born in Moesia, son of ConstantiusChlorus by Helena; on the death of his father at York, where heaccompanied him, was proclaimed Emperor by the troops; this title beingchallenged by Maximian, his father-in-law, and Maxentius, hisbrother-in-law, he took up arms against first the one and then the other,and defeated them; when one day he saw a cross in the sky with the wordsBy this Conquer in Greek, under this sign, known as thelabarum,which he adopted as his standard, he accordingly marched straight toRome, where he was acknowledged Emperor by the Senate in 312; andthereafter an edict was issued named of Milan, granting toleration to theChristians; he had still to extend his empire over the East, and havingdone so by the removal of Lucinius, he transferred the seat of his empireto Byzantium, which hence got the name of Constantinople,i. e.Constantine's city; had himself baptized in 337 as a Christian, afterhaving three years before proclaimed Christianity the State religion(274-337).

Constantine Nicolaievitch, second son of the Czar Nicholas I.; wasappointed grand-admiral while but a boy; had command of the Baltic fleetduring the Crimean war; came under suspicion of sinister intriguing;became insane, and died in seclusion (1827-1892).

Constantine Paulovitch, Grand-duke of Russia, son of Paul I.;distinguished himself at Austerlitz; was commander-in-chief in Poland,where he ruled as despot; waived his right to the throne in favour of hisbrother Nicholas (1779-1831).

Constantine XIII., Palæologus, the last of the Greek emperors; hadto defend Constantinople against a besieging force of 300,000 underMahomet II., and though he defended it bravely, the city was taken bystorm, and the Eastern empire ended in 1543.

Constantinople (1,000), capital of the Turkish empire, on theBosphorus, situated on a peninsula washed by the Sea of Marmora on the S.and by the Golden Horn on the N., on the opposite side of which creek liethe quarters of Galata and Pera, one of the finest commercial sites inthe world; it became the capital of the Roman empire under Constantinethe Great, who gave name to it; was capital of the Eastern empire fromthe days of Theodosius; was taken by the crusaders in 1204, and byMahomet II. in 1452, at which time the Greek and Latin scholars fled thecity, carrying the learning of Greece and Rome with them, an event whichled to the revival of learning in Europe, and the establishment of a newera—the Modern—in European history.

Constantius Chlorus, orthe Pale, Roman emperor; after astruggle of three years reunited Britain with the empire, which had beentorn from it by Allectus; was equally successful against the Alemanni,defeating them with great loss; died at York, on an expedition againstthe Picts; was succeeded by Constantine, his son (250-305).

Constituent Assembly, the legislative body which the NationalAssembly of France resolved itself into in 1789, a name it assumed fromthe task it imposed on itself, viz., of making a constitution, a taskwhich, from the nature of it proved impossible, as a constitution is anentity which grows, and is not made,nascitur, non fit.

Consuelo, the heroine of George Sand's novel of the name, hermasterpiece; the impersonation of the triumph of moral purity overmanifold temptations.

Consul, (1) one of the two magistrates of Rome elected annuallyafter the expulsion of the kings, and invested with regal power; (2) achief magistrate of the French Republic from 1799 to 1804; (3) onecommissioned to protect, especially the mercantile rights of the subjectsof a State in foreign country.

Consulate, name given to the French Government from the fall of theDirectory till the establishment of the Empire. At first there were threeprovisional consuls, Bonaparte, Siéyès, and Roger Ducos; then threeconsuls for ten years, Bonaparte, Cambacérès, and Lebrun, which wasdissolved with the establishment of the Empire on the 20th May 1804.

Contari`ni, an illustrious Venetian family, which furnished eightDoges to the Republic, as well as an array of men eminent in the Church,statecraft, generalship, art, and letters.

Conte, Nicolas Jacques, a French painter; distinguished for hismechanical genius, which was of great avail to the French army in Egypt(1755-1805).

Conti, an illustrious French family, a younger branch of the houseof Bourbon-Condé, all more or less distinguished as soldiers;FrançoisLouis especially, who was a man of supreme ability both in war andscience, and had the merit to be elected king of Poland (1664-1709).

Continental System, Napoleon's scheme for interdicting all commercebetween the Continent and Great Britain, carried out with various issuestill the fall of Napoleon. SeeBerlin andMilan Decrees.

Contrat, Social, Rousseau's theory of society that it is based onmere contract, each individual member of it surrendering his will to thewill of all, under protection of all concerned, a theory which led to theconclusion that the rule of kings is an usurpation of the rights of thecommunity, and which bore fruit as an explosive in the Revolution at theend of the century.

Convention, National, a revolutionary convention in France which, onSeptember 20, 1792, succeeded the Legislative Assembly, proclaimed theRepublic, condemned the king to death, succeeded in crushing theroyalists of La Vendée and the south, in defeating all Europe leaguedagainst France, and in founding institutions of benefit to France to thisday; it was dissolved on October 26, 1795, to make way for the Directory.

Conversations Lexicon, a popular German encyclopædia of 16 vols.,started in 1796, and since 1808 published by Brockhaus, in Leipzig.

Conversion, “the grand epoch for a man,” says Carlyle, “properly theone epoch; the turning-point, which guides upwards, or guides downwards,him and his activities for evermore.”

Convocation, an assemblage of the English clergy, with little or nolegislative power, summoned and prorogued by an archbishop underauthority of the Crown; one under the Archbishop of Canterbury, held atCanterbury, and one under the Archbishop of York, held at York,consisting each of two bodies, an Upper of bishops, and an Under oflesser dignitaries and inferior clergy, in separate chambers, though theyoriginally met in one.

Conway, a port in Carnarvon, on the river Conway, with a massivecastle, one of those built by Edward I. to keep Wales in check; is afavourite summer resort, and is amid beautiful scenery.

Conway, Hugh, thenom de plume of Frederick Fargus, born inBristol; bred to the auctioneer business; author of “Called Back,” ahighly sensational novel, and a success; gave up his business and settledin London, where he devoted himself to literature, and the production ofsimilar works of much promise, but caught malarial fever at Monte Carloand died (1847-1885).

Conway, Moncure, an American writer, born in Virginia; began life asa Unitarian preacher; came to England as a lecturer on war; became leaderof the advanced school of thought, so called; was a great admirer ofEmerson, and wrote, among other works, “Emerson at Home and Abroad”;b.1832.

Conybeare, William Daniel, an English clergyman, devoted to thestudy of geology and palæontology, and a Bampton lecturer (1787-1857).

Conybeare, William John, son of the preceding; author, along withDean Howson, of the “Life and Epistles of St. Paul,” and of an “Essay onChurch Parties” (1815-1857).

Cook, Dutton, novelist, dramatic author, and critic; born in London,and bred a solicitor; contributed to several periodicals, and the“Dictionary of National Biography” (1822-1883).

Cook, Edward T., journalist, born at Brighton; educated at Oxford;had been on the editorial staff of thePall Mall Gazette and theWestminster Gazette, became, in 1893, editor of theDaily News; is anenthusiastic disciple of Ruskin; wrote “Studies on Ruskin”;b. 1857.

Cook, Eliza, a writer of tales, verses, and magazine articles; bornin Southwark; daughter of a merchant; conducted, from 1849 to 1854, ajournal called by her name, but gave it up from failing health; enjoyed apension of £100 on the Civil List till her death; was the authoress of“The Old Arm-Chair” and “Home in the Heart,” both of which were greatfavourites with the public, and did something for literature andphilanthropy by herJournal (1818-1889).

Cook, James, the distinguished English navigator, born at Marton,Yorkshire; was the son of a farm labourer; began sea-faring on board amerchantman; entered the navy in 1755, and in four years became a master;spent some nine years in survey of the St. Lawrence and the coasts ofNewfoundland; in 1768, in command of theEndeavour, was sent out withan expedition to observe the transit of Venus, and in 1772 as commanderof two vessels on a voyage of discovery to the South Seas; on his return,receiving further promotion, he set out on a third voyage of fartherexploration in the Pacific, making many discoveries as far N. as BehringStrait; lost his life, on his way home, in a dispute with the natives, atOwhyhee, in the Sandwich Islands, being savagely murdered, a fate whichbefell him owing to a certain quickness of temper he had displayed,otherwise he was a man of great kindness of heart, and his men werewarmly attached to him (1728-1779).

Cook, Joseph, a popular lecturer, born near New York; deliveredMonday Lectures at Boston in the discussion of social questions, and thealleged discrepancy between science and religion or revelation;b.1838.

Cook, Mount, the highest point, 12,350 ft., in the Southern Alps,Canterbury Island, New Zealand.

Cook Strait, strait between the North and the South Island, NewZealand.

Cooke, Sir Antony, an eminent scholar, tutor to Edward VI.; of hisdaughters, one was married to Lord Burleigh and another to Sir NicholasBacon, who became the mother of Lord Bacon (1506-1576).

Cooke, Benjamin, composer, born in London; organist in WestminsterAbbey; author of “How Sleep the Brave,” “Hark! the Lark,” and otherglees, as well as some excellent church music (1739-1793).

Cooke, George Frederick, an actor, famous for his representation ofRichard III.; stood in his day next to Kemble in spite of his intemperatehabits (1756-1811).

Cooke, T. P., an actor in melodrama; began life at sea; took to thestage; his most popular representations were William in “Black-eyedSusan” and Long Tom Coffin in the “Pilot” (1786-1864).

Coolgardie, a mining district and head-quarters of rich gold-fieldsin W. Australia.

Coolies, labourers from India and China, who now emigrate in largenumbers, especially from China, often to where they are not wanted, andwhere they, as in the British Colonies and the United States, are muchdisliked, as they bring down the wages of native labourers.

Coomassie, the capital of the negro kingdom of Ashanti, 130 m. NNW.of Cape Coast Castle; once a large populous place; was much reduced afterits capture by Wolseley in 1874, though it is being rebuilt.

Cooper, Anthony Ashley. SeeShaftesbury.

Cooper, Sir Astley, English surgeon, born in Norfolk; was great inanatomy and a skilful operator, stood high in the medical profession;contributed much by his writings to raise surgery to the rank of ascience; was eminent as a lecturer as well as a practitioner (1768-1841).

Cooper, James Fenimore, an American novelist, born in Burlington,New Jersey; having a passion for the sea, he entered the navy as amidshipman in 1808, but in three years resigned his commission, married,and settled to literature; his novels, which are well known, achievedinstant popularity, made him a great favourite with boys, in which heshowed himself an expert in the narration of events, the description ofscenes, as well as in the delineation of character; he came tologgerheads with the newspaper press, had recourse to actions for libel,conducted his own cases himself, and was always successful (1789-1851).

Cooper, Thomas, a self-taught man, born in Leicester; bred ashoemaker; became a schoolmaster, a Methodist preacher, and then ajournalist; converted to Chartism; was charged with sedition, andcommitted to prison for two years; wrote here “Purgatory of Suicides”;after liberation went about lecturing on politics and preachingscepticism; returning to his first faith, he lectured on the Christianevidences, and wrote an autobiography (1805-1892).

Cooper, Thomas Sidney, a distinguished animal-painter, born inCanterbury; struggled with adversity in early life: rose to be supreme inhis own department of art; he has written an account of his career;b.1803.

Cooperage, a system of barter which has for some time gone on in theNorth Seas, consisting of exchange of spirits and tobacco for other goodsor money, a demoralising traffic, which endeavours are now being made tosuppress.

Cooper's Hill, a hill of slight elevation near Runnymede, with aGovernment civil engineering college, originally for the training for theservice in India, now for education in other departments of theGovernment service, forestry especially.

Coorg (173), an inland high-lying province, about the size of Kent,on the eastern slope of the W. Ghâts, on the SW. border of Mysore, underthe Indian Government; it is covered with forests, infested with wildanimals; the natives, a fine race, are distinguished for their loyalty tothe British.

Coote, Sir Eyre, a general, born in co. Limerick, Ireland;distinguished himself at Plassey; gained victories over the French inIndia; afterwards routed Hyder Ali at Porto Novo; died at Madras(1726-1783).

Cope, Charles West, a painter, born at Leeds; his pictures have forsubjects historical or dramatic scenes, and were very numerous; executedthe frescoes that adorn the Peers' corridor at Westminster; was professorof Painting to the Royal Academy (1811-1890).

Cope, Sir John, a British general; was in command at Prestonpans,and defeated by the Pretender there in 1745, in connection with which hisname is remembered in Scotland as not having been ready when theHighlanders attacked him, by the song “Heigh! Johnnie Cowp, are ye waukenyet?”d. 1760.

Copenhagen (380), the capital of Denmark, and the only large town init; lies low, and is built partly on the island of Seeland and partly onthe island of Amager, the channel between which forms a commodiousharbour; is a thriving place of manufacture and of trade, as its name“Merchants' Haven” implies; has also a university, an arsenal, andnumerous public buildings.

Copernicus, Nicolas, founder of modern astronomy, born at Thorn, inPoland, and educated at Cracow and Bologna; became canon of Frauenburg,on the Frisches Haff; studied medicine; was doctor to a wealthy uncle,with whom he lived, and became his heir when he died; his chief interestlay in the heavenly bodies, and his demonstrations regarding theirmovements, which yet he deferred publishing till he was near his end; andindeed it was only when he was unconscious and dying that the firstprinted copy of the work was put into his hands; it was entitled “DeOrbium Revolutionibus,” and was written in proof of the great firstprinciple of astronomy, that the sun is the centre of the solar system,and that the earth and planets circle round it; the work was dedicated toPope Paul III., and was received with favour by the Catholic Church,though, strange to say, it was denounced by Luther and Melanchthon ascontrary to the Scriptures of truth (1473-1543).

Copiapó, a river, a village, a city, and a district in Chile.

Copley, John Singleton, portrait and historical painter, born inBoston, U.S.; painted Washington's portrait at the age of eighteen; cameto England in 1776, having previously sent over for exhibition sundry ofhis works; painted portraits of the king and the queen; began thehistorical works on which his fame chiefly rests, the most widely knownperhaps of which is the “Death of Chatham,” now in the National Gallery(1737-1815).

Coppée, François, a poet, born in Paris; has produced severalvolumes of poetry, excellent dramas in verse, and tales in prose; hispoetry is the poetry of humble life, and “has given poetic pleasure,” asProfessor Saintsbury says, “to many who are not capable of receiving itotherwise, while he has never sought to give that pleasure by unworthymeans”;b. 1842.

Copper Captain, a Brummagem captain; the name given to Percy inBeaumont and Fletcher's play, “Rule a Wife and Have a Wife.”

Copper Nose, name given to Oliver Cromwell, from a brownish tinge onhis nose.

Copperheads, secret foes in one's own camp, so called from a set ofserpents which conceal their purpose to attack.

Coppermine, a river in NW. Canada which falls into the Arctic Oceanafter a broken course of 250 m.

Coppet, a Swiss village in the Canton de Vaud, on the Lake ofGeneva; celebrated as the abode of Mme. de Staël, her burial-place andthat of Necker, her father.

Copts, the Christian descendants of the ancient Egyptians, who areMonophysites in belief, some regarding the Patriarch of Alexandria andsome the Pope as their head; they adhere to the ancient ritual, areprelatic, sacramentarian, and exclusive; they speak Arabic, theiroriginal Coptic being as good as dead, though the grammar is taught inthe schools.

Copyright, the sole right of an author or his heirs to publish awork for a term of years fixed by statute, a book for 42 years, or theauthor's lifetime and 7 years after, whichever is longer; copyrightcovers literary, artistic, and musical property. By the Act an authormust present one copy of his work, if published, to the British Museum,and one copy, if demanded, to the Bodleian Library, Oxford; theUniversity Library, Cambridge; the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh; andTrinity College Library, Dublin.

Coquelin, Benoit Constant, a noted French actor, born at Boulogne;played in classical pieces and others, composed for himself in theThéâtre Français from 1860 to 1886; since then in London, S. America, andthe United States; without a rival in the broader aspects of comedy;b.1841.

Coquerel, Athanase, a pastor of the French Reformed Church, born inParis, where he preached eloquently from 1830 till his death; was electedin 1848 deputy for the Seine to the national Assembly, but retired frompolitical life after thecoup d'état; wrote a reply to Strauss(1795-1858).

Coquerel, Athanase, a Protestant pastor, son of preceding, born atAmsterdam; celebrated for his liberal and tolerant views, too much so forM. Guizot; edited Voltaire's letters on toleration; his chief work, “JeanCalas et sa Famille” (1820-1875).

Coquimbo (14), capital of a mining province of Chile (176) of thename; exports minerals and cattle.

Coraïs, a distinguished Hellenist, born in Smyrna, of the mercantileclass; settled in Paris, where he devoted himself to awakening aninterest in Greek literature and the cause of the Greeks (1748-1833).

Coram, Thomas, English philanthropist, the founder of the FoundlingHospital, born at Lyme Regis; a man of varied ventures by sea and land;settled in London; was touched by the sufferings of the poor, where, withwarm support from Hogarth, he founded the said institution; his charityso impoverished him that he ended his days as an object of charityhimself, being dependent on a small annuity raised by subscription(1667-1751).

Corato (30), a town in a fertile region in S. Italy, 25 m. W. ofBari.

Corble-steps, orCrow-steps, steps ascending the gable of ahouse, common in old Scotch gables as well as in the Netherlands andelsewhere in old towns.

Cor`bulo, a distinguished general under Claudius and Nero, whoconquered the Parthians; Nero, being jealous of him, invited him toCorinth, where he found a death-warrant awaiting him, upon which heplunged his sword into his breast and exclaimed, “Well deserved!” in 72A.D.

Corcy`ra, an Ionian island, nowCorfu (q. v.).

Corday, Charlotte, a French heroine, born at St. Saturnin, of goodbirth, granddaughter of Corneille; well read in Voltaire and Plutarch;favoured the Revolution, but was shocked at the atrocities of theJacobins; started from Caen for Paris as an avenging angel; sought outMarat, with difficulty got access to him, stabbed him to the heart as hesat “stewing in slipper-bath,” and “his life with a groan gushed out,indignant, to the shades below”; when arrested, she “quietlysurrendered”; when questioned as to her motive, she answered, “I killedone man to save a hundred thousand”; she was guillotined next day(1763-1793).

Cordelia, the youngest and favourite daughter of King Lear.

Cordeliers, (1) the strictest branch of the Franciscan Order ofMonks, so called from wearing a girdle of knotted cord; (2) also a clubduring the French Revolution, founded in 1789, its prominent members,Danton, Camille Desmoulins, and Marat; was a secession from the JacobinClub, which was thought lukewarm, and met in what had been a convent ofthe Cordeliers monks; it expired with Danton.

Corderius, a grammarian, born in Normandy; being a Protestantsettled in Geneva and taught; author of Latin “Colloquies,” once veryfamous (1478-1567).

Cordilleras, the name of several chains of mountains in S. America.

Cordite, a smokeless powder, invented by Sir F. A. Abel, beingcomposed principally of gun-cotton and glycerine.

Cordon Blue, formerly the badge of the Order of the Holy Ghost, nowthe badge of highest excellence in a cook.

Cordouan, a lighthouse at the mouth of the Gironde.

Cor`dova (70), a city on the Paraná, in the Argentine; also a town(48) in Andalusia, Spain, on the right bank of the Guadalquivir, in aprovince of the name, 80 m. NE. of Seville; once a Moorish capital, andfamous for its manufacture of goat leather; has a cathedral, once amagnificent mosque.

Corea (6,511), an Eastern Asiatic kingdom occupying the mountainouspeninsula between the Yellow and Japan Seas, in the latitude of Italy,with Manchuria on its northern border, a country as large as GreatBritain. The people, an intelligent and industrious race, are Mongols,followers of Confucius and Buddha. After being for 300 years tributary toChina, it passed under Japanese influence, and by the Chinese defeat inthe war with Japan, 1894-95, was left independent. The climate ishealthy, but subject to extremes; rivers are ice-bound for four months.Wheat, rice, and beans are grown. There are gold, silver, iron, and coalmines, and great mineral wealth. There are extensive manufactures ofpaper, and some silk industry. Three ports are open to foreigners; butmost of the trade is with Japan; exports hides, beans, and paper; importscotton goods. The capital is Seoul (193).

Corelli, Arcangelo, an Italian musical composer, celebrated for hisskill on the violin; his compositions mark a new musical epoch; he hasbeen called the father of instrumental music (1653-1713).

Corelli, Marie, a novelist, a prolific authoress, and very popular;her first work “The Romance of Two Worlds,” one of her latest “TheSorrows of Satan”;b. 1864.

Corfe Castle, a village in the Isle of Purbeck, Dorsetshire, round acastle now in ruins, and the scene of martyrdoms and murders not a few inits day.

Corfu (78), the most northerly of the Ionian Islands and thelargest, 40 m. long, from 4 to 18 broad; was under the protection ofBritain, 1815-64; has since belonged to Greece; has a capital (79) of thesame name.

Corin`na, a poetess of ancient Greece, born in Boeotia; friend andrival of Pindar; only a few fragments of her poetry remain.

Corinne, the heroine and title of a novel of Mme. de Staël's, herprincipal novel, in which she celebrates the praises of the great men andgreat masterpieces of Italy; her heroine is the type of a woman inspiredwith poetic ideas and the most generous sentiments.

Corinth, an ancient city of Greece, and one of the most flourishing,on an isthmus of the name connecting the Peloponnesus with the mainland;a great centre of trade and of material wealth, and as a centre of luxurya centre of vice; the seat of the worship of Aphrodité, a very differentgoddess from Athene, to whom Athens was dedicated.

Corinthians, Epistles to the, two epistles of St. Paul to the Churchhe had established in Corinth, the chief object of which was to cleanseit of certain schisms and impurities that had arisen, and to protestagainst the disposition of many in it to depart from simple gospel whichthey had been taught.

Coriola`nus, a celebrated Roman general of patrician rank, whorallied his countrymen when, in besieging Corioli, they were being drivenback, so that he took the city, and was in consequence called Coriolanus;having afterwards offended the plebs, he was banished from the city; tookrefuge among the people he had formerly defeated; joined cause with them,and threatened to destroy the city, regardless of every entreaty to spareit, till his mother, his wife, and the matrons of Rome overcame him bytheir tears, upon which he withdrew and led back his army to Corioli,prepared to suffer any penalty his treachery to them might expose him.

Corioli, a town of ancient Latium, capital of the Volsci.

Cork (73), a fine city, capital of a county (436) of the same namein Munster, Ireland, on the Lee, 11 m. from its mouth; with a magnificentharbour, an extensive foreign trade, and manufactures of various kinds.

Cormenin, a French statesman and jurist, born at Paris; had greatinfluence under Louis Philippe; his pamphlets, signedTimon, made nosmall stir; left a work on administrative law in France (1788-1886).

Cormontaigne, a celebrated French engineer, born at Strasburg;successor of Vauban (1696-1752).

Cornaro, an illustrious patrician family in Venice, from which forcenturies several Doges sprung.

Corn-Cracker, the nickname of a Kentucky man.

Corneille, Pierre, the father of French tragedy, born at Rouen, theson of a government legal official; was bred for the bar, but he neithertook to the profession nor prospered in the practice of it, so gave it upfor literature; threw himself at once into the drama; began bydramatising an incident in his own life, and became the creator of thedramatic art in France; his first tragedies are “The Cid,” which indeedis his masterpiece, “Horace,” “Cinna,” “Polyeucte,” “Rodogune,” and “LeMenteur”; in his verses, which are instinct with vigour of conception aswell as sublimity of feeling, he paints men as they should be, virtuousin character, brave in spirit, and animated by the most exaltedsentiments. Goethe contrasts him with Racine: “Corneille,” he says,“delineated great men; Racine, men of eminent rank.” “He rarely provokesan interest,” says Professor Saintsbury, “in the fortunes of hischaracters; it is rather in the way that they bear their fortune, andparticularly in a kind of haughty disdain for fortune itself... He showsan excellent comic faculty at times, and the strokes of irony in hisserious plays have more of true humour in them than appears in almost anyother French dramatist” (1606-1684).

Corneille, Thomas, younger brother of the preceding, a dramatist,whose merits were superior, but outshone by those of his brother(1625-1709).

Cornelia, the daughter of Scipio Africanus and the mother of theGracchi (q. v.), the Roman matron who, when challenged by arival lady to outshine her in wealth of gems, proudly led forth her sonssaying, “These are my jewels”; true to this sentiment, it was as themother of the Gracchi she wished to be remembered, and is remembered, inthe annals of Rome.

Cornelius, Peter von, a distinguished German painter, born atDüsseldorf; early gave proof of artistic genius, which was carefullyfostered by his father; spent much time as a youth in studying andcopying Raphael; before he was 20 he decorated a church at Neuss withcolossal figures in chiaroscuro; in 1810 executed designs for Goethe's“Faust”; in the year after went to Rome, where, along with others, herevived the old art of fresco painting, in which he excelled his rivals;the subjects of these were drawn from Greek pagan as well as Christiansources, his “Judgment” being the largest fresco in the world; thethought which inspires his cartoons, critics say, surpasses his power ofexecution; it should be added, he prepared a set of designs to illustratethe “Nibelungen” (1787-1867).

Cornell University, a university in Ithaca, New York State, foundedin 1868 at a cost of £152,000, named after its founder, Ezra Cornell; itsupports a large staff of teachers, and gives instruction in alldepartments of science, literature, and philosophy; it provides educationto sundry specified classes free of all fees, as well as means of earningthe benefits of the institution to any who may wish to enjoy them.

Corn-Laws, laws in force in Great Britain regulating the import andexport of corn for the protection of the home-producer at the expense ofthe home-consumer, and which after a long and bitter struggle betweenthese two classes were abolished in 1846.

Corn-Law Rhymer, The,Ebenezer Elliott (q. v.) who, in avolume of poems, denounced the corn-laws and contributed to theirabolition.

Corno, Monte, the highest peak of the Apennines, 9545 ft.

Cornwall (322), a county in the SW. extremity of England, forming apeninsula between the English and the Bristol Channels, with a ruggedsurface and a rocky coast, indented all round with more or less deep baysinclosed between high headlands; its wealth lies not in the soil, butunder it in its mines, and in the pilchard, mackerel, and other fisheriesalong its stormy shores; the county town is Bodmin (5), the largestPenzance (12), and the mining centre Truro (11).

Cornwall, Barry, thenom de plume ofB. W. Procter (q.v.).

Cornwallis, Lord, an English general and statesman; saw service inthe Seven Years' and the American Wars; besieged in the latter at YorkTown, was obliged to capitulate; became Governor-General of India, andforced Tippoo Sahib to submit to humiliating terms; as Lord-Lieutenant ofIreland crushed the rebellion of '98; re-appointed Governor-General ofIndia; died there (1738-1805).

Coromandel Coast, E. coast of Hindustan, extending from the Krishnato Cape Comorin.

Coronation Chair, a chair inclosing a stone carried off by Edward I.from Scone in 1296, on which the sovereigns of England are crowned.

Corot, Jean Baptiste, a celebrated French landscape-painter, born atParis; was 26 years of age before he began to apply himself to art, whichhe did by study in Italy and Rome, returning to Paris in 1827, where hebegan to exhibit, and continued to exhibit for nearly 50 years; it waslong before his pieces revealed what was in him and the secret of hisart; he appeared also as a poet as well as a painter, giving free play tohis emotions and moving those of others (1796-1875).

Corps Législatif, the lower house of the French legislature,consisting of deputies.

Corpuscular Philosophy, the philosophy which accounts for physicalphenomena by the position and the motions of corpuscles.

Corr, Erin, an eminent engraver, born in Brussels, of Irish descent;spent 10 years in engraving on copper-plate Rubens's “Descent from theCross” (1793-1862).

Corrector, Alexander the, Alexander Cruden, who believed he had adivine mission to correct the manners of the world.

Correggio, Antonio Allegri da, an illustrious Italian painter, bornat Correggio, in Modena; founder of the Lombard school, and distinguishedamong his contemporaries for the grace of his figures and the harmony ofhis colouring; he has been ranked next to Raphael, and it has been saidof him he perfected his art by adding elegance to truth and grandeur; heis unrivalled in chiaroscuro, and he chose his subjects from pagan aswell as Christian legend (1494-1534).

Corrib, Lough, an irregularly shaped lake in Galway and Mayo, 25 m.long and from 1 to 6 m. broad, with stone circles near it.

Corrientes (300), a province of the Argentine Republic, between theParaná and the Uruguay; also its capital (18), surrounded byorange-groves; so called from the currents that prevail in the river,along which steamers ply between it and Buenos Ayres.

Corrugated Iron, in general, sheet-iron coated with zinc.

Corsair, The, a poem of Byron's, in which the author paints himselfin heroic colours as an adventurer who drowns reflection in theintoxication of battle.

Corsica (288), an island belonging to France, in the Mediterranean,ceded to her by Genoa in 1768, but by position, race, and languagebelongs to Italy; has been subject by turns to the powers that insuccession dominated that inland sea; is 116 m. long and 52 broad; itabounds in mountains, attaining 9000 ft.; covered with forests andthickets, which often serve as shelter for brigands; it affords goodpasturage, and yields olive-oil and wine, as well as chesnuts, honey, andwax.

Corsica Paoli, a native of Corsica, who vainly struggled to achievethe independence of his country, and took refuge in England, where heenjoyed the society of the Johnson circle, and was much esteemed. SeePaoli.

Corssen, William Paul, a learned German philologist, born at Bremen;made a special study of the Latin languages, and especially the Etruscan,which he laboured to prove was cognate with that of the Romans and of theraces that spoke it (1820-1875).

Cort, an eminent Dutch engraver, went to Venice, lived with Titian;engraved some of his pictures; went to Rome and engraved Raphael's“Transfiguration”; executed over 150 plates, all displaying greataccuracy and refinement (1536-1578).

Cortes, the name given in Spain and Portugal to the NationalAssembly, consisting of nobles and representatives of the nation.

Cortes, a Spanish soldier and conqueror of Mexico, born inEstremadura; went with Velasquez to Cuba; commanded the expedition toconquer Mexico, and by burning all his ships that conveyed his men, cutoff all possibility of retreat; having conquered the tribes that he meton landing, he marched on to the capital, which, after a desperatestruggle, he reduced, and laid waste and then swept the country, by allwhich he added to the wealth of Spain, but by his cruelty did dishonourto the chivalry of which Spain was once so proud (1485-1547).

Cortona, Pietro da, an Italian painter, born at Cortona, in Tuscany,and eminent as an architect also; decorated many of the finest buildingsin Rome (1596-1669).

Coruña (34), a fortified town on NW. of Spain, with a commodiousharbour, where Sir John Moore fell in 1809 while defending theembarkation of his army against Soult, and where his tomb is.

Corvée, obligation as at one time enforced in France to rendercertain services to Seigneurs, such as repairing of roads, abolished bythe Contituent Assembly.

Coryat, Thomas, an English traveller and wit, who, in his“Crudities,” quaintly describes his travels through France and Italy(1577-1617).

Corybantes, priests ofCybele (q. v.), whose religiousrites were accompanied with wild dances and the clashing of cymbals.

Corydon, a shepherd in Virgil, name for a lovesick swain.

Coryphæus, originally the leader of the chorus in a Greek drama, nowa leader in any dramatic company, or indeed in any art.

Cos (10), an island in the Ægean Sea, birthplace of Hippocrates andApelles.

Cosenza (18), a town in Calabria, in a deep valley, where Alaricdied.

Cosin, John, a learned English prelate, Dean of Peterborough,deposed by the Puritans for his ritualistic tendencies; exiled for 10years in Paris; returned at the Restoration, and was made Bishop ofDurham, where he proved himself a Bishop indeed, and a devoted supporterof the Church which he adorned by his piety (1594-1672).

Cosmas, St., Arabian physician and patron of surgeons, brother ofSt. Damian; suffered martyrdom in 303. Festival, Sept. 27.

Cosmas Indicopleustes (i. e. voyager to India), an Egyptian monkof the 6th century, born in Alexandria, singular for his theory of thesystem of the world, which, in opposition to the Ptolemaic system, heviewed as in shape like that of the Jewish Tabernacle, with Eden outside,and encircled by the ocean, a theory he advanced as in conformity withScripture.

Cosmo I., Grand-duke of Tuscany, head of the Republic of Florence,of which he made himself absolute master, a post he held in defiance ofall opposition, in order to secure the independence of the state hegoverned, as well as its internal prosperity (1519-1574).

Cosmography, any theory which attempts to trace the system of thingsback to its first principle or primordial element or elements.

Cosquin, Emmanuel, a French folk-lorist, and author of “PopularTales of Lorraine,” in the introduction to which he argues for the theorythat the development as well as the origin of such tales is historicallytraceable to India;b. 1841.

Cossacks, a military people of mixed origin, chiefly Tartar andSlav, who fought on horseback, in their own interest as well as that ofRussia, defending its interests in particular for centuries past in manya struggle, and forming an important division of the Russian army.

Costa Rica (262), a small republic of Central America; it is mostlytableland; contains many volcanoes; is chiefly agricultural, though richin minerals.

Costard, a clown in “Love's Labour Lost,” who apes the affectedcourt-wits of the time in a misappropriate style.

Costello, Louisa Stuart, an English authoress; her descriptivepowers were considerable, and her novels had a historical groundwork(1799-1870).

Coster,aliasLaurens Janszoon, born at Haarlem, to whom hiscountrymen, as against the claims of Gutenberg, ascribe the invention ofprinting (1370-1440).

Cosway, Richard, a distinguished miniature portrait-painter, born atTiverton; Correggio his model (1740-1821).

Côte d'Or, a range of hills in the NE. of France, connecting theCévennes with the Vosges, which gives name to a department (376) famedfor its wines.

Cotentin, a peninsula NW. of Normandy, France, jutting into theEnglish Channel, now forms the northern part of the dep. La Manche, thefatherland of many of the Norman conquerors of England.

Cotes, Roger, an English mathematician of such promise, that Newtonsaid of him, “If he had lived, we should have known something”(1682-1716).

Côtes du Nord (618), a dep. forming part of Brittany; the chiefmanufacture is linen.

Cotin, the Abbé, a French preacher, born in Paris; a butt of thesarcasm of Molière and Boileau (1604-1682)

Cotman, John Sell, an English painter, born at Norwich; madeTurner's acquaintance; produced water-colour landscapes, growing inrepute; has been pronounced “the most gifted of the Norwich School”(1782-1842).

Cotopaxi, a volcano of the Andes, in Ecuador, the highest and mostactive in the world, nearly 20,000 ft., 35 m. SE. of Quito; it rises in aperfect cone, 4400 ft. above the plateau of Quito.

Cotswold Hills, in Gloucestershire, separating the Lower Severn fromthe sources of the Thames; they are of limestone rock, 50 m. long, andextend N. and S.

Cotta, Caius, a distinguished Roman orator, 1st century B.C.;mentioned with honour by Cicero.

Cotta, German publisher, born at Stuttgart; established in Tübingen;published the works of Goethe, Schiller, Jean Paul, Herder, and others ofnote among their contemporaries (1764-1832).

Cottian Alps, the range N. of the Maritime between France and Italy.

Cottin, Sophie, a celebrated French authoress; wrote, among otherromances, the well-known and extensively translated “Elizabeth; or, theExiles of Siberia,” a wildly romantic but irreproachably moral tale(1773-1807).

Cottle, Joseph, a publisher and author; started business in Bristol;published the works of Coleridge and Southey on generous terms; wrote inhis “Early Recollections” an exposure of Coleridge that has been severelycriticised and generally condemned (1770-1853).

Cotton, Bishop, born at Chester; eminent as a master at Rugby underDr. Arnold, and as head-master at Marlborough College; was appointedBishop of Calcutta, an office he fulfilled zealously; was drowned in theGanges; he figures as “the young master” in “Tom Brown's School-days”(1813-1866).

Cotton, Charles, a poet, born in Staffordshire; his poetry was ofthe burlesque order, and somewhat gross; chiefly famous for histranslation of “Montaigne's Essays”; was friend and admirer of IsaakWalton, and wrote a supplement to his “Angler” (1630-1687).

Cotton, Sir Robert Bruce, a distinguished antiquary, and founder ofthe Cottonian Library, now in the British Museum, born at Denton; was afriend of Camden, and assisted him in his great work; was a greatbook-collector; was exposed to persecution for his presumed share in thepublication of an obnoxious book, of which the original was found in hiscollection; had his books, in which he prided himself, taken from him, inconsequence of which he pined and died (1571-1631).

Coucy, an old noble family of Picardy, who had for device, “Roi nesuis, ne duc, ne comte aussi; je suis le sire de Coucy.”Raoul, acourt-poet of the family in the 12th century, lost his life at the siegeof Acre in the third crusade.

Coulomb, a learned French physicist and engineer, born at Angoulême;the inventor of the torsion balance, and to whose labours manydiscoveries in electricity and magnetism are due; lived through theFrench Revolution retired from the strife (1736-1806).

Councils, Church, assemblies of bishops to decide questions ofdoctrine and ecclesiastical discipline. They are oecumenical, national,or provincial, according as the bishops assembled represented the wholeChurch, a merely national one, or a provincial section of it. Eastern:Nice, 325 (at which Arius was condemned), 787; Constantinople, 381 (atwhich Apollinaris was condemned), 553, 680, 869; Ephesus, 431 (at whichNestorius was condemned); Chalcedon, 451 (at which Eutyches wascondemned). Western: Lateran, 1123, 1139, 1179, 1215, 1274; Synod ofVienne, 1311; Constance, 1414; Basel, 1431-1443; Trent, 1545-1563;Vatican, 1869.

Courayes, a French Roman Catholic ecclesiastic who pled on behalf ofAnglican orders; was censured; fled to England, where he was welcomed,and received academic honours (1681-1777).

Courbet, a French vice-admiral, born at Abbeville; distinguishedhimself by his rapid movements and brilliant successes in the East(1827-1885).

Courbet, Gustave, French painter, born at Ornans; took tolandscape-painting; was head of the Realistic school; joined the Communein 1871; his property and pictures were sold to pay the damage done, andespecially to restore the Vendôme Column; died an exile in Switzerland(1819-1877).

Courier, Paul Louis, a French writer, born at Paris; began life as asoldier, but being wounded at Wagram, retired from the army, and gavehimself to letters; distinguished himself as the author of politicalpamphlets, written with a scathing irony such as has hardly beensurpassed, which brought him into trouble; was assassinated on his estateby his gamekeeper (1772-1825).

Courland (637), a partly wooded and partly marshy province ofRussia, S. of the Gulf of Riga; the population chiefly German, andProtestants; agriculture their chief pursuit.

Court de Gébelin, a French writer, born at Nîmes, author of a workentitled “The Primitive World analysed and compared with the ModernWorld” (1725-1784).

Courtney, William, archbishop of Canterbury, no match for Wickliffein debate, but had his revenge in persecuting his followers (1341-1396).

Courtois, Jacques, a French painter of battle-pieces; became aJesuit, died a monk (1621-1676).

Courtrais (29), a Belgian town on the Lys.

Cousin, Victor, a French philosopher, born in Paris; founder of aneclectic school, which derived its doctrines partly from the Scottishphilosophy and partly from the German, and which Dr. Chalmers in hisclass-room one day characterised jocularly as neither Scotch nor German,but just half seas over; he was a lucid expounder, an attractivelecturer, and exerted no small influence on public opinion in France; hada considerable following; retired from public life in 1848, and died atCannes; he left a number of philosophic works behind him, the best knownamong us “Discourses on the True, the Beautiful, and the Good”(1792-1867).

Cousin Michael, a disparaging designation of our German kindred, asslow, heavy, unpolished, and ungainly.

Cousin-Montauban, a French general, commanded the Chinese expeditionof 1860, and, after a victory over the Chinese, took possession of Pekin(1796-1878).

Cousins, Samuel, a mezzotint engraver, born at Exeter; engraved“Bolton Abbey,” “Marie Antoinette in the Temple,” and a number of platesafter eminent painters; left a fund to aid poor artists (1801-1880).

Couston, the name of three eminent French sculptors:Nicolas(1658-1733);Guillaume, father (1678-1746); andGuillaume, son(1716-1777).

Couthon, Georges, a violent revolutionary, one of a triumvirate withRobespierre and St. Just, who would expel every one from the Jacobin Clubwho could not give evidence of having done something to merit hanging,should a counter-revolution arrive; was paralysed in his limbs fromhaving had to spend a night “sunk to the middle in a cold peat bog” toescape detection as a seducer; trapped for the guillotine; tried to makeaway with himself under a table, but could not (1756-1794).

Coutts, Thomas, a banker, born in Edinburgh, his father having beenLord Provost of that city; joint-founder and eventually sole manager ofthe London banking house, Coutts & Co.; left a fortune of £900,000(1735-1822).

Couvade, a custom among certain races of low culture in which afather before and after childbirth takes upon himself the duties andcares of the mother.

Couza, Prince, born at Galatz, hereditary prince of Moldavia andWallachia; reigned from 1858 to 1860; died in exile, 1873.

Covenant, Solemn League and, an engagement, with representativesfrom Scotland, on the part of the English Parliament to secure to theScotch the terms of their National Covenant, and signed by honourablemembers in St. Margaret's Church, Westminster, September 25, 1643, on thecondition of assistance from the Scotch in their great struggle with theking.

Covenant, The National, a solemn engagement on the part of theScottish nation subscribed to by all ranks of the community, the firstsignature being appended to it in the Greyfriars' Churchyard, Edinburgh,on February 28, 1638, to maintain the Presbyterian Church and to resistall attempts on the part of Charles I. to foist Episcopacy upon it; itwas ratified by the Scottish Parliament in 1640, and subscribed byCharles II. in 1650 and 1651.

Covenanters, a body of strict Presbyterians who held out against thebreach of the Solemn League and Covenant.

Covent Garden, properly Convent Garden, as originally the garden ofWestminster Abbey, the great fruit, flower, and vegetable market ofLondon; is one of the sights of London early on a summer morning.

Coventry (55), a town in Warwickshire, 18½ m. SE. of Birmingham;famous for the manufacture of ribbons and watches, and recently the chiefseat of the manufacture of bicycles and tricycles; in the old streets aresome quaint old houses; there are some very fine churches and a number ofcharitable institutions.

Coventry, Sir John, a member of the Long Parliament; when, as amember of Parliament in Charles II.'s reign, he made reflections on theprofligate conduct of the king, he was set upon by bullies, who slit hisnose to the bone; a deed which led to the passing of the Coventry Act,which makes cutting and maiming a capital offence (1640-1682).

Coverdale, Miles, translator of the English Bible, born inYorkshire; his translation was the first issued under royal sanction,being dedicated to Henry VIII.; done at the instance of Thomas Cromwell,and brought out in 1535, and executed with a view to secure the favour ofthe authorities in Church and State, displaying a timid hesitancyunworthy of a manly faith in the truth; both he and his translationnevertheless were subjected to persecution, 2500 copies of the latter,printed in Paris, having been seized by the Inquisition and committed tothe flames (1487-1568).

Coverley, Sir Roger de, member of the club under whose auspices theSpectator is professedly edited; represents an English squire of QueenAnne's reign.

Cowell, John, an English lawyer, author of “Institutes of the Lawsof England” and of a law dictionary burnt by the common hangman formatter in it derogatory to the royal authority;d. 1611.

Cowen, Frederick Hymen, a popular English composer, born inKingston, Jamaica; his works consist of symphonies, cantatas, oratories,as well as songs, duets, &c.; is conductor of the Manchester SubscriptionConcerts in succession to Sir Charles Hallé;b. 1852.

Cowes, a watering-place in the N. of the Isle of Wight, separated bythe estuary of Medina into E. and W.; engaged in yacht-building, and thehead-quarters of the Royal Yacht Club.

Cowley, Abraham, poet and essayist, born in London; a contemporaryof Milton, whom he at one time outshone, but has now fallen into neglect;he was an ardent royalist, and catered to the taste of the court, which,however, brought him no preferment at the Restoration; he was a master ofprose, and specially excelled in letter-writing; he does not seem to haveadded much to the literature of England, except as an essayist, and inthis capacity has been placed at the head of those who cultivated thatclear, easy, and natural style which culminated in Addison (1618-1667).

Cowley, Henry Wellesley, Earl, an eminent diplomatist, brother ofthe Duke of Wellington; served as a diplomatist in Vienna,Constantinople, and Switzerland, and was ambassador to France from 1852to 1867 (1804-1884).

Cowper, William, a popular English poet, born at GreatBerkhampstead, Hertford, of noble lineage; lost his mother at six, andcherished the memory of her all his days; of a timid, sensitive nature,suffered acutely from harsh usage at school; read extensively in theclassics; trained for and called to the bar; was appointed at 32 a clerkto the House of Lords; qualifying for the duties of the appointmentproved too much for him, and he became insane; when he recovered, heretired from the world to Huntingdon beside a brother, where he formed anintimacy with a family of the name of Unwin, a clergyman in the place; onMr. Unwin's death he removed with the family to Olney, inBuckinghamshire, where he lived as a recluse and associated with the Rev.John Newton and Mrs. Unwin; shortly after he fell insane again, andcontinued so for two years; on his recovery he took to gardening andcomposing poems, his first the “Olney Hymns,” the melancholy beingcharmed away by the conversation of a Lady Austin, who came to live inthe neighbourhood; it was she who suggested his greatest poem, the“Task”; then followed other works, change of scene and associates, thedeath of Mrs. Unwin, and the gathering of a darker and darker cloud, tillhe passed away peacefully; it is interesting to note that it is to thisperiod his “Lines to Mary Unwin” and his “Mother's Picture” belong(1731-1800).

Cox, David, an eminent landscape painter, rated by some next toTurner, born at Birmingham; began his art as a scene-painter; painted asa landscapist first in water-colour, then in oil; many of his best worksare scenes in N. Wales; his works have risen in esteem and value; anambition of his was to get £100 for a picture, and one he got only £20for brought £3602 (1793-1830).

Cox, Sir George, an English mythologist, specially distinguished forresolving the several myths of Greece and the world into idealisations ofsolar phenomena; he has written on other subjects, all of interest, andis engaged with W. T. Brande on a “Dictionary of Science, Literature, andArt”;b. 1827.

Coxcie, Michael, a celebrated Flemish painter, born at Mechlin(1497-1592).

Coxe, Henry Octavius, librarian, became assistant-librarian of theBodleian Library, Oxford, in 1838, and ultimately head-librarian in 1860;under his direction the catalogue, consisting of 720 folio volumes, wascompleted; held this post till his death; has edited several works ofvalue; is one of Dean Burgon's “Twelve Good Men” (1811-1881).

Coxe, William, a historical writer, heavy but painstaking, born inLondon; wrote “History of the House of Austria” and the “Memoirs ofMarlborough,” and on “Sir Robert Walpole and the Pelham Administrations”(1747-1828).

Coxwell, a celebrated English aëronaut; bred a dentist; took toballooning; made 700 ascents; reached with Glaisher an elevation of 7 m.;b. 1819.

Cozens, John Robert, a landscape painter, a natural son of Peter theGreat; pronounced by Constable the greatest genius that ever touchedlandscape, and from him Turner confessed he had learned more than fromany other landscapist; his mind gave way at last, and he died insane(1752-1801).

Crabbe, George, an English poet, born at Aldborough, in Suffolk;began life as apprentice to an apothecary with a view to the practice ofmedicine, but having poetic tastes, he gave up medicine for literature,and started for London with a capital of three pounds; his firstproductions in this line not meeting with acceptance, he was plunged inwant; appealing in vain for assistance in his distress, he fell in withBurke, who liberally helped him and procured him high patronage, underwhich he took orders and obtained the living of Trowbridge, which he heldfor life, and he was now in circumstances to pursue his bent; hisprincipal poems are “The Library,” “The Village,” “The Parish Register,”“The Borough,” and the “Tales of the Hall,” all, particularly the earlierones, instinct with interest in the lives of the poor, “the sacrifices,temptations, loves, and crimes of humble life,” described with the most“unrelenting” realism; the author in Byron's esteem, “though Nature'ssternest painter, yet the best” (1754-1832).

Cracow (75), a city in Galicia, the old capital of Poland; where theold Polish kings were buried, and the cathedral of which contains thegraves of the most illustrious of the heroes of the country andThorwaldsen's statue of Christ; a large proportion of the inhabitants areJews.

Cradle Mountain, a mountain in the W. of Tasmania.

Craig, John, a Scottish Reformer, educated at St. Andrews, andoriginally a Dominican monk; had been converted to Protestantism by studyof Calvin's “Institutes,” been doomed to the stake by the Inquisition,but had escaped; the coadjutor in Edinburgh of Knox, and his successor inhis work, and left a confession and catechism (1512-1580).

Craig, Sir Thomas, an eminent Scottish lawyer, author of a treatiseon the “Jus Feudale,” which has often been reprinted, as well as threeothers in Latin of less note; wrote in Latin verse a poem on Queen Mary'smarriage to Darnley (1538-1608).

Craigenputtock, a craig or whinstone hill of the puttocks (smallhawks), “a high moorland farm on the watershed between Dumfriesshire andGalloway, 10 m. from Dumfries,” the property for generations of a familyof Welshes, and eventually that of their heiress, Jane Welsh Carlyle,“the loneliest spot in all the British dominions,” which the Carlylesmade their dwelling-house in 1828, where they remained for seven years,and where “Sartor” was written. “It is certain,” Carlyle says of it longafter, “that for living and thinking in I have never since found in theworld a place so favourable.... How blessed,” he exclaims, “might poormortals be in the straitest circumstances if their wisdom and fidelity toheaven and to one another were adequately great!”

Craik, George Little, an English author, born in Fife, educated atSt. Andrews; settled early in London as a littérateur; was associatedwith Charles Knight in his popular literary undertakings; was author ofthe “Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties,” and the “History ofEnglish Literature and Learning”; edited “Pictorial History of England,”contributed to “Penny Cyclopædia,” and became professor of EnglishLiterature, Queen's College, Belfast (1799-1866).

Craik, Mrs.,néeMulock, born at Stoke-upon-Trent; authoressof “John Halifax, Gentleman,” her chief work, which has had, andmaintains, a wide popularity; married in 1865 a nephew and namesake ofthe preceding, a partner of the publishing house of Macmillan & Co.;wrote for the magazines, besides some 14 more novels (1826-1887).

Crail, a little old-fashioned town near the East Neuk of Fife, whereJames Sharp was minister; a decayed fishing-place, now a summer resort.

Cramer, Johann Baptist, a distinguished German composer and pianist(1771-1858).

Cranach, Lucas, a celebrated German painter, born at Kronach, in thebishopric of Bamberg; was patronised by Frederick the Wise, Elector ofSaxony, whom he accompanied in 1493 to the Holy Land; was engraver aswell as painter, skilled in portraiture as well as in historical scenes;was intimately associated with the German reformers Luther andMelanchthon, whose portraits he painted among others; the works of histhat remain are chiefly altar-pieces; his chief work is the “Crucifixion”in Weimar, where he died (1472-1553).

Crane, Ichabod, a tall, lean, lank, Yankee schoolmaster in Irving's“Legend of Sleepy Hollow.”

Crane, Walter, poet and painter; has published various illustratedbooks and poems illustrated by himself, and is an authority on decorativeart;b. 1845.

Cranmer, Thomas, archbishop of Canterbury, born in Nottinghamshire;educated at Jesus College, Cambridge; recommended himself to Henry VIII.by favouring his divorce, writing in defence of it, and pleading for itbefore the Pope, the latter in vain, as it proved; on his return waselevated to the archbishopric, in which capacity he proved a zealouspromoter of the Reformation, by having the Bible translated andcirculated, and by the suppression of monasteries; pronounced sentence ofdivorce of Catharine, and confirmed the king's marriage with Anne Boleyn;by these and other compliances he kept the favour of Henry, but on theaccession of Mary he was committed to the Tower and persuaded to recant,and even signed a recantation, but on being called to recant in public,and refusing to do so, he was dragged to the stake, thrust his right handinto the flames, and exclaimed, “Oh, this unworthy hand” (1489-1566).

Crannoge, a species of lake-dwelling and stronghold, of whichremains are found in Scotland and Ireland.

Crapaud, Jean, a nickname of the Frenchmen.

Crashaw, Richard, a minor poet, born in London; bred for the EnglishChurch; went to Paris, where he became a Roman Catholic; fell intopecuniary difficulties, but was befriended by Cowley and recommended to apost; was an imitator of George Herbert, and his poems were of the sameclass, but more fantastical; his principal poems were “Steps to theTemple” and the “Delights of the Muses”; both Milton and Pope areindebted to him (1616-1650).

Crassus, Lucius Licinius, the greatest Roman orator of his day,became consul 55 B.C.; during his consulship a law was passed requiringall but citizens to leave Rome, an edict which provoked the Social War(140-91 B.C.).

Crassus, Marcus Licinius, the triumvir with Pompey and Cæsar; wasavaricious, and amassed great wealth; appointed to the province of Syria,provoked out of cupidity war with the Parthians, in which he wastreacherously slain; Orodes, the king, cut off his head, and pouredmelted gold into his mouth, saying as he did so, “Now sate thyself withthe metal of which thou wert so greedy when alive” (115-53 B.C.).

Crates, a Greek cynic philosopher, disciple of Diogenes; 4th centuryB.C.

Cratinus, a Greek comic poet, born at Athens; limited the actors ina piece to three, and the first to introduce into the drama attacks onpublic men, wrote also satires on vice (519-424 B.C.).

Cratippus, a Peripatetic philosopher of Mytilene, contemporary ofPompey and Cicero; soothed the sunken spirit of the former after thedefeat at Pharsalia with the consolations of philosophy.

Cratylus, a dialogue of Plato's on the connection between languageand thought.

Crawford, Marion, a novelist, born in Tuscany, of American origin,son of the succeeding; spent a good deal of his early years in India, andnow lives partly in New York and partly in Italy; his works, which arenumerous, are chiefly novels, his first “Mr. Isaacs” (1882), original andstriking; an able writer, and a scholarly;b. 1854.

Crawford, Thomas, an American sculptor, studied at Rome underThorwaldsen; his “Orpheus in Search of Eurydice” brought him into notice,and was followed by an array of works of eminent merit; died in Londonfrom a tumour on the brain, after being struck with blindness(1814-1857).

Crawford and Balcarres, Earl of, better known as Lord Lindsay, andas the author of “Letters from the Holy Land,” “Progression byAntagonism,” and “Sketches of the History of Christian Art”; died atFlorence, and was entombed at Dunecht, whence his body was abstracted andfound again in a wood near by after a seven months' search (1812-1880).

Crayer, Caspar de, a celebrated Flemish painter, born at Antwerp;pictures and altar-pieces by him are to be seen in Brussels and Ghent(1582-1669).

Creakle, Mr., a bullying schoolmaster in “David Copperfield.”

Creasy, Sir Edward, chief-justice of Ceylon, author of “The FifteenDecisive Battles of the World,” “Rise and Progress of the BritishConstitution,” &c. (1812-1878).

Creatin, a substance found in the muscles of vertebrate animals, butnever in invertebrate.

Crébillon, a French dramatist, born at Dijon, bred to the law,devoted to literature and the composition of tragedies, of which heproduced several, mostly on classical subjects, such as “Atreus andThyestes,” “Electra,” of unequal merit, though at times of great power;he ranked next Voltaire among the dramatists of the time (1674-1762).

Crécy, a French village, 12 m. NE. of Abbeville, where Edward III.,with 30,000, defeated the French with 68,000, and destroyed the flower ofthe chivalry of France, Aug. 26, 1346.

Crédit Foncier, a system of credit originating in France on thesecurity of land, whereby the loan is repayable so that principal andinterest are extinguished at the same time.

Creech, William, an Edinburgh bookseller, for 40 years the chiefpublisher in the city; published the first Edinburgh edition of Burns'spoems (1745-1815).

Creeks, a tribe of American Indians settled in Indian territory.

Creighton, Mandell, bishop of London, born at Carlisle; previouslybishop of Peterborough; has written on Simon de Montfort, on Wolsey, andon the Tudors and the Reformation, but his great work is the “History ofthe Papacy from the Great Schism to the Sack of Rome,” a work of greatvalue;b. 1843.

Crémieux, a French advocate and politician, born at Nîmes, of Jewishbirth; a member of the Provisional Government of 1848, and of theNational Defence in 1870; took a deep interest in the destiny of his race(1796-1880).

Cremona, old town on the Po, in Lombardy, 46 m. SE. of Milan;interesting for its churches, with their paintings and frescoes; noted atone time for the manufacture of violins.

Cremorne (37), gardens in Chelsea; a popular place of amusement, nowclosed.

Creole State, Louisiana, U.S.

Crescent City, New Orleans, U.S., as originally occupying a convexbend of the Mississippi.

Crescentini, a celebrated Italian soprano (1769-1846).

Crescentius, a patrician of Rome who, in the 10th century, sought todestroy the imperial power and restore the republic; on this he wasdefeated by Otho III., to whom he surrendered on promise of safety, butwho hanged and beheaded him; Stephano, his widow, avenged this treacheryby accepting Otho as her lover, and then poisoning him.

Crespi, Giuseppe, an Italian painter; copied the works of Correggio,Caracci, and other masters (1665-1747).

Creswell, Sir Creswell, judge, born in Newcastle; representedLiverpool in Parliament; was raised to the bench by Peel, and, on theestablishment of the Divorce Court, was in 1858 named first judge(1794-1863).

Creswick, Thomas, an English landscape painter, born in Sheffield;simple, pleasantly-suggestive, and faithfully-painted scenes from naturewere the subjects of his art; was employed a good deal in bookillustrations (1811-1869).

Crete orCandia (295), a mountainous island in theMediterranean, 160 m. long and from 7 to 30 m. broad; in nominalsubjection to Turkey after 1669, it was in perpetual revolt. The risingof 1895 led to the intervention of the great powers of Europe, and theTurkish troops having been withdrawn in 1898 under pressure from GreatBritain, Russia, France, and Italy, Prince George of Greece was appointedHigh Commissioner, ruling on behalf of these powers. Turkey still retainsthe nominal suzerainty.

Cretinism, a disease prevalent in valleys as those of the Alps,characterised by mental imbecility, and associated with abnormal andarrested physical development.

Creusa, a wife of Æneas, fell behind her husband, lost her way inescaping from Troy, and perished.

Creusot, Le (18), a town in the dep. Saône-et-Loire, near Autun,which owes its importance to the large iron-works established there; is adistrict rich in coal and iron.

Creuzer, a learned German philologist, born at Marburg; becameprofessor of Ancient History and Philology at Heidelberg; his chief work,and one by which he is most widely known, “Symbolik und Mythologie derAlten Völker, besonders der Griechen,” “Symbolism and Mythology ofAncient Peoples, especially the Greeks”; left an autobiography(1771-1858).

Crewe (29), a town in Cheshire, 43 m. SE. of Liverpool, a greatrailway junction, and where the London and North-Western Railway Companyhave their works.

Crichton, James, surnamed The Admirable, a Scotchman of gentle, evennoble birth, educated at St. Andrews, had George Buchanan for tutor;early developed the most extraordinary gifts of both body and mind;travelled to Paris, Rome, Venice, Milan, and Mantua; astonished every oneby his strength and skill as an athlete, and his dexterity and agility indebate; at Mantua he became tutor to the son of the Duke, when one nighthe was attacked in the streets by a band of masked men, whom he overcameby his skill, recognised his pupil among them, and presented to him hissword, upon which, it is said, the young man immediately ran him throughwith it (1560-1585).

Crieff (5), a town in Perthshire, at the foot of the Grampians, 18m. W. of Perth, amid exquisite scenery; has a climate favourable forinvalids.

Crillon, a French military captain, born at Mars, in Provence;distinguished himself through five reigns, those of Henry II., FrancisII., Charles IX., Henry III., and Henry IV., of the last of whom hebecame companion in arms, who designated himLe brave des braves, andwho wrote to him this famous note after the victory of Arques: “Wherewere you, brave Crillon? we have conquered, and you were not there.”(1541-1615).

Crimea (250), a peninsula in the S. of Russia, almost surrounded bythe Black Sea and the Sea of Azov, being connected with the mainland bythe narrow isthmus of Perekop; has a bold and precipitous coast 650 m. inlength; is barren in the N., but fertile and fruitful in the S.;population chiefly Russians and Tartars.

Crimean War, a war carried on chiefly in the Crimea, on the part ofTurkey aided by Britain and France, in which Sardinia eventually joinedthem, against the encroachments of Russia in the E., and which wasproclaimed against Russia, March 24, 1854, and ended by the fall ofSebastopol, September 8, 1855, the treaty of peace following having beensigned at Paris, March 1856.

Crinan Canal, a canal for vessels of light burden, 9 m. long, fromLoch Fyne, in Argyllshire, constructed to avoid sailing round the Mull ofKintyre, thereby saving a distance of 115 m.

Crispi, Francesco, an Italian statesman, born in Sicily; co-operatedwith Garibaldi in the Sicilian Revolution, and since active as a memberof the Government in the kingdom of Italy;b. 1819.

Crispin, the patron saint of shoemakers, of noble birth, who withhis brother had to flee from persecution in Rome to Gaul, where theysettled at Soissons; preached to the people and supported themselves byshoemaking; they finally suffered martyrdom in 287. Festival, Oct. 25.

Critias, a pupil of Socrates, who profited so little by his master'steaching that he became the most conspicuous for his cruelty and rapacityof all the thirty tyrants set up in Athens by the Spartans(450-402 B.C.).

Criton, a rich Athenian, friend and disciple of Socrates; supportedhim by his fortune, but could not persuade him to leave the prison,though he had procured the means of escape.

Croa`tia and Slavonia (2,201), a Hungarian crownland, lying betweenthe Drave and Save, tributaries of the Danube, and stretching westward tothe Adriatic. It is half as large as Ireland, wooded and mountainous,with marshy districts along the river courses. The soil is fertile,growing cereals, fibres, tobacco, and grapes; silkworms and bees are asource of wealth; horses, cattle, and swine are raised in large numbers.The province is poor in minerals, and lacks a harbour. The people areSlavs, of Roman Catholic faith; backward in education, but showing signsof progress.

Crockett, Samuel Rutherford, novelist, born near New Galloway,Kirkcudbright; bred for the Church, and for some time Free Churchminister at Penicuik, Midlothian, a charge he resigned in 1895, havingpreviously published a volume of sketches entitled “The StickitMinister,” which was so received as to induce him to devote himself toliterature, as he has since done with more or less success;b. 1859.

Croesus, the last of the kings of Lydia, in the 6th century B.C.;celebrated for his wealth, so that his name became a synonym for a manoverwhelmed by the favours of fortune; being visited by Solon, he askedhim one day if he knew any one happier than he was, when the sageanswered, “No man can be counted happy till after death.” Of the truth ofthis Croesus had ere long experience; being condemned to death by Cyrus,who had defeated him and condemned him to be burnt, and about to be ledto the burning pile, he called out thrice over the name of Solon; whenCyrus, having learned the reason, moved with pity, ordered his release,retained him among his counsellors, and commended him when dying to thecare of his son.

Croker, John Wilson, a politician and man of letters, born inGalway, though of English descent; bred for the bar; wrote in advocacy ofCatholic emancipation; represented Downpatrick in Parliament; was in 1809appointed Secretary to the Admiralty, a post he held for 20 years; wasone of the founders of theQuarterly Review, to which, it is said, hecontributed 200 articles; edited Boswell's “Life of Johnson” with Notes;was an obstinate Tory, satirised by Disraeli and severely handled byMacaulay; founded the Athenæum Club (1780-1857).

Croker, T. Crofton, Irish folk-lorist, born in Cork; held awell-paid clerkship in the Admiralty; collected and published stories,legends, and traditions of the S. of Ireland; he wrote with a humourwhich was heartily Irish; his most original work being “The Adventures ofBarney Mahoney”; he was a zealous antiquary; he was a brilliantconversationalist (1798-1854).

Croll, James, a geologist, born near Coupar-Angus; contributedmaterially to geology by his study of the connection between alterationsof climate and geological changes (1821-1890).

Croly, George, a versatile author; designed for the Church; took toliterature, and wrote in all kinds, poetry, biography, and romance; hisbest romance “Salathiel”; died rector of St. Stephen's, Walbrook(1780-1860).

Cromarty, a county in the N. of Scotland, consisting of tenfragments scattered up and down Ross-shire; the county town, thebirthplace of Hugh Miller, being on the N. side of Cromarty Firth, whichopens eastward into the Moray Firth, and forms a large harbour 1 m. longand 7 broad, protected at the mouth by two beetling rocks called Sutors,one on each side, 400 and 463 ft. high.

Crome, John, usually called Old Crome, a landscape-painter, born inNorwich, of poor parents; began as a house-painter and then adrawing-master; one of the founders of the Norwich Society of Artists;took his subjects from his native county, and treated them with fidelityto nature; his pictures have risen in value since his death (1768-1821).

Crompton, Samuel, inventor of the spinning-mule, born near Bolton;for five years he worked at his project, and after he got it into shapewas tormented by people prying about him and trying to find out hissecret; at last a sum was raised by subscription to buy it, and he gotsome £60 for it, by which others became wealthy, while he had to spend,and end, his days in comparative poverty, all he had to subsist on beinga life annuity of £63 which some friends bought him (1753-1827).

Cromwell, Oliver, Lord-Protector of the commonwealth of England,born at Huntingdon, the son of Robert Cromwell, the younger son of SirHenry Cromwell, and of Elizabeth Steward, descended from the royal familyof Scotland, their third child and second boy; educated at Huntingdon andafterwards at Cambridge; left college at his father's death, and occupiedhimself in the management of his paternal property; entered Parliament in1629, and represented Cambridge in 1640, where to oppose the king he, bycommission in 1642 from Essex, raised a troop of horse, famous afterwardsas his “Ironsides”; with these he distinguished himself, first at MarstonMoor in 1644, and next year at Naseby; crushed the Scots at Preston in1648, who had invaded the country in favour of the king, now in the handsof the Parliament, and took Berwick; sat at trial of the king and signedhis death-warrant, 1649; sent that same year to subdue rebellion inIreland, he sternly yet humanely stamped it out; recalled from Ireland,he set out for Scotland, which had risen up in favour of Charles II., andtotally defeated the Scots at Dunbar, Sept. 3, 1650, after which Charlesinvaded England and the Royalists were finally beaten at Worcester, Sept.3, 1651, upon which his attention was drawn to affairs of government;taking up his residence at Hampton Court, his first step was to dissolvethe Rump, which he did by military authority in 1653; a new Parliamentwas summoned, which also he was obliged to dismiss, after being declaredLord-Protector; from this time he ruled mainly alone, and wherever hispower was exercised, beyond seas even, it was respected; at last hiscares and anxieties proved too much for him and wore him out, he fell illand died, Sept. 3, 1658, the anniversary of his two great victories atDunbar and Worcester; they buried him in Westminster, but his body wasdug up at the Restoration, hanged at Tyburn, and buried under thegallows; such treatment his body was subjected to after he was gone, andfor long after he was no less ignobly treated by several succeedinggenerations as a hypocrite, a fanatic, or a tyrant; but now, thanks toCarlyle, he is come to be regarded as one of the best and wisest rulersthat ever sat on the English throne (1599-1658). See “Cromwell's Lettersand Speeches,” edited by Carlyle.

Cromwell, Richard, son of the Protector; appointed to succeed him;was unequal to the task, and compelled to abdicate, April 26, 1659;retired into private life; went after the Restoration for a time abroad;returned under a feigned name, and lived and died at Cheshunt(1626-1712).

Cromwell, Thomas, minister of Henry VIII., andmalleus monachorum,the “mauler of the monks,” born at Putney; the son of a blacksmith; led alife of adventure for eight or nine years on the Continent; settled inEngland about the beginning of Henry's reign; came under notice ofWolsey, whose confidant he became, and subordinate agent in suppressingthe smaller monasteries; on his master's fall rose into favour with Henryby suggesting he should discard the supremacy of the Pope, and assume thesupremacy of the Church himself; attained, in consequence, the highestrank and authority in the State, for the proposal was adopted, with theresult that the Crown remains the head of ecclesiastical authority inEngland to this day; the authority he thus acquired he employed in sohigh-handed a fashion that he lost the favour of both king and people,till on a sudden he was arrested on charges of treason, was condemned todeath, and beheaded on Tower Hill (1485-1540).

Cronstadt (42), the port of St. Petersburg, at the mouth of theNeva; a strongly fortified place, and the greatest naval station in thecountry; it is absolutely impregnable.

Crookes, William, an eminent chemist and physicist, born in London;distinguished for researches in both capacities; discovered the metalthallium, and invented the radiometer;b. 1832.

Cross, Mrs., George Eliot's married name.

Cross, Southern, a bright constellation in the southern hemisphere,consisting of four stars.

Cross, Victoria, a naval and military decoration instituted in 1854;awarded for eminent personal valour in the face of the enemy.

Cross Fell, one of the Pennine range of mountains in the N. ofEngland, 2892 ft., on the top of which five counties meet.

Crosse, Andrew, electrician, born at Somersetshire; made severaldiscoveries in the application of electricity; he was a zealousscientist, and apt to be over-zealous (1784-1855).

Crossraguel, an abbey, now in ruins, 2 m. SW. of Maybole, Ayrshire,where John Knox held disputation with the abbot, and of which in his“History of the Reformation” he gives a humorous account (1562).

Crotch, William, musical composer of precocious gifts, and writer inmusic, born in Norwich; became, in 1797, professor of Music in Oxford,and in 1822 Principal of the Royal Academy; his anthems are well known(1775-1847).

Crotona, an ancient large and flourishing Greek city, Magna Græcia,in Italy; the residence of the philosopher Pythagoras and the athleteMilo.

Crowe, Eyre Evans, historian and miscellaneous writer, born inHants; editor of theDaily News; author of the “History of France” and“Lives of Eminent Foreign Statesmen” (1799-1868).

Crowe, Sir James Archer, writer on art and a journalist, born inLondon, son of the preceding; is associated with Cavalcaselle in severalworks on art and famous artists;b. 1825.

Crowne, John, playwright, born in Nova Scotia, a contemporary andrival of Dryden; supplied the stage with plays for nearly 30 years(1640-1705).

Crowther, Samuel Adjai, bishop of the Niger Territory; an African bybirth; was captured to be sold as a slave, but released by an Englishcruiser; baptized a Christian in 1825; joined the first Niger Expeditionin 1841; sent out as a missionary in 1843; appointed bishop in 1864, theduties of which he discharged faithfully, zealously, and well(1810-1891).

Croydon (103), the largest town in Surrey, on the Wandle, 10 m. SW.of London Bridge, and practically now a suburb of London.

Cruden, Alexander, author of a “Complete Concordance of the HolyScriptures,” with which alone his name is now associated; born inAberdeen; intended for the Church, but from unsteadiness of intellectnot qualified to enter it; was placed frequently in restraint; appears tohave been a good deal employed as a press corrector; gave himself out as“Alexander the Corrector,” commissioned to correct moral abuses(1701-1770).

Cruikshank, George, a richly gifted English artist, born in London,of Scotch descent; the first exhibition of his talent was in theillustration of books for children, but it was in the line of humoroussatire he chiefly distinguished himself; and he first found scope for hisgifts in this direction in the political squibs of William Hone, afaculty he exercised at length over a wide area; the works illustrated byhim include, among hundreds of others, “Grimm's Stories,” “PeterSchlemihl,” Scott's “Demonology,” Dickens's “Oliver Twist,” andAinsworth's “Jack Shepherd”; like Hogarth, he was a moralist as well asan artist, and as a total abstainer he consecrated his art at length todramatise the fearful downward career of the drunkard; his greatest work,done in oil, is in the National Gallery, the “Worship of Bacchus,” whichis a vigorous protestation against this vice (1792-1878).

Crusades, The, military expeditions, organised from the 11th centuryto the 13th, under the banner of the Cross for the recovery of the HolyLand from the hands of the Saracens, to the number of eight.The First(1096-1099), preached by Peter the Hermit, and sanctioned by the Councilof Clermont (1095), consisted of two divisions: one, broken into twohordes, under Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless respectively,arrived decimated in Syria, and was cut to pieces at Nicæa by the sultan;while the other, better equipped and more efficiently organised, laidsiege to and captured in succession Nicæa, Antioch, and Jerusalem, whereGodfrey of Bouillon was proclaimed king.The Second (1147-1149),preached by St. Bernard, consisting of two armies under Conrad III. ofGermany and Louis VII. of France, laid siege in a shattered state toDamascus, and was compelled to raise the siege and return a mere remnantto Europe.The Third (1189-1193), preached by William, archbishop ofTyre, and provoked by Saladin's capture of Jerusalem, of which onedivision was headed by Barbarossa, who, after taking Iconium, was drownedwhile bathing in the Orontes, and the other, headed by Philippe Augustusand Richard Coeur de Lion, who jointly captured Acre and made peace withSaladin.The Fourth (1202-1204), under sanction of Pope Innocent III.,and undertaken by Baldwin, count of Flanders, having got the length ofVenice, was preparing to start for Asia, when it was called aside toConstantinople to restore the emperor to his throne, when, upon his deathimmediately afterwards, the Crusaders elected Baldwin in his place,pillaged the city, and left, having added it to the domain of the Pope.The Fifth (1217-1221), on the part of John of Brienne, king ofJerusalem, and Andrew II., king of Hungary, who made a raid upon Egyptagainst the Saracens there, but without any result.The Sixth(1228-1229), under conduct of Frederick II. of Germany, as heir throughJohn of Brienne to the throne of Jerusalem, who made a treaty with thesultan of Egypt, whereby the holy city, with the exception of the Mosqueof Omar, was made over to him as king of Jerusalem.The Seventh(1248-1254), conducted by St. Louis in the fulfilment of a vow, in whichLouis was defeated and taken prisoner, and only recovered his liberty bypayment of a heavy ransom.The Eighth (1270), also undertaken by St.Louis, who lay dying at Tunis as the towns of Palestine fell one afteranother into the hands of the Saracens. The Crusades terminated with thefall of Ptolemaïs in 1291.

Crusoe, Robinson, the hero of Defoe's fiction of the name, ashipwrecked sailor who spent years on an uninhabited island, and iscredited with no end of original devices in providing for his wants. SeeSelkirk.

Csoma de Körös, Alexander, a Hungarian traveller and philologist,born in Körös, Transylvania; in the hope of tracing the origin of theMagyar race, set out for the East in 1820, and after much hardship by theway arrived in Thibet, where, under great privations, though aided by theEnglish Government, he devoted himself to the study of the Thibetanlanguage; in 1831 settled in Calcutta, where he compiled his ThibetanGrammar and Dictionary, and catalogued the Thibetan works in the libraryof the Asiatic Society; died at Darjeeling just as he was setting out forfresh discoveries (1784-1836).

Ctesias, Greek physician and historian of Persia; was present withArtaxerxes Mnemon at the battle of Cunaxa, 401 B.C., and stayedafterwards at the Persian court, where he got the materials for hishistory, of which only a few fragments are extant.

Ctesiphon, an Athenian who, having proposed that the city shouldconfer a crown of gold on Demosthenes, was accused by Æschines ofviolating the law in so doing, but was acquitted after an eloquentoration by Demosthenes in his defence.

Cuba (1,500), the largest of the West India Islands, 700 m. long andfrom 27 m. to 290 m. in breadth; belonged to Spain, but is now under theprotection of the United States; is traversed from E. to W. by a range ofmountains wooded to the summit; abounds in forests—ebony, cedar,mahogany, &c.; soil very fertile; exports sugar and tobacco; principaltown, Havana.

Cubbit, Sir William, an eminent English engineer, born in Norfolk;more or less employed in most of the great engineering undertakings ofhis time (1785-1861).

Cudworth, Ralph, an eminent English divine and philosopher, born inSomerset; his chief work, a vast and discursive one, and to which he oweshis fame, “The True Intellectual System of the Universe,” in which heteaches a philosophy of the Platonic type, which ascribes more to theabiding inner than the fugitive outer of things; he defends revealedreligion on grounds of reason against both the atheist and thematerialist; his candour and liberality exposed him to muchmisconstruction, and on that account was deemed a latitudinarian. “Hestands high among our early philosophers for his style, which, if notexactly elegant and never splendid, is solid and clear” (1617-1688).

Cuenca, a fine old city in Spain, 83 m. E. of Madrid; also ahigh-lying city of Ecuador, over 100 m. S. of Quito, with a delightfulclimate; both in provinces of the same name.

Cujas, orCujacius, a celebrated French jurist, born atToulouse; devoted to the study of Roman law in its historicaldevelopment, and the true founder of the Historical school in thatdepartment (1522-1590).

Culdees, fraternities of uncertain origin and character scattered upand down Ireland, and especially Scotland, hardly at all in England, fromthe 9th or 10th to the 14th century; instituted, as would appear, to keepalive a religious spirit among themselves and disseminate it among theirneighbours, until on the establishment of monastic orders in the countrythey ceased to have a separate existence and lost their individuality inthe new communities, as well as their original character; they appear tohave been originally, whatever they became at length, something likethose fraternities we find later on at Deventer, in Holland, with whichThomas à Kempis was connected, only whereas the former sought to plantChristianity, the latter sought to purify it. The name disappears after1332, but traces of them are found at Dunkeld, St. Andrews, Brechin, andelsewhere in Scotland; in Ireland they continued in Armagh to theReformation, and were resuscitated for a few years in the 17th century.

Cullen, Paul, Cardinal, Catholic primate of Ireland, born inKildare; was an extreme Ultramontanist; vigorously opposed all secretsocieties in the country with revolutionary aims, as well as the systemof mixed education then in force (1803-1878).

Cullen, William, physician, born at Hamilton; studied in Glasgow;held successively the chairs of Chemistry, the Institutes of Medicine,and Medicine in Edinburgh University; author of several medical works;did much to advance the science of medicine; the celebrated Dr. Black wasone of his pupils in chemistry (1710-1790).

Culloden, a moor, 5 m. NE. of Inverness, where the Duke ofCumberland defeated Prince Charles in 1746, and finally wrecked theStuart cause in the country.

Culpeper, Nicholas, a herbalist, born in London, who practisedmedicine and associated therewith the art of the astrologer as well asthe faith of a Puritan; was a character and a phenomenon of his time(1616-1654).

Culverwel, Nathaniel, an English author, born in Middlesex; educatedat Cambridge, and one of the Platonist school there; wrote “Light ofNature,” “Spiritual Optics,” “Worth of Souls,” &c., works which evincevigour of thinking as well as literary power (1633-1651).

Cumæ, a considerable maritime city of Campania, now in ruins;alleged to be the earliest Greek settlement in Italy; famous as theresidence of theSibyl (q. v.), and a place of luxurious resortfor wealthy Romans.

Cumberland (250), a county in N. of England, of mountain and dale,with good agricultural and pasture land, and a rich coal-field on thecoast, as well as other minerals in the interior.

Cumberland, Dr. Richard, bishop of Peterborough, born in London,educated at Cambridge, wrote several works, the chief “An Inquiry intothe Laws of Nature,” in reply to Hobbes, in which he elevates thetendency to produce happiness into something like a moral principle;wrought hard, lived to a great age, and is credited with the saying,“Better wear out than rust out” (1631-1718).

Cumberland, Richard, dramatist, great-grandson of the preceding; wasa prolific writer for the stage; the play “The West Indian,” whichestablished his reputation, was his best (1732-1811).

Cumberland, William Augustus, Duke of, second son of George II., wasdefeated at Fontenoy by the French in 1745; defeated the Pretender nextyear at Culloden; earned the title of “The Butcher” by his crueltiesafterwards; was beaten in all his battles except this one (1721-1765).

Cumbria, a country of the Northern Britons which, in the 6thcentury, extended from the Clyde to the Dee, in Cheshire.

Cumming, Gordon, the African lion-hunter, of Celtic origin; servedfor a time in the army; wrote an account of his hunting exploits in his“Five Years of a Hunter's Life” (1820-1866).

Cumming, John, a Scotch clergyman, popular in London, born atFintray, in Aberdeenshire; of a highly combative turn, and ratherfoolhardy in his interpretations of prophecy (1807-1881).

Cunard, Sir Samuel, founder of Cunard Line of Steamships, born inHalifax, Nova Scotia (1787-1865).

Cunaxa, a town in Babylonia, on the Euphrates, 60 m. N. of Babylon.

Cunctator, a name given to Fabius Maximus on account of thetantalising tactics he adopted to wear out his adversary Hannibal.

Cune`iform, an epithet applied to the wedge-shaped characters inwhich the Assyrian and other ancient monumental inscriptions are written.

Cunningham, Allan, poet and man of letters, born in the parish ofKeir, Dumfriesshire; bred to the mason craft, but devoted his leisurehours to study and the composition of Scottish ballads, which, whenpublished, gained him the notice of Sir Walter Scott; in 1810 he went toLondon, where he wrote for periodicals, and obtained employment asassistant to Chantrey the sculptor, in which post he found leisure tocultivate his literary proclivities, collating and editing tales andsongs, editing Burns with a Life, and writing the Lives of famousartists, and died in London; “a pliant,Naturmensch,” Carlyle found himto be, “with no principles orcreed that he could see, but excellentoldhabits of character” (1784-1842).

Cunningham, Peter, son of the preceding, author of the “Life ofDrummond of Hawthornden,” “Handbook of London,” &c. (1816-1867).

Cunningham, William, a Scotch divine, born in Hamilton, well read inthe Reformation and Puritan theology, a vigorous defender of Scottishorthodoxy, and a stanch upholder of the independence of the Church ofState control; was a powerful debater, and a host in any controversy inwhich he embarked (1805-1861).

Cupid, orAmor, the god of love, viewed as a chubby little boy,armed with bow and arrows, and often with eyes bandaged.

Cupid and Psyche, an allegorical representation of the trials of thesoul on its way to the perfection of bliss, being an episode in the“Golden Ass” of Apuleius. SeePsyche.

Curaça`o (26), one of Antilles, in the West Indies, belonging to theDutch, 36 m. long by about 8 broad; yields, along with other West Indianproducts, an orange from the peel of which a liqueur is made in Holland.

Curé of Meudon, Rabelais.

Cure`tes, priests of Cybele, in Crete, whose rites were celebratedwith clashing of cymbals.

Cureton, William, Syriac scholar, born in Shropshire,assistant-keeper of MSS. at the British Museum; applied himself to thestudy and collation of Syriac MSS., and discovered, among other relics, aversion of the Epistle of Ignatius; was appointed canon of Westminster(1808-1864).

Curiatii, three Alban brothers who fought with the three HoratiiRoman brothers, and were beaten, to the subjection of Alba to Rome.

Curle, Edmund, a London bookseller, notorious for the issue oflibellous and of obscene publications, and for prosecutions he wassubjected to in consequence (1675-1747).

Curling, a Scottish game played between rival clubs, belonginggenerally to different districts, by means of cheese-shaped stones hurledalong smooth ice, the rules of which are pretty much the same as those inbowling.

Curran, John Philpot, an Irish orator and wit, born in co. Cork;became member of Parliament in 1784; though a Protestant, employed allhis eloquence to oppose the policy of the Government towards Ireland,together with the Union; retired on the death of Pitt; was Master of theRolls for a time; was Irish to the core (1750-1817).

Currie, James, a Liverpool physician, born in Kirkpatrick-Fleming,Dumfriesshire; was the earliest biographer and editor of Burns, in 4vols., a work he undertook for behoof of his widow and family, and whichrealised £1400, involved no small labour, was donecon amore, and donewell (1756-1805).

Currie, Sir Philip, her Majesty's ambassador at Constantinople since1893; has been connected with the Foreign Office since 1854; had beenattaché at St. Petersburg, and was secretary to Lord Salisbury;b.1834.

Curtis, George William, an American writer, born in Rhode Island,distinguished as contributor or editor in connection with severalAmerican journals and magazines;b. 1824.

Curtius, a noble youth of Roman legend who leapt on horsebackfull-armed into a chasm in the Forum, which the soothsayers declaredwould not close unless at the sacrifice of what Rome held dearest, andwhich he did, judging that the wealth of Rome lay in its citizens, andtradition says the chasm thereupon immediately closed.

Curtius, Ernst, a German archæologist and philosopher, born atLübeck; travelled in Greece and Asia Minor; contributed much by hisresearches to the history of Greece, and of its legends and works of art;his jubilee as a professor was celebrated in 1891, when he received thecongratulations of the Emperor William II., to whose father he at onetime had acted as tutor;b. 1814.

Curtius, Georg, German philologist, born at Lübeck, brother of thepreceding; held professorial appointments in Prague, Kiel, and Berlin;one of the best Greek scholars in Germany, and contributed largely to theetymology and grammar of the Greek language (1820-1885).

Curtius, Quintus Rufus, a Roman historian of uncertain date; wrote ahistory of Alexander the Great in ten books, two of which have been lost,the rest surviving in a very fragmentary state.

Curtmantle, a surname of Henry II., from a robe he wore shorter thanthat of his predecessors.

Curule chair, a kind of ivory camp-stool, mounted on a chariot, onwhich a Roman magistrate, if consul, prætor, censor, or chief edile, satas he was conveyed in state to the senate-house or some public function.

Curwen, John, an Independent clergyman, born in Yorkshire; thefounder of the Tonic Sol-fa system in music; from 1864 gave himself up tothe advocacy and advancement of his system (1816-1880).

Curzon, George Nathaniel, Lord, English statesman, son of aclergyman, educated at Eton and Oxford; became Fellow of All Souls;became Under-Secretary for India in 1891; travelled in the East, andwrote on Eastern topics, on which he became an authority; was appointedViceroy of India in 1899;b. 1859.

Cushing, an American jurist and diplomatist (1800-1879).

Cushman, Charlotte, an American actress, born in Boston;represented, among other characters, Lady Macbeth, Rosalind, MegMerilees, and Romeo (1810-1876).

Custine, Count de, a French general, born at Metz; seized andoccupied Mayence, 1792; was forced out of it by the Prussians and obligedto retreat; was called to account and sent to the guillotine;“unsuccessfulness,” his crime; “had fought in America; was a proud, braveman, and his fortune led himhither” (1746-1793)

Cüstrin, a strong little town, 68 or 70 m. E. of Berlin, where youngFrederick the Great was kept in close confinement by his father.

Cutch, a native State in the Bombay Presidency, in the countrycalled Gujarat.

Cutch, Rann of, a salt-water morass between Gujarat and Scinde,which becomes a lake during the SW. monsoon.

Cuthbert, a monk of Jarrow, a disciple of Bede; was with him when hedied, and wrote in a letter a graphic and touching account of his death.

Cuthbert, St., born in Northumbria; originally a shepherd; saw avision in the night-watches of the soul of St. Aidan ascending to heaven,which determined his destiny, and he became a monk; entered the monasteryof Melrose, and eventually became prior, but devoted most of his time tomission-work in the surrounding districts; left Melrose to be prior ofLindisfarne, but longing for an austerer life, he retired to, and led thelife of a hermit on, an island by himself; being persuaded to come back,he acted as bishop of Lindisfarne, and continued to act as such for twoyears, but his previous longings for solitude returned, and he went backto a hermit life, to spend a short season, as it happened, in prayer andmeditation; when he died; what he did, and the memory of what he did,left an imperishable impression for good in the whole N. of England andthe Scottish borders; his remains were conveyed to Lindisfarne, and erelong to Durham (635-687).

Cuttack (47), capital of a district in S. of Bengal, at the apex ofthe delta formed by the Mahanuddy; noted for its gold and silver filigreework.

Cuvier, Georges, a celebrated naturalist, born at Montebéliard, ofHuguenot ancestry; the creator of comparative anatomy and palæontology;was educated at Stuttgart, where he studied natural science; but theobservation of marine animals on the coast of Normandy, where he held atutorship, first led him to the systematic study of anatomy, and broughthim into correspondence with Geoffroy St. Hilaire and others, who invitedhim to Paris, where he prosecuted his investigations, matured his views,and became professor of Comparative Anatomy at the Jardin des Plantes, amember of the French Institute, and Permanent Secretary of the Academy ofSciences, and eventually a peer of France; his labours in the science towhich he devoted his life were immense, but he continued to the last adetermined opponent of the theory, then being broached and now in vogue,of a common descent (1769-1832).

Cuxhaven, a German watering-place at the mouth of the Elbe, on thesouthern bank.

Cuyp, Albert, a celebrated Dutch landscape-painter, son of JacobCuyp, commonly called Old Cuyp, also a landscapist, born at Dort; paintedscenes from the banks of the Meuse and the Rhine; is now reckoned a rivalof Claude, though he was not so in his lifetime, his pictures selling nowfor a high price; he has been praised for his sunlights, but these, alongwith Claude's, have been pronounced depreciatively by Ruskin as“colourless” (1605-1691).

Cuzco (20), a town in Peru, about 11,440 ft. above the sea-level,the ancient capital of the Incas; still retains traces of its formerextent and greatness, the inhabitants reckoned as then numbering 200,000,and the civilisation advanced.

Cybele, a nature-goddess worshipped in Phrygia and W. Asia, whoseworship, like that of the nature divinities generally, was accompaniedwith noisy, more or less licentious, revelry; identified by the GreekswithRhea (q. v.), their nature-goddess.

Cyclades, islands belonging to Greece, on the East or the ÆgeanSea, so called as forming a circle round Delos, the most famous of thegroup.

Cyclic Poets, poets who after Homer's death caught the contagion ofhis great poem and wrote continuations, additions, &c.

Cyclopean Walls, a name given to structures found in Greece, AsiaMinor, Italy, and Sicily, built of large masses of unhewn stone andwithout cement, such as it is presumed a race of gigantic strength likethe Cyclops (3) must have reared.

Cyclops, a name given to three distinct classes of mythologicalbeings: (1) a set of one-eyed savage giants infesting the coasts ofSicily and preying upon human flesh; (2) a set of Titans, also one-eyed,belonging to the race of the gods, three in number, viz., Brontes,Steropes, and Arges—three great elemental powers of nature, subjected byand subject to Zeus; and (3) a people of Thrace, famed for their skill inbuilding.

Cymbeline, a legendary British king, and the hero of Shakespeare'sromance play of the name.

Cynægirus, a brother of Æschylus; distinguished himself at Marathon;is famed for his desperate attempt to seize a retreating ship.

Cynewulf, a Saxon poet, flourished at the second half of the 8thcentury; seems to have passed through two phases, first as a glad-heartedchild of nature, and then as a devout believer in Christ; at the formerstage wrote “Riddles” and “Ode to the West Wind,” at the latter histhemes were the lives of Christ and certain Saints.

Cynics, a sect of Greek philosophers, disciples of Antisthenes, whowas a disciple of Socrates, but carried away with him only part ofSocrates' teaching and enforced that as if it were the whole, dropped allregard for humanity and the universal reason, and taught that “virtue laywholly in the avoidance of evil, and those desires and greeds that bindus to enjoyments,” so that his disciples were called the “Capuchins ofthe Old World.” These in time went further than their master, andconceived a contempt for everything that was not self-derived; theyderived their name from the gymnasium in Athens, where their mastertaught.

Cyprian, St., one of the Fathers of the Church, born at Carthage,about the year 200, converted to Christianity in 245; devoted himselfthereafter to the study of the Bible, with the help of Tertullian hisfavourite author; became bishop of Carthage in 248; on the outbreak ofthe Decian persecution had to flee for his life, ministering to his flockthe while by substitutes; on his return, after two years, he was involvedin the discussion about the reception of the lapsed; under the Valerianpersecution was banished; being recalled, he refused to sacrifice to thegods, and suffered martyrdom in 258; he was a zealous bishop of the HighChurch type, and the father of such, only on broader lines. Festival,Sept. 16.

Cyprus (21), a fertile, mountainous island in the Levant, capitalNicosia (12); geographically connected with Asia, and the third largestin the Mediterranean, being 140 m. long and 60 m. broad; government cededto Great Britain in 1878 by the Sultan, on condition of an annualtribute; is a British colony under a colonial governor or HighCommissioner; is of considerable strategic importance to Britain; yieldscereals, wines, cotton, &c., and has 400 m. of good road, and a largetransit trade.

Cyrenaics, a sect of Greek philosophers, disciples of Aristippus,who was a disciple of Socrates, but who broke away from his master bydivorcing virtue from happiness, and making “pleasure, moderated byreason, the ultimate aim of life, and the supreme good.”

Cyre`ne, a town and Greek colony in Africa, E. of Egypt, extensiveruins of which still exist, and which was the capital of the State,called Cyrenaica after it, and the birthland of several illustriousGreeks.

Cyril, St., surnamed thePhilosopher, along with his brotherMethodius, the “Apostle of the Slavs,” born in Thessalonica; invented theSlavonic alphabet, and, with his brother's help, translated the Bibleinto the language of the Slavs;d. 868. Festival, March 9.

Cyril of Alexandria, St., born at Alexandria, and bishop there; anecclesiastic of a violent, militant order; persecuted the Novatians,expelled the Jews from Alexandria, quarrelled with the governor, exciteda fanaticism which led to the seizure and shameful murder of Hypatia; hada lifelong controversy with Nestorius, and got him condemned by theCouncil of Ephesus, while he himself was condemned by the Council atAntioch (608), and both cast into prison; after release lived at peace(376-444). Festival, Jan. 28.

Cyril of Jerusalem, St., patriarch of Jerusalem, elected 351, and aFather of the Greek Church; in the Arian controversy then raging was aSemi-Arian, and was persecuted by the strict Arians; joined the Niceneparty at the Council of Constantinople in 381; was an instructor inchurch doctrine to the common people by his catechisms (315-386).Festival, March 18.

Cyropædia, a work by Xenophon, being an idealistic account of the“education of Cyrus the Great.”

Cyrus, surnamed theGreat, or theElder, the founder ofthe Persian empire; began his conquests by overthrowing his grandfatherAstyages, king of the Medes; subdued Croesus, king of Lydia; laid siegeto Babylon and took it, and finished by being master of all Western Asia;was a prince of great energy and generosity, and left the nations hesubjected and rendered tributary free in the observances of theirreligions and the maintenance of their institutions; this is the story ofthe historians, but it has since been considerably modified by study ofthe ancient monuments (560-529 B.C.).

Cyrus, surnamed theYounger, second son of Darius II.;conspired against his brother Artaxerxes Mnemon, was sentenced to death,pardoned, and restored to his satrapy in Asia Minor; conspired anew,raised a large army, including Greek mercenaries, marched against hisbrother, and was slain at Cunaxa, of which last enterprise and its fatean account is given in the “Anabasis” of Xenophon;d. 401 B.C.

Cythera, the ancient name of Cerigo; had a magnificent temple toVenus, who was hence called Cytheræa.

Czartoryski, a Polish prince, born at Warsaw; passed his early yearsin England; studied at Edinburgh University; fought under Kosciuskoagainst the Russians, and was for some time a hostage in Russia; gainedfavour at the Court there, and even a high post in the State; in 1830threw himself into the revolutionary movement, and devoted all hisenergies to the service of his country, becoming head of the government;on the suppression of the revolution his estates were confiscated; heescaped to Paris, and spent his old age there, dying at 90 (1770-1861).

Czechs, a branch of the Slavonic family that in the later half ofthe 6th century settled in Bohemia; have a language of their own, spokenalso in Moravia and part of Hungary.

Czerno`witz (54), the capital of the Austrian province of Bukowina,on the Pruth.

Czerny, Charles, a musical composer and pianist, born at Vienna;had Liszt and Thalberg for pupils (1791-1857).

Czerny, George, leader of the Servians in their insurrection againstthe Turks; assisted by Russia carried all before him; when that help waswithdrawn the Turks gained the advantage, and he had to flee; returningafter the independence of Servia was secured, he was murdered at theinstigation of Prince Milosch (1766-1817).

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