Baader, Franz Xavier von, a German philosopher, born at Münich; waspatronised by the king of Bavaria, and became professor in Münich, who,revolting alike from the materialism of Hume, which he studied inEngland, and the transcendentalism of Kant, with its self-sufficiency ofthe reason, fell back upon the mysticism of Jacob Boehme, and taught in16 vols. what might rather be called a theosophy than a philosophy, whichregarded God in Himself, and God even in life, as incomprehensiblerealities. He, however, identified himself with the liberal movement inpolitics, and offended the king (1765-1841).

Ba`al (meaning Lord),pl.Baalim, the principal male divinityof the Canaanites and Phoenicians, identified with the sun as the greatquickening and life-sustaining power in nature, the god who presided overthe labours of the husbandman and granted the increase; his crowningattribute, strength; worshipped on hill-tops with sacrifices, incense,and dancing. Baal-worship, being that of the Canaanites, was for a timemixed up with the worship of Jehovah in Israel, and at one timethreatened to swamp it, but under the zealous preaching of the prophetsit was eventually stamped out.

Baal`bek (i. e. City of Baal, or the Sun), an ancient city ofSyria, 35 m. NW. of Damascus; called by the Greeks, Heliopolis; once aplace of great size, wealth, and splendour; now in ruins, the mostconspicuous of which is the Great Temple to Baal, one of the mostmagnificent ruins of the East, covering an area of four acres.

Baalism, the name given to the worship of natural causes, tending tothe obscuration and denial of the worship of God as Spirit.

Baba, Ali, the character in the “Arabian Nights” who discovers andenters the den of the Forty Thieves by the magic password “Sesamë”(q. v.), a word which he accidentally overheard.

Baba, Cape, in Asia Minor, the most western point in Asia, inAnatolia, with a town of the name.

Babbage, Charles, a mathematician, born in Devonshire; studied atCambridge, and professor there; spent much time and money over theinvention of a calculating machine; wrote on “The Economy of Manufacturesand Machinery,” and an autobiography entitled “Passages from the Life ofa Philosopher”; in his later years was famous for his hostility to streetorgan-grinders (1791-1871).

Babbington, Antony, an English Catholic gentleman; conspired againstElizabeth on behalf of Mary, Queen of Scots, confessed his guilt, and wasexecuted at Tyburn in 1586.

Bab-el-Mandeb (i. e. the Gate of Tears), a strait between Asia andAfrica forming the entrance to the Red Sea, so called from the strongcurrents which rush through it, and often cause wreckage to vesselsattempting to pass it.

Baber, the founder of the Mogul empire in Hindustan, a descendant ofTamerlane; thrice invaded India, and became at length master of it in1526; left memoirs; his dynasty lasted for three centuries.

Babes in the Wood, Irish banditti who infested the Wicklow Mountainsin the 18th century, and were guilty of the greatest atrocities. SeeChildren.

Bâbis, a modern Persian sect founded in 1843, their doctrines amixture of pantheistic with Gnostic and Buddhist beliefs; adverse topolygamy, concubinage, and divorce; insisted on the emancipation ofwomen; have suffered from persecution, but are increasing in numbers.

Baboeuf, François Noel, a violent revolutionary in France,self-styled Gracchus; headed an insurrection against the Directory,“which died in the birth, stifled by the soldiery”; convicted ofconspiracy, was guillotined, after attempting to commit suicide(1764-1797).

Baboo, orBabu, name applied to a native Hindu gentleman whohas some knowledge of English.

Baboon, Lewis, the name Arbuthnot gives to Louis XIV. in his“History of John Bull.”

Ba`brius, orGabrius, a Greek poet of uncertain date; turnedthe fables of Æsop and of others into verse, with alterations.

Baby-farming, a system of nursing new-born infants whose parents maywish them out of sight.

Babylon, the capital city of Babylonia, one of the richest and mostmagnificent cities of the East, the gigantic walls and hanging gardens ofwhich were classed among the seven wonders of the world; was taken,according to tradition, by Cyrus in 538 B.C., by diverting out of theirchannel the waters of the Euphrates, which flowed through it and byDarius in 519 B.C., through the self-sacrifice of Zophyrus. The name wasoften metaphorically applied to Rome by the early Christians, and isto-day to great centres of population, such as London, where theovercrowding, the accumulation of material wealth, and the so-calledrefinements of civilisation, are conceived to have a corrupting effect onthe religion and morals of the inhabitants.

Babylo`nia, the name given by the Greeks to that country called inthe Old Testament, Shinar, Babel, and “the land of the Chaldees”; itoccupied the rich, fertile plain through which the lower waters of theEuphrates and the Tigris flow, now the Turkish province of Irak-Arabi orBagdad. From very early times it was the seat of a highly developedcivilisation introduced by the Sumero-Accadians, who descended on theplain from the mountains in the NW. Semitic tribes subsequently settledamong the Accadians and impressed their characteristics on the languageand institutions of the country. The 8th century B.C. was marked by afierce struggle with the northern empire of Assyria, in which Babyloniaeventually succumbed and became an Assyrian province. But Nabopolassar in625 B.C. asserted his independence, and under his son Nebuchadnezzar,Babylonia rose to the zenith of its power. Judah was captive in thecountry from 599 to 538 B.C. In that year Cyrus conquered it for Persia,and its history became merged in that of Persia.

Babylonish Captivity, the name given to the deportation of Jews fromJudea to Babylon after the capture of Jerusalem by the king of Babylon,and which continued for 70 years, till they were allowed to return totheir own land by Cyrus, who had conquered Babylon; those who returnedwere solely of the tribes of Judah, Benjamin, and Levi.

Bacchanalia, a festival, originally of a loose and riotouscharacter, in honour of Bacchus.

Bacchantes, those who took part in the festival of Bacchus, confinedoriginally to women, and were called by a number of names, such asMænads, Thyads, &c.; they wore their hair dishevelled and thrown back,and had loose flowing garments.

Bac`chus, son of Zeus and Semele, the god of the vine, and promoterof its culture as well as the civilisation which accompanied it;represented as riding in a car drawn by tame tigers, and carrying aThyrsus (q. v.); he rendered signal service to Zeus in the warof the gods with theGiants (q. v.). SeeDionysus.

Bacchyl`ides, a Greek lyric poet, 5th century B.C., nephew ofSimonides and uncle of Eschylus, a rival of Pindar; only a few fragmentsof his poems extant.

Baccio della Porto. SeeBartolomeo, Fra.

Baccio`chi, a Corsican officer, who married Maria Bonaparte, and wascreated by Napoleon Prince of Lucca (1762-1841).

Bach, Johann Sebastian, one of the greatest of musical composers,born in Eisenach, of a family of Hungarian origin, noted—sixty ofthem—for musical genius; was in succession a chorister, an organist, adirector of concerts, and finally director of music at the School of St.Thomas, Leipzig; his works, from their originality and scientific rigour,difficult of execution (1685-1750).

Bache, A. Dallas, an American physicist, born at Philadelphia,superintended the coast survey (1806-1867).

Bachelor, a name given to one who has achieved the first grade inany discipline.

Bacil`lus (lit. a little rod), a bacterium, distinguished as beingtwice as long as it is broad, others being more or less rounded. SeeBacteria.

Back, Sir George, a devoted Arctic explorer, born at Stockport,entered the navy, was a French captive for five years, associated withFranklin in three polar expeditions, went in search of Sir John Ross,discovered instead and traced the Great Fish River in 1839, was knightedin 1837, and in 1857 made admiral (1796-1878).

Backhuy`sen, Ludolph, a Dutch painter, famous for his sea-pieces andskill in depicting sea-waves; was an etcher as well as painter(1631-1708).

Bacon, Delia, an American authoress, who first broached, though shedid not originate, the theory of the Baconian authorship of Shakespeare'sworks, a theory in favour of which she has received small support(1811-1859).

Bacon, Francis, Lord Verulam, the father of the inductive method ofscientific inquiry; born in the Strand, London; son of Sir NicholasBacon; educated at Cambridge; called to the bar when 21, after study atGray's Inn; represented successively Taunton, Liverpool, and Ipswich inParliament; was a favourite with the queen; attached himself to Essex,but witnessed against him at his trial, which served him little; becameat last in succession Attorney-General, Privy Councillor, Lord Keeper,and Lord Chancellor; was convicted of venality as a judge, deposed, finedand imprisoned, but pardoned and released; spent his retirement in hisfavourite studies; his great works were his “Advancement of Learning,”“Novum Organum,” and “De Augmentis Scientiarum,” but is seen to bestadvantage by the generality in his “Essays,” which are full of practicalwisdom and keen observation of life; indeed, these show such shrewdnessof wit as to embolden some (seesupra) to maintain that theplays named of Shakespeare were written by him (1561-1626).

Bacon, Roger, a Franciscan monk, born at Ilchester, Somerset; afearless truth-seeker of great scientific attainments; accused of magic,convicted and condemned to imprisonment, from which he was released onlyto die; suggested several scientific inventions, such as the telescope,the air-pump, the diving-bell, the camera obscura, and gunpowder, andwrote some eighty treatises (1214-1294).

Bacon, Sir Nicholas, the father of Francis, Lord Bacon, PrivyCouncillor and Keeper of the Great Seal under Queen Elizabeth; a prudentand honourable man and minister, and much honoured and trusted by thequeen (1510-1579).

Bacsanyi, Janos, a Hungarian poet; he suffered from his liberalpolitical opinions, like many of his countrymen (1763-1845).

Bacte`ria, exceedingly minute organisms of the simplest structure,being merely cells of varied forms, in the shape of spheres, rods, orintermediate shapes, which develop in infusions of organic matter, andmultiply by fission with great rapidity, fraught, as happens, with lifeor death to the higher forms of being; conspicuous by the part they playin the process of fermentation and in the origin and progress of disease,and to the knowledge of which, and the purpose they serve in nature, somuch has been contributed by the labours of M. Pasteur.

Bac`tria, a province of ancient Persia, nowBalkh (q. v.),the presumed fatherland of the Aryans and the birthplace of theZoroastrian religion.

Bactrian Sage, a name given to Zoroaster as a native of Bactria.

Bacup (23), a manufacturing town in Lancashire, about 20 m. NE. ofManchester.

Badajoz` (28), capital of a Spanish province of the name, on theGuadiana, near the frontier of Portugal; a place of great strength;surrendered to Soult in 1811, and taken after a violent and bloodystruggle by Wellington in 1812; the scene of fearful outrages after itscapture.

Badakans, a Dravidian people of small stature, living on theNilghiri Mountains, in S. India.

Badakhshan` (100), a Mohammedan territory NE. of Afghanistan, apicturesque hill country, rich in minerals; it is 200 m. from E. to W.and 150 from N. to S.; it has been often visited by travellers, fromMarco Polo onwards; the inhabitants, called Badakhshans, are of the Aryanfamily and speak Persian.

Badalo`na (15), a seaport 5 m. NE. of Barcelona.

Ba`den (4), a town in the canton of Aargau, Switzerland, 14 m. NW.of Zurich, long a fashionable resort for its mineral springs; also a townnear Vienna.

Bad`en, The Grand-Duchy of (1,725), a German duchy, extends alongthe left bank of the Rhine from Constance to Mannheim; consists ofvalley, mountain, and plain; includes the Black Forest; is rich intimber, minerals, and mineral springs; cotton fabrics, wood-carving, andjewellery employ a great proportion of the inhabitants; there are twouniversity seats, Heidelberg and Freiburg.

Baden-Baden (13), a town in the duchy of Baden, 18 m. from Carlsruheand 22 from Strassburg, noted for its hot mineral springs, which wereknown to the Romans, and is a popular summer resort.

Bad`enoch, a forest-covered district of the Highlands of Scotland,45 m. long by 19 broad, traversed by the Spey, in the SE. ofInverness-shire; belonged originally to the Comyns, but was forfeited bythem, was bestowed by Bruce on his nephew; became finally the property ofthe Earl of Huntly.

Badi`a-y-Lablich, a Spaniard, born at Barcelona; travelled in theEast; having acquired a knowledge of Arabic and Arab customs, disguisedhimself as a Mohammedan under the name of Ali-Bei; his disguise was socomplete that he passed for a Mussulman, even in Mecca itself; isbelieved to be the first Christian admitted to the shrine of Mecca; aftera time settled in Paris, and wrote an account of his travels (1766-1818).

Badrinath, a shrine of Vishnu, in N.W. India, 10,000 ft. high; muchfrequented by pilgrims for the sacred waters near it, which are believedto be potent to cleanse from all pollution.

Baedeker, Karl, a German printer in Coblenz, famed for theguide-books to almost every country of Europe that he published(1801-1859).

Baer, Karl Ernst von, a native of Esthonia; professor of zoology,first in Königsberg and then in St. Petersburg; the greatest of modernembryologists, styled the “father of comparative embryology”; thediscoverer of the law, known by his name, that the embryo when developingresembles those of successively higher types (1792-1876).

Baffin, William, an early English Arctic explorer, who, when actingas pilot to an expedition in quest of the N.W. Passage, discoveredBaffin Bay (1584-1622).

Baffin Bay, a strait stretching northward between N. America andGreenland, open four months in summer to whale and seal fishing;discovered in 1615 by William Baffin.

Bagdad (185), on the Tigris, 500 m. from its mouth, and connectedwith the Euphrates by canal; is the capital of a province, and one of themost flourishing cities of Asiatic Turkey; dates, wool, grain, and horsesare exported; red and yellow leather, cotton, and silk are manufactured;and the transit trade, though less than formerly, is still considerable.It is a station on the Anglo-Indian telegraph route, and is served by aBritish-owned fleet of river steamers plying to Basra. Formerly a centreof Arabic culture, it has belonged to Turkey since 1638. An imposing cityto look at, it suffers from visitations of cholera and famine.

Bagehot, Walter, an English political economist, born in Somerset, abanker by profession, and an authority on banking and finance; a discipleof Ricardo; wrote, besides other publications, an important work, “TheEnglish Constitution”; was editor of theEconomist; wrote in a vigorousstyle (1826-1877).

Bagge`sen, Jens Emmanuel, a Danish poet, travelled a good deal,wrote mostly in German, in which he was quite at home; his chief works, apastoral epic, “Parthenais oder die Alpenreise,” and a mock epic, “Adamand Eve”; his minor pieces are numerous and popular, though from hisegotism and irritability he was personally unpopular (1764-1826).

Baghelkand, name of five native states in Central India, Rewah themost prosperous.

Baghe`ria, a town in Sicily, 8 m. from Palermo, where citizens ofthe latter have more or less stylish villas.

Bagir`mi, a Mohammedan kingdom in Central Africa, SE. of Lake Tehad,240 m. from N. to S. and 150 m. from E. to W.

Baglio`ni, an Italian fresco-painter of note (1573-1641).

Bagli`vi, Giorgio, an illustrious Italian physician, wrote “De FibraMotrice” in defence of the “solidist” theory, as it is called, whichtraced all diseases to alterations in the solid parts of the body(1667-1706).

Bagnères, two French towns on the Pyrenees, well-knownwatering-places.

Bagnes, name given to convict prisons in France since the abolitionof the galleys.

Bagra`tion, Prince, Russian general, distinguished in manyengagements; commanded the vanguard at Austerlitz, Eylau, and Friedland,and in 1812, against Napoleon; achieved a brilliant success at Smolensk;fell at Borodino (1765-1812).

Bagstock, Joe, a “self-absorbed” talking character in “Dombey &Son.”

Baha`mas, The (47), a group of over 500 low, flat coral islands inthe W. Indies, and thousands of rocks, belonging to Britain, of which 20are inhabited, and on one of which Columbus landed when he discoveredAmerica; yield tropical fruits, sponges, turtle, &c.; Nassau the capital.

Bahar (263), a town on the Ganges, 34 m. SE. of Patna; after fallinginto decay, is again rising in importance.

Bahawalpur (650), a feudatory state in the NW. of India, with acapital of the name; is connected administratively with the Punjab.

Bahi`a, or San Salvador (200), a fine city, one of the chiefseaports of Brazil, in the Bay of All Saints, and originally the capitalin a province of the name stretching along the middle of the coast.

Bahr, an Arabic word meaning “river,” prefixed to the name of manyplaces occupied by Arabs.

Bähr, Felix, classical scholar, burn at Darmstadt; wrote a “Historyof Roman Literature,” in high repute (1798-1872).

Bahrein` Islands (70), a group of islands in the Persian Gulf, underthe protection of Britain, belonging to Muscat, the largest 27 m. longand 10 broad, cap. Manamah (20); long famous for their pearl-fisheries,the richest in the world.

Bahr-el-Ghazal, an old Egyptian prov. including the district wateredby the tributaries of the Bahr-el-Arab and the Bahr-el-Ghazal; it waswrested from Egypt by the Mahdi, 1884; a district of French Congo lies W.of it, and it was through it Marchand made his way to Fashoda.

Baiæ, a small town near Naples, now in ruins and nearly allsubmerged; famous as a resort of the old Roman nobility, for its climateand its baths.

Baïf, a French poet one of a group of seven known in Frenchliterature as the “Pléiade,” whose aim was to accommodate the Frenchlanguage and literature to the models of Greek and Latin.

Baikal, a clear fresh-water lake, in S. of Siberia, 397 m. long andfrom 13 to 54 wide, in some parts 4500 ft. deep, and at its surface 1560ft. above the sea-level, the third largest in Asia; on which sledges plyfor six or eight months in winter, and steamboats in summer; it aboundsin fish, especially sturgeon and salmon; it contains several islands, thelargest Olkhin, 32 m. by 10 m.

Baikie, W. Balfour, an Orcadian, born at Kirkwall, surgeon in theRoyal Navy; was attached to the Niger Expedition in 1854, and ultimatelycommanded it, opening the region up and letting light in upon it at thesacrifice of his life; died at Sierra Leone (1825-1864).

Bailey, Nathan, an early English lexicographer, whose dictionary,very popular in its day, was the basis of Johnson's;d. 1742.

Bailey, Philip James, English poet, born in Nottingham; author of“Festus,” a work that on its appearance in 1839 was received withenthusiasm, passed through 11 editions in England and 30 in America, wassucceeded by “The Angel World,” “The Mystic,” “The Universal Hymn,” and“The Age”; he has been rated by some extravagantly high;b. 1816.

Bailey, Samuel, an English author, born in Sheffield, aliberal-minded man, a utilitarian in philosophy, who wrote on psychology,ethics, and political economy, and left a fortune, acquired in business,to his native town (1787-1870).

Baillie, Joanna, a poetess, born at Bothwell, child of thePresbyterian manse there; joined a brother in London, stayed afterwardswith a sister at Hampstead; produced a series of dramas entitled “Playsof the Passions,” besides many others, both comedies and tragedies, oneof which, the “Family Legend,” was acted in the Theatre Royal, Edinburgh,under the auspices of Sir Walter Scott; she does not stand high either asa dramatist or a writer (1762-1851).

Baillie, Lady Grizel, an heroic Scotch lady, famous for her songs,“And werena my heart licht I wad dee” is well known (1665-1740).

Baillie, Matthew, physician, brother of Joanna, wrote on MorbidAnatomy (1761-1823).

Baillie, Robert, a Scotch Presbyterian divine, born in Glasgow;resisted Laud's attempt to thrust Episcopacy on the Scotch nation, andbecame a zealous advocate of the national cause, which he was delegatedto represent twice over in London; he was a royalist all the same, andwas made principal of Glasgow University; “His Letters and Journals” werepublished by the Bannatyne Club, and are commended by Carlyle as“veracious,” forming, as they do, the subject of one of his criticalessays (1599-1662).

Baillie, Robert, a zealous Scotch Presbyterian, tried for complicityin the Rye House Plot, and unfairly condemned to death, and barbarouslyexecuted the same day (in 1683) for fear he should die afterwards andcheat the gallows of its victim.

Bailly, Jean Sylvain, an astronomer, born at Paris; wrote the“History of Astronomy, Ancient and Modern,” in five volumes; wasdistracted from further study of the science by the occurrence of theRevolution; elected president of the National Assembly; installed mayorof Paris; lost favour with the people; was imprisoned as an enemy of thepopular cause and cruelly guillotined. Exposed beforehand “for hourslong, amid curses and bitter frost-rain, 'Bailly, thou tremblest,' saidone; 'Mon ami,' said he meekly, 'it is for cold.' Crueller end,” saysCarlyle, “had no mortal.”

Baily, E. H., a sculptor, born in Bristol, studied under Flaxman;his most popular works were, “Eve Listening to the Voice,” “The SleepingGirl,” and the “Graces Seated” (1788-1867).

Bain, Alexander, born at Aberdeen, professor of Logic in theuniversity, and twice Lord Rector, where he was much esteemed by andexercised a great influence over his pupils; his chief works, “The Sensesand the Intellect,” “The Emotions and the Will,” and “Mental and MoralScience”; has written on composition in a very uninteresting style; hispsychology, which he connected with physiology, was based on empiricismand the inductive method, to the utter exclusion of alla priori ortranscendental speculation, such as hails from Kant and his school; he isof the school of John Stuart Mill, who endorsed his philosophy;b.1818.

Bairam, a Mohammedan festival of three days at the conclusion of theRamadan, followed by another of four days, seventy days later, called theSecond Bairam, in commemoration of the offering up of Isaac, andaccompanied with sacrifices.

Baird, James, ironmaster, founder of the Baird Lectureship, invindication of Scotch orthodoxy; bequeathed £500,000 to support churches(1802-1876).

Baird, Sir David, a distinguished English general of Scotch descent,born at Newbyth, Aberdeenshire; entered the army at 15; served in India,Egypt, and at the Cape; was present at the taking of Seringapatam, andthe siege of Pondicherry; in command when the Cape of Good Hope waswrested from the Dutch, and on the fall of Sir John Moore at Corunna,wounded; he afterwards retired (1757-1829).

Baird, S. Fullerton, an American naturalist, wrote, along withothers, on the birds and mammals of N. America, as well as contributed tofish-culture and fisheries (1823-1887).

Bai`reuth (24), the capital of Upper Franconia, in Bavaria, with alarge theatre erected by the king for the performance of Wagner's musicalcompositions, and with a monument, simple but massive, as was fit, to thememory of Jean Paul, who died there.

Baireuth, Wilhelmina, Margravine of, sister of Frederick the Great,left “Memoirs” of her time (1709-1758).

Bajazet` I., sultan of the Ottoman Turks, surnamedIlderim,i. e. Lightning, from the energy and rapidity of his movements; aimed atConstantinople, pushed everything before him in his advance on Europe,but was met and defeated on the plain of Angora by Tamerlane, who is saidto have shut him in a cage and carried him about with him in his traintill the day of his death (1347-1403).

Ba`jus, Michael, deputy from the University of Louvain to theCouncil of Trent, where he incurred much obloquy at the hands of theJesuits by his insistence of the doctrines of Augustine, as theJansenists did after him (1513-1580).

Baker, Mount, a volcano in the Cascade range, 11,000 ft.; stillsubject to eruptions.

Baker, Sir Richard, a country gentleman, born in Kent, oftenreferred to by Sir Roger de Coverley; author of “The Chronicle of theKings of England,” which he wrote in the Fleet prison, where he died(1603-1645).

Baker, Sir Samuel White, a man of enterprise and travel, born inLondon; discovered the Albert Nyanza; commanded an expedition under theKhedive into the Soudan; wrote an account of it in a book, “Ismailia”;visited Cyprus and travelled over India; left a record of his travels infive volumes with different titles (1821-1893).

Bakshish, a word used all over the East to denote a small fee forsome small service rendered.

Baku (107), a Russian port on the Caspian Sea, in a district soimpregnated and saturated in parts with petroleum that by digging in thesoil wells are formed, in some cases so gushing as to overflow instreams, which wells, reckoned by hundreds, are connected by pipes withrefineries in the town; a district which, from the spontaneous ignitionof the petroleum, was long ago a centre of attraction to the Parsees orfire-worshippers of the East, and resorted to by them as holy ground.

Baku`nin, Michael, an extreme and violent anarchist, and a leader ofthe movement; native of Moscow; was banished to Siberia, but escaped;joined the International, but was expelled (1814-1876).

Bala, the county town of Merioneth, in Wales. Bala Lake, the largestlake in Wales, 4 m. long, and with a depth of 100 ft.

Ba`laam, a Midianitish soothsayer; for the account of him seeNum. xxii.-xxiv., andCarlyle's, essay on the “Corn-LawRhymes” for its application to modern State councillors of the sametime-serving type, and their probable fate.

Balacla`va, a small port 6 m. SE. of Sebastopol, with a largeland-locked basin; the head-quarters of the British during the Crimeanwar, and famous in the war, among other events, for the “Charge of theSix Hundred.”

Balance of power, preservation of the equilibrium existing among theStates of Europe as a security of peace, for long an importantconsideration with European statesmen.

Balance of trade, the difference in value between the exports andthe imports of a country, and said to be in favour of the country whoseexports exceed in value the imports in that respect.

Balanoglos`sus, a worm-like marine animal, regarded by the zoologistas a possible connecting link between invertebrates and vertebrates.

Balata, a vegetable gum used as a substitute for gutta-percha, beingat once ductile and elastic; goes under the name of bully.

Bal`aton, Lake, the largest lake in Hungary, 48 m. long, and 10 m.broad, 56 m. SW. of Pesth; slightly saline, and abounds in fish.

Balbi, Adriano, a geographer of Italian descent, born at Venice, whocomposed in French a number of works bearing on geography (1782-1848).

Balbo, Cæsare, an Italian statesmen and publicist, born at Turin;devoted his later years to literature; wrote a life of Dante; works inadvocacy of Italian independence (1789-1853).

Balbo`a. Vasco Nuñez de, a Castilian noble, established a settlementat Darien; discovered the Pacific; took possession of territory in thename of Spain; put to death by a new governor, from jealousy of the gloryhe had acquired and the consequent influence in the State (1475-1517).

Baldachino, a tent-like covering or canopy over portals, altars, orthrones, either supported on columns, suspended from the roof, orprojecting from the wall.

Bald`er, the sun-god of the Norse mythology, “the beautiful, thewise, the benignant,” who is fated to die, and dies, in spite of, and tothe grief of, all the gods of the pantheon, a pathetic symbol conceivedin the Norse imagination of how all things in heaven, as on earth, aresubject in the long-run to mortality.

Balderstone, Caleb, the faithful old domestic in Scott's “Bride ofLammermoor,” the family he serves his pride.

Baldrick, an ornamental belt worn hanging over the shoulder, acrossthe body diagonally, with a sword, dagger, or horn suspended from it.

Baldung, Hans, orHans Grün, a German artist, born in Suabia; afriend of Dürer's; his greatest work, a masterpiece, a painting of the“Crucifixion,” now in Freiburg Cathedral (1300-1347).

Baldwin, archbishop of Canterbury; crowned Richard Coeur de Lion;accompanied him on the crusade; died at Acre in 1191.

Baldwin, the name of several counts of Flanders, eight in all.

Baldwin I., king of Jerusalem; succeeded his brother Godfrey deBouillon; assuming said title, made himself master of most of the townson the coast of Syria; contracted a disease in Egypt; returned toJerusalem, and was buried on Mount Calvary; there were five of this nameand title, the last of whom, a child of some eight years old, died in1186 (1058-1118).

Baldwin I., the first Latin emperor of Constantinople; by birth,count of Hainault and Flanders; joined the fourth crusade, led the van inthe capture of Constantinople, and was made emperor; was defeated andtaken prisoner by the Bulgarians (1171-1206).B. II., nephew ofBaldwin I., last king of the Latin dynasty, which lasted only 57 years(1217-1273).

Bale, John, bishop of Ossory, in Ireland; born in Suffolk; a convertfrom Popery, and supported by Cromwell; was made bishop by Edward VI.;persecuted out of the country as an apostate from Popery; author of avaluable account of early British writers (1495-1563).

Balearic Isles (312), a group of five islands off the coast ofValencia, in Spain, Majorca the largest; inhabitants in ancient timesfamous as expert slingers, having been one and all systematically trainedto the use of the sling from early childhood; cap. Palma (58).

Balfe, Michael William, a musical composer, of Irish birth, bornnear Wexford; author of “The Bohemian Girl,” his masterpiece, andworld-famous (1808-1870).

Balfour, A. J., of Whittinghame, East Lothian; educated at Eton andCambridge; nephew of Lord Salisbury, and First Lord of the Treasury andleader of the House of Commons in Lord Salisbury's ministry; author of a“Defence of Philosophic Doubt” and a volume of “Essays and Addresses”;b. 1848.

Balfour, Francis Maitland, brother of the preceding; a promisingbiologist; career was cut short by death in attempting to ascend theWetterhorn (1851-1882).

Balfour, Sir James, Lord President of the Court of Session; nativeof Fife; an unprincipled man, sided now with this party, now with theopposite, to his own advantage, and that at the most critical period inScottish history;d. 1583.

Balfour of Burley, leader of the Covenanters in Scott's “OldMortality.”

Bali, one of the Samoa Islands, 75 m. long by 40 m. broad; producescotton, coffee, and tobacco.

Baliol, Edward, son of the following, invaded Scotland; was crownedking at Scone, supported by Edward III.; was driven from the kingdom, andobliged to renounce all claim to the crown, on receipt of a pension; diedat Doncaster, 1369.

Baliol, John de, son of the following; laid claim to the Scottishcrown on the death of the Maid of Norway in 1290; was supported by EdwardI., and did homage to him for his kingdom, but rebelled, and was forcedpublicly to resign the crown; died in 1314 in Normandy, after spendingsome three years in the Tower; satirised by the Scotch, in their stinginghumorous style, as King Toom Tabard,i. e. Empty King Cloak.

Baliol, Sir John de, of Norman descent; a guardian to the heir tothe Scottish crown on the death of Alexander III.; founder of BaliolCollege, Oxford;d. 1269.

Balize, orBelize, the capital of British Honduras, in CentralAmerica; trade in mahogany, rosewood, &c.

Balkan Peninsula, the territory between the Adriatic and the ÆgeanSea, bounded on the N. by the Save and the Lower Danube, and on the S. byGreece.

Balkans, The, a mountain range extending from the Adriatic to theBlack Sea; properly the range dividing Bulgaria from Roumania; meanheight, 6500 ft.

Balkash, Lake, a lake in Siberia, 780 ft. above sea-level, thewaters clear, but intensely salt, 150 m. long and 73 m. broad.

Balkh, anciently called Bactria, a district of Afghan Turkestanlying between the Oxus and the Hindu-Kush, 250 m. long and 120 m. broad,with a capital of the same name, reduced now to a village; birthplace ofZoroaster.

Ball, John, a priest who had been excommunicated for denouncing theabuses of the Church; a ringleader in the Wat Tyler rebellion; capturedand executed.

Ball, Sir R. S., mathematician and astronomer, born in Dublin;Astronomer-Royal for Ireland; author of works on astronomy and mechanics,the best known of a popular kind on the former science being “The Storyof the Heavens”;b. 1840.

Ballad, a story in verse, composed with spirit, generally ofpatriotic interest, and sung originally to the harp.

Ballanche, Pierre Simon, a mystic writer, born at Lyons, his chiefwork “la Palingénésie Sociale,” his aim being the regeneration of society(1814-1847).

Ballantine, James, glass-stainer and poet, born in Edinburgh(1808-1877).

Ballantine, Serjeant, distinguished counsel in celebrated criminalcases (1812-1887).

Ball`antyne, James, a native of Kelso, became a printer inEdinburgh, printed all Sir Walter Scott's works; failed in business, afailure in which Scott was seriously implicated (1772-1833).

Ballantyne, John, brother of preceding, a confidant of Sir Walter'sin the matter of the anonymity of the Waverley Novels; an inimitablestory-teller and mimic, very much to the delight of Sir Walter(1774-1821).

Ballarat` (40), a town in Victoria, and since 1851 the second cityin the province, about 100 m. NW. of Melbourne; the centre of the chiefgold-fields in the colony, the precious metal being at first washed outof the soil, and now crushed out of the quartz rocks and dug out of deepmines; it is the seat of both a Roman Catholic and a Church of Englandbishopric.

Ball`ater, a clean Aberdeenshire village on the Dee, a favouritesummer resort, stands 668 ft. above sea-level.

Balmat, Jacques, of Chamounix, a celebrated Alpine guide(1796-1834).

Balmawhapple, a prejudiced Scotch clergyman in “Waverley.”

Bal`mez, an able Spanish Journalist, author of “Protestantism andCatholicism compared in their Effects on the Civilisation of Europe”(1810-1848).

Balmor`al, a castle on the upper valley of the Dee, at the foot ofBraemar, 52½ m. from Aberdeen, 9 m. from Ballater; the Highland residenceof Queen Victoria, on a site which took the fancy of both the Queen andthe Prince Consort on their first visit to the Highlands.

Balmung, the sharp-cutting sword of Siegfried, so sharp that a smithcut in two by it did not know he was so cut till he began to move, whenhe fell in pieces.

Balnaves, Henry, coadjutor of John Knox in the Scottish Reformation,and a fellow-sufferer with him in imprisonment and exile; afterwardscontributed towards formulating the creed of the Scotch Church; born atKirkcaldy, and educated in Germany;d. 1579.

Balsall, a thriving suburb of Birmingham, engaged in hardwaremanufacture.

Baltic Provinces, Russian provinces bordering on the Baltic.

Baltic Sea, an inland sea in the N. of Europe, 900 m. long and from100 to 200 m. broad, about the size of England and Wales; comparativelyshallow; has no tides; waters fresher than those of the ocean, owing tothe number of rivers that flow into it and the slight evaporation thatgoes on at the latitude; the navigation of it is practically closed fromthe middle of December to April, owing to the inlets being blocked withice.

Baltimore (550), the metropolis of Maryland, on an arm of ChesapeakeBay, 250 m. from the Atlantic; is picturesquely situated; not quite soregular in design as most American cities, but noted for its finearchitecture and its public monuments. It is the seat of the Johns HopkinsUniversity. The industries are varied and extensive, including textiles,flour, tobacco, iron, and steel. The staple trade is in bread-stuffs; theexports, grain, flour, and tobacco.

Balue, Cardinal, minister of Louis XI.; imprisoned, for havingconspired with Charles the Rash, by Louis in an iron cage for elevenyears (1421-1491).

Baluchistan, a country lying to the S. of Afghanistan and extendingto the Persian Gulf. See Beluchistan.

Balzac, Honoré de, native of Tours, in France; one of the mostbrilliant as well as prolific novelwriters of modern times; hisproductions remarkable for their sense of reality; they show power ofobservation, warmth and fertility of imagination, and subtle and profounddelineation of human passion, his design in producing them being to makethem form part of one great work, the “Comédie Humaine,” the whole beinga minute dissection of the different classes of society (1799-1850).

Balzac, Jean Louis Guez de, born at Angoulême, a French littérateurand gentleman of rank, who devoted his life to the refinement of theFrench language, and contributed by his “Letters” to the classic form itassumed under Louis XIV.; “he deliberately wrote,” says Prof. Saintsbury,“for the sake of writing, and not because he had anything particular tosay,” but in this way did much to improve the language;d. 1685.

Bambar`ra (2,000), a Soudan state on the banks of the Upper Niger,opened up to trade; the soil fertile; yields grain, dates, cotton, andpalm-oil; the natives are negroes of the Mohammedan faith, and are goodhusbandmen.

Bamberg (35), a manufacturing town in Upper Franconia, Bavaria; oncethe centre of an independent bishopric; with a cathedral, a magnificentedifice, containing the tomb of its founder, the Emperor Henry II.

Bambino, a figure of the infant Christ wrapped in swaddling bands,the infant in pictures surrounded by a halo and angels.

Bamborough Castle, an ancient fortress E. of Belford, on the coastof Northumberland, now an alms-house.

Bambouk (800), a fertile but unhealthy negro territory, with mineralwealth and deposits of gold, W. of Bambarra.

Bamian`, a high-lying valley in Afghanistan, 8500 ft. abovesea-level; out of the rocks on its N. side, full of caves, are hewn hugefigures of Buddha, one of them 173 ft. high, all of ancient date.

Bampton Lectures, annual lectures on Christian subjects, eight innumber, for the endowment of which John Bampton, canon of Salisbury, leftproperty which yields a revenue worth £200 a year.

Banbury, a market-town in Oxfordshire, celebrated for its cross andits cakes.

Banca (80), an island in the Eastern Archipelago, belonging to theDutch, with an unhealthy climate; rich in tin, worked by Chinese.

Bancroft, George, an American statesman, diplomatist, and historian,born in Massachusetts; his chief work “The History of the United States,”issued finally in six vols., and a faithful account (1800-1891).

Bancroft, Hubert, an American historian, author of a “History of thePacific States of N. America”;b. 1832.

Bancroft, Richard, archbishop of Canterbury, a zealous Churchman andan enemy of the Puritans; represented the Church at the Hampton CourtConference, and was chief overseer of the Authorised Version of the Bible(1554-1610).

Bancroft, Sir Squire, English actor, born in London, made his firstappearance in Birmingham in 1861; married Mrs. Wilton, an actress; openedwith her the Haymarket Theatre in 1880; retired in 1885, at which timeboth retired, and have appeared since only occasionally.

Banda Isles, a group of the Moluccas, some twelve in number,belonging to Holland; yield nutmegs and mace; are subject to earthquakes.

Banda Oriental, SeeUruguay.

Bandello, an Italian Dominican monk, a writer of tales, some ofwhich furnished themes and incidents for Shakespeare, Massinger, andother dramatists of their time (1480-1562).

Bandie`ra, brothers, born in Venice; martyrs, in 1844, to the causeof Italian independence.

Bandinelli, a Florentine sculptor, tried hard to rival MichaelAngelo and Cellini; his work “Hercules and Cacus” is the most ambitiousof his productions; did a “Descent from the Cross” in bas-relief, inMilan Cathedral (1487-1559).

Banff (7), county town of Banffshire, on the Moray Firth, at themouth of the Deveron; the county itself (64) stretches level along thecoast, though mountainous on the S. and SE.; fishing and agriculture thegreat industries.

Banffy, Baron, Premier of Hungary, born at Klausenburg; became in1874 provincial prefect of Transylvania; was elected a peer on theformation of the Upper Hungarian Chamber, and was made Premier in 1893;he is a strong Liberal;b. 1841.

Banga, the Hindu name for the Delta of the Ganges.

Ban`galore (180), the largest town in Mysore, and the capital;stands high; is manufacturing and trading.

Banghis, a low-caste people in the Ganges valley.

Bangk`ok (500), the capital of Siam, on the Menam; a very strikingcity; styled, from the canals which intersect it, the “Venice of theEast”; 20 m. from the sea; the centre of the foreign trade, carried on byEuropeans and Chinese; with the royal palace standing on an island, inthe courtyard of which several white elephants are kept.

Bangor (9), an episcopal city in Carnarvon, N. Wales, with largeslate quarries; a place of summer resort, from the beauty of itssurroundings.

Bangorian Controversy, a controversy in the Church of Englandprovoked by a sermon which Hoadley, bishop of Bangor, preached beforeGeorge I. in 1717, which offended the sticklers for ecclesiasticalauthority.

Bangweo`lo, a lake in Equatorial Africa, discovered by Livingstone,and on the shore of which he died; 150 m. long, and half as wide; 3690ft. above sea-level.

Banian days, days when no meat is served out to ships' crews.

Banjari, a non-Aryan race in Central India, the carriers andcaravan-conductors of the region.

Banim, John, Irish author, a native of Kilkenny, novelist of Irishpeasant life on its dark side, who, along with his brother Michael, wrote24 vols. of Irish stories, &c.; his health giving way, he fell intopoverty, but was rescued by a public subscription and a pension; Michaelsurvived him 32 years (1798-1842).

Banks, Sir Joseph, a zealous naturalist, particularly in botany; acollector, in lands far and wide, of specimens in natural history; lefthis collection and a valuable library and herbarium to the BritishMuseum; president of the Royal Society for 41 years (1744-1820).

Banks, Thomas, an eminent English sculptor, born at Lambeth; firstappreciated by the Empress Catharine; his finest works, “Psyche” and“Achilles Enraged,” now in the entrance-hall of Burlington House; heexcelled in imaginative art (1735-1805).

Bannatyne Club, a club founded by Sir Walter Scott to print rareworks of Scottish interest, whether in history, poetry, or generalliterature, of which it printed 116, all deemed of value, a complete sethaving been sold for £235; dissolved in 1861.

Ban`nockburn (2), a manufacturing village 3 m. SE. of Stirling, thescene of the victory, on June 24, 1314, of Robert the Bruce over EdwardII., which reasserted and secured Scottish independence; it manufacturescarpets and tartans.

Ban`shee, among the Irish, and in some parts of the Highlands andBrittany, a fairy, believed to be attached to a family, who gave warningsby wailings of an approaching death in it, and kept guard over it.

Bantam, a chief town in Java, abandoned as unhealthy by the Dutch;whence the Bantam fowl is thought to have come.

Banting System, a dietary for keeping down fat, recommended by a Mr.Banting, a London merchant, in a “Letter on Corpulence” in 1863; herecommended lean meat, and the avoidance of sugar and starchy foods.

Bantry Bay, a deep inlet on the SW. coast of Ireland; a place ofshelter for ships.

Bantu, the name of most of the races, with their languages, thatoccupy Africa from 6° N. lat. to 20° S.; are negroid rather than negro,being in several respects superior; the name, however, suggests rather alinguistic than an ethnological distinction, the language differingradically from all other known forms of speech—the inflection, for onething, chiefly initial, not final.

Banville, Theodore de, a French poet, born at Moulins; wellcharacterised as “Roi des Rimes,” for with him form was everything, andthe matter comparatively insignificant, though, there are touches hereand there of both fine feeling and sharp wit (1823-1891).

Banyan, the Indian fig; a tree whose branches, bending to theground, take root and form new stocks, till they cover a large area andbecome a forest.

Ba`obab, a large African tropical tree, remarkable for the girth ofits trunk, the thickness of its branches, and their expansion; its leavesand seeds are used in medicine.

Baphomet, a mysterious image, presumed represent Mahomet, which theTemplars were accused of worshipping, but which they may rather besurmised to have invoked to curse them if they failed in their vow;Carlyle refers to this cult in “Sartor,” end of Bk. II. chapter vii.,where he speaks of the “Baphometic fire-baptism” of his hero, under whichall the spectres that haunted him withered up.

Baptism, the Christian rite of initiation into the membership of theChurch, identified by St. Paul (Rom. vi. 4) with that No to the worldwhich precedes or rather accompanies Yea to God, but a misunderstandingof the nature of which has led to endless diversity, debate, andalienation all over the Churches of Christendom.

Baptiste, Jean, a name given to the French Canadians.

Baptistry, a circular building, sometimes detached from a church, inwhich the rite of baptism is administered; the most remarkable, that ofPisa.

Baptists, a denomination of Christians, sometimes called Anabaptiststo distinguish them from Pædobaptists, who, however they may and dodiffer on other matters, insist that the rite of initiation is dulyadministered only by immersion, and to those who are of age to make anintelligent profession of faith; they are a numerous body, particularlyin America, and more so in England than in Scotland, and have included intheir membership a number of eminent men.

Baptismal Regeneration, the High Church doctrine that the power ofspiritual life, forfeited by the Fall, is bestowed on the soul in thesacrament of baptism duly administered.

Baraguay d'Hilliers`, Achille, a French marshal who fought underNapoleon at Quatre-Bras; distinguished himself under Louis Philippe inAlgeria, as well as under Louis Napoleon; presided at the trial ofMarshal Bazaine (1795-1878).

Barataria, the imaginary island of which Sancho Panza was formallyinstalled governor, and where in most comical situations he learned howimaginary is the authority of a king, how, instead of governing hissubjects, his subjects govern him.

Barbacan, orBarbican, a fortification to a castle outside thewalls, generally at the end of the drawbridge in front of the gate.

Barba`does (182), one of the Windward Islands, rather larger thanthe Isle of Wight; almost encircled by coral reefs; is the most denselypeopled of the Windward Islands; subject to hurricanes; healthy and wellcultivated; it yields sugar, arrowroot, ginger, and aloes.

Barbara, St., a Christian martyr of the 3rd century; beheaded by herown father, a fanatical heathen, who was immediately after the act struckdead by lightning; she is the patron saint of those who might otherwisedie impenitent, and of Mantua; her attributes are a tower, a sword, and acrown. Festival, Dec. 4.

Barbarians, originally those who could not speak Greek, andultimately synonymous with the uncivilised and people without culture,particularly literary; this is the sense in which Matthew Arnold uses it.

Barbarossa, the surname of Frederick I., emperor of Germany, of whomthere is this tradition, that “he is not yet dead; but only sleeping,till the bad world reach its worst, when he will reappear. He sits withina cavern near Saltzburg, at a marble table, leaning on his elbow;winking, only half-asleep, as a peasant once tumbling into the interiorsaw him; beard had grown through the table, and streamed out on thefloor. He looked at the peasant one moment, asked something about thetime it was; then drooped his eyelids again: 'Not yet time, but will besoon.'”

Barbarossa (i. e. Red-beard),Horuk, a native of Mitylene;turned corsair; became sovereign of Algiers by the murder of Selim theemir, who had adopted him as an ally against Spain; was defeated twice bythe Spanish general Gomarez and slain (1473-1518).

Barbarossa, Khair-Eddin, brother and successor of the preceding;became viceroy of the Porte, made admiral under the sultan, opposedAndrea Doria, ravaged the coast of Italy, and joined the French againstSpain; died at Constantinople in 1546.

Barbaroux, Charles, advocate, born at Marseilles, of which he becametown-clerk; came to Paris “a young Spartan,” and became chief of theGirondins in the French Revolution; represented Marseilles in theConstituent Assembly and the Convention; joined the Rolands; sent“fire-eyed” message to Marseilles for six hundred men “who knew how todie”; held out against Marat and Robespierre; declared an enemy of thepeople, had to flee; mistook a company approaching for Jacobins, drew hispistol and shot himself, but the shot miscarried; was captured andguillotined (1767-1794).

Barbary ape, a tailless monkey of gregarious habits, native of themountainous parts of Barbary, and of which there is a colony on the Rockof Gibraltar, the only one in Europe.

Barbary States, the four states of Morocco, Algeria, Tunis, andTripoli, so called from the Berbers who inhabit the region.

Barbauld, Anna Lætitia,née Aiken, an English popular andaccomplished authoress, wrote “Hymns in Prose for Children,” “Evenings atHome,” in which she was assisted by a brother, &c. (1743-1825).

Barbazan, a French general under Charles VI. and VII., whodeservedly earned for himself the name of the Irreproachable Knight;d.1432.

Bar`becue, a feast in the open air on a large scale, at which theanimals are roasted and dressed whole, formerly common in the SW. Statesof N. America.

Barberi`ni, an illustrious and influential Florentine family,several of the members of which were cardinals, and one made pope in 1623under the name Urban VIII.

Barberton, a mining town and important centre in the Transvaal, 180m. E. of Pretoria.

Barbès, Armand, a French politician, surnamed the Bayard ofDemocracy; imprisoned in 1848, liberated in 1854; expatriated himselfvoluntarily; died at the Hague (1809-1870).

Barbier, Antoine Alex., a French bibliographer, author of a“Dictionary of Anonymous and Pseudonymous Works” (1765-1825).

Barbier, Ed. Fr., jurisconsult of the parliament, born in Paris;author of a journal, historical and anecdotical, of the time of Louis XV.(1689-1771).

Barbier, Henry, a French satirical poet, born in Paris; wrotevigorous political verses; author of “Iambics” (1805-1882).

Barbour, John, a Scotch poet and chronicler, archdeacon of Aberdeen,a man of learning and sagacity; his only extant work a poem entitled “TheBruce,” being a long history in rhyme of the life and achievements ofRobert the Bruce, a work consisting of 13,000 octosyllabic lines, andpossessing both historical and literary merit; “represents,” saysStopford Brooke, “the whole of the eager struggle for Scottish freedomagainst the English, which closed at Bannockburn, and the national spiritin it full grown into life;”d. 1195.

Barca (500), a Turkish province in the N. of Africa, between Tripoliand Egypt; produces maize, figs, dates, and olives.

Barca, name of a Carthaginian family to which Hamilcar, Hasdrubal,and Hannibal belonged, and determinedly opposed to the ascendency ofRome; known as the Barcine faction.

Barcelo`na (280), the largest town in Spain next to Madrid, on theMediterranean, and its chief port, with a naval arsenal, and its largestmanufacturing town, called the “Spanish Manchester,” the staplemanufacture being cotton; is the seat of a bishopric and a university;has numerous churches, convents, and theatres.

Barclay, Alex., a poet and prose-writer, of Scotch birth; bred amonk in England, which he ceased to be on the dissolution of themonasteries; wrote “The Ship of Fools,” partly a translation and partlyan imitation of the German “Narrerschiff” of Brandt. “It has no value,”says Stopford Brooke; “but it was popular because it attacked the folliesand questions of the time; and its sole interest to us is in its picturesof familiar manners and popular customs” (1475-1552).

Barclay, John, born in France, educated by the Jesuits, a stanchCatholic; wrote the “Argenis,” a Latin romance, much thought of byCowper, translated more than once into English (1582-1621).

Barclay, John, leader of the sect of the Bereans (1734-1798).

Barclay, Robert, the celebrated apologist of Quakerism, born inMorayshire; tempted hard to become a Catholic; joined the Society ofFriends, as his father had done before him; his greatest work, written inLatin as well as in English, and dedicated to Charles II., “An Apologyfor the True Christian Divinity, as the same is held forth and preachedby the People called in scorn Quakers,” a great work, the leading thesisof which is that Divine Truth is not matter of reasoning, but intuition,and patent to the understanding of every truth-loving soul (1645-1690).

Barclay, William, father of John (1), an eminent citizen andprofessor of Law at Angers;d. 1605. All these Barclays were ofScottish descent.

Barclay de Tolly, a Russian general and field-marshal, of Scottishdescent, and of the same family as Robert Barclay the Quaker;distinguished in successive Russian wars; his promotion rapid, in spiteof his unpopularity as German born; on Napoleon's invasion of Russia histactic was to retreat till forced to fight at Smolensk; he was defeated,and superseded in command by Kutusow; on the latter's death was madecommander-in-chief; commanded the Russians at Dresden and Leipzig, andled them into France in 1815; he was afterwards Minister of War at St.Petersburg, and elevated to the rank of prince (1761-1818).

Bard of Avon, Shakespeare;of Ayrshire, Burns;of Hope,Campbell;of Imagination, Akenside;of Memory, Rogers;ofOlney, Cowper;of Rydal Mount, Wordsworth;of Twickenham,Pope.

Bardell`, Mrs., a widow in the “Pickwick Papers,” who sues Pickwickfor breach of promise.

Bardolph, a drunken, swaggering, worthless follower of Falstaff's.

Bardon Hill, a hill in Leicestershire, from which one can see rightacross England.

Bar-Durani, the collective name of a number of Afghan tribes betweenthe Hindu-Kush and the Soliman Mountains.

Barebone's Parliament, Cromwell's Little Parliament, met 4th July1653; derisively called Barebone's Parliament, from one Praise-GodBarebone, a member of it. “If not the remarkablest Assembly, yet theAssembly for the remarkablest purpose,” says Carlyle, “that ever met inthe modern world; the business being no less than introducing of theChristian religion into real practice in the social affairs of thisnation.... In this it failed, could not but fail, with what we call theDevil and all his angels against it, and the Little Parliament had to goits ways again,” 12th December in the same year.

Barèges, a village on the Hautes-Pyrénées, at 4000 ft. above thesea-level, resorted to for its mineral waters.

Bareilly (121), a city in NW. India, the chief town in Rohilkhand,153 m. E. of Delhi, notable as the place where the Mutiny of 1858 firstbroke out.

Barentz, an Arctic explorer, born in Friesland; discoveredSpitzbergen, and doubled the NE. extremity of Nova Zembla, in 1596, anddied the same year.

Barère, French revolutionary, a member of the States-General, theNational Assembly of France, and the Convention; voted in the Conventionfor the execution of the king, uttering the oft-quoted words, “The treeof Liberty thrives only when watered by the blood of tyrants;” escapedthe fate of his associates; became a spy under Napoleon; was called byBurke, from his flowery oratory, the Anacreon of the Guillotine, and byMercier, “the greatest liar in France;” he was inventor of the famousfable “his masterpiece,” of the “Sinking of theVengeur,” “the largest,most inspiring piece ofblaque manufactured, for some centuries, by anyman or nation;” died in beggary (1755-1841). SeeVengeur.

Baretti, Giuseppe, an Italian lexicographer, born in Turin; taughtItalian in London, patronised by Johnson, became secretary of the RoyalAcademy (1719-1789).

Barfleur, a seaport 15 m. E. of Cherbourg, where William theConqueror set out with his fleet to invade England.

Bârfrüsh (603), a town S. of the Caspian, famous for its bazaar.

Bar`guest, a goblin long an object of terror in the N. of England.

Bari, The, a small negro nation on the banks of the White Nile.

Baring, Sir Francis, founder of the great banking firm of BaringBrothers & Co.; amassed property, value of it said to have been nearlyseven millions (1740-1810).

Baring-Gould, Sabine, rector of Lew-Trenchard, Devonshire,celebrated in various departments of literature, history, theology, andromance, especially the latter; a voluminous writer on all manner ofsubjects, and a man of wide reading;b. 1834.

Barham, Richard Harris, his literary name Thomas Ingoldsby, born atCanterbury, minor canon of St. Paul's; friend of Sidney Smith; author of“Ingoldsby Legends,” published originally as a series of papers inBentley's Miscellany (1788-1879).

Barkis, a carrier-lad in “David Copperfield,” in love with Peggotty.“Barkis is willin'.”

Barker, E. Henry, a classical scholar, born in Yorkshire; editedStephens' “Thesaurus Linguæ Græcæ,” an arduous work; died in poverty(1788-1839).

Barking, a market-town in Essex, 7 m. NE. of London, with theremains of an ancient Benedictine convent.

Barlaam and Josaphat, a mediæval legend, being a Christianisedversion of an earlier legend relating to Buddha, in which Josaphat, aprince like Buddha, is converted by Barlaam to a like ascetic life.

Barleycorn, John, the exhilarating spirit distilled from barleypersonified.

Barlow, Joel, an American poet and diplomatist; for his Republicanzeal, was in 1792 accorded the rights of citizenship in France; wrote apoem “The Vision of Columbus” (1755-1812).

Barlowe, a French watchmaker, inventor of the repeating watch;d.1690.

Barmacide Feast, an imaginary feast, so called from a story in the“Arabian Nights” of a hungry beggar invited by a Barmacide prince to abanquet, which proved a long succession of merely empty dishes, and whichhe enjoyed with such seeming gusto and such good-humour as to earn forhimself a sumptuous real one.

Bar`macides, a Persian family celebrated for their magnificence, andthat in the end met with the cruellest fate. Yâhyá, one of them, eminentfor ability and virtue, was chosen by the world-famous Haroun-Al-Raschidon his accession to the caliphate to be his vizier; and his four sonsrose along with him to such influence in the government, as to excite thejealousy of the caliph so much, that he had the whole family invited to abanquet, and every man, woman, and child of them massacred at midnight incold blood. The caliph, it is gratifying to learn, never forgave himselffor this cruelty, and was visited with a gnawing remorse to the end ofhis days; and it had fatal issues to his kingdom as well as himself.

Bar`men (116), a long town, consisting of a series of hamlets, 6 m.in extent, in Rhenish Prussia; the population consists chiefly ofProtestants; the staple industry, the manufacture of ribbons, and it isthe centre of that industry on the Continent.

Barnabas, St., a member of the first Christian brotherhood, acompanion of St. Paul's, and characterised in the Acts as “a good man”;stoned to death at Cyprus, where he was born; an epistle extant bears hisname, but is not believed to be his work; the Epistle to the Hebrews hasby some been ascribed to him; he is usually represented in art as avenerable man of majestic mien, with the Gospel of St. Matthew in hishand. Festival, June 11.

Barnabites, a proselytising order of monks founded at Milan, whereBarnabas was reported to have been bishop, in 1530; bound, as the restare, by the three monastic vows, and by a vow in addition, not to sue forpreferment in the Church.

Barnaby Rudge, one of Dickens' novels, published in 1841.

Barnard, Henry, American educationist, born in Connecticut, 1811.

Barnard, Lady Anne, daughter of Lindsay, the 5th Earl of Balcarres,born in Fife; authoress of “Auld Robin Gray,” named after a Balcarresherd; lived several years at the Cape, where her husband held anappointment, and after his death, in London (1750-1825).

Barnard Castle, an old tower W. of Darlington, in Durham; birthplaceof John Baliol, and the scene of Scott's “Rokeby.”

Bar`nardine, a reckless character in “Measure for Measure.”

Barnave, Joseph Marie, French lawyer, born at Grenoble; president ofthe French Constitutional Assembly in 1780; one of the trio in theAssembly of whom it was said, “Whatsoever those three have on hand,Dupont thinks it, Barnave speaks it, Lameth does it;” a defender of themonarchy from the day he gained the favour of the queen by his gallantconduct to her on her way back to Paris from her flight with the king toVarennes; convicted by documentary evidence of conspiring with the courtagainst the nation; was guillotined (1761-1793).

Barn-burners, name formerly given to an extreme radical party in theUnited States, as imitating the Dutchman who, to get rid of the rats,burned his barns.

Barnes, Thomas, editor of theTimes, under whom the paper firstrose to the pre-eminent place it came to occupy among the journals of theday (1786-1841).

Barnes, William, a local philologist, native of Dorsetshire; authorof “Poems of Rural Life in Dorset,” in three vols.; wrote on subjects ofphilological interest (1830-1886).

Barnet (5), a town in Hertfordshire, almost a suburb of London; afavourite resort of Londoners; has a large annual horse and cattle fair;scene of a battle in 1471, at which Warwick, the king-maker, was slain.

Barnett, John, composer, born at Bedford; author of operas and anumber of fugitive pieces (1802-1891).

Barneveldt, Johann van Olden, Grand Pensionary of Holland, of adistinguished family; studied law at the Hague, and practised as anadvocate there; fought for the independence of his country against Spain;concluded a truce with Spain, in spite of the Stadtholder Maurice, whoseambition for supreme power he courageously opposed; being an Arminian,took sides against the Gomarist or Calvinist party, to which Mauricebelonged; was arrested, tried, and condemned to death as a traitor andheretic, and died on the scaffold at 71 years of age, with sanction, too,of the Synod of Dort, in 1619.

Barnsley (35), a manufacturing town in W. Yorkshire, 18 m. N. ofSheffield; manufactures textile fabrics and glass.

Barnum, an American showman; began with the exhibition of GeorgeWashington's reputed nurse in 1834; picked up Tom Thumb in 1844; engagedJenny Lind for 100 concerts in 1849, and realised a fortune, which helost; started in 1871 with his huge travelling show, and realised anotherfortune, dying worth five million dollars (1810-1891).

Barocci, a celebrated Italian painter, imitator of the style ofCorreggio (1528-1612).

Baroche, Pierre-Jules, a French statesman, minister of Napoleon III.(1802-1870).

Baro`da (2,415), a native state of Gujerat, in the prov. of Bombay,with a capital (101) of the same name, the sovereign of which is calledthe Guicowar; the third city in the presidency, with Hindu temples and aconsiderable trade.

Baro`nius, Cæsar, a great Catholic ecclesiastic, born near Naples,priest of the Congregation of the Oratory under its founder, andultimately Superior; cardinal and librarian of the Vatican; his greatwork, “Annales Ecclesiastici,” being a history of the first 12 centuriesof the Church, written to prove that the Church of Rome was identicalwith the Church of the 1st century, a work of immense research thatoccupied him 30 years; failed of the popehood from the intrigues of theSpaniards, whose political schemes he had frustrated (1538-1607).

Barons' War, a war in England of the barons against Henry III.,headed by Simon de Montfort, and which lasted from 1258 to 1265.

Baroque, ornamentation of a florid and incongruous character, morelavish and showy rather than true and tasteful; much in vogue from the16th to the 18th centuries.

Barra, a small island, one of the Hebrides, 5 m. SW. of S. Uist, theinhabitants of which are engaged in fisheries.

Bar`rackpur (18), a town on the Hooghly, 15 m. above Calcutta, wherethe lieutenant-governor of Bengal has a residence; a healthy resort ofthe Europeans.

Barrack-Room Ballads, ballads by Rudyard Kipling, with a finemartial strain.

Barras, Paul François, a member of the Jacobin Club, born inProvence; “a man of heat and haste,... tall, and handsome to the eye;”voted in the National Convention for the execution of the king; took partin the siege of Toulon; put an end to the career of Robespierre and theReign of Terror; named general-in-chief to oppose the reactionaries;employed Bonaparte to command the artillery, “he the commandant's cloak,this artillery officer the commandant;” was a member of the Directorytill Bonaparte swept it away (1755-1829).

Bar`ratry, the offence of inciting and stirring up riots andquarrels among the Queen's subjects, also a fraud by a ship captain onthe owners of a ship.

Barré, Isaac, soldier and statesman, born in Dublin, served underWolfe in Canada, entered Parliament, supported Pitt, charged withauthorship of “Junius' Letters”;d. 1802.

Barrel Mirabeau, Viscount de Mirabeau, brother of the great tribuneof the name, so called from his bulk and the liquor he held.

Barrère. SeeBarère.

Barrett, Wilson, English actor, born in Essex; made hisdébut atHalifax; lessee of the Grand Theatre, Leeds, and of the Court and thePrincess's Theatres, London; produced his Hamlet in 1884;b. 1846.

Barrie, James Matthew, a writer with a rich vein of humour andpathos, born at Kirriemuir (“Thrums”), in Forfarshire; began his literarycareer as a contributor to journals; produced, among other works, “AuldLicht Idylls” in 1888, and “A Window in Thrums,” in 1889, and recently“Margaret Ogilvie,” deemed by some likely to prove the most enduringthing he has yet written;b. 1860.

Barrier Reef, The Great, a slightly interrupted succession of coralreefs off the coast of Queensland, of 1200 m. extent, and 100 m. wide atthe S., and growing narrower as they go N.; are from 70 to 20 m. off thecoast, and protect the intermediate channel from the storms of thePacific.

Barrière, Jean François, French historian of the Revolution(1786-1868).

Barrière, Pierre, would-be assassin of Henry IV. of France; brokenon the wheel in 1593.

Barriers, Battle of the, a battle fought within the walls of Parisin 1814 between Napoleon and the Allies, which ended in the capitulationof the city and the abdication of Napoleon.

Barrington, John Shute, 1st Viscount, gained the favour of theNonconformists by his “Rights of Dissenters,” and an Irish peerage fromGeorge I. for his “Dissuasive from Jacobitism”; left six sons, all moreor less distinguished, particularly Daines, the fourth, distinguished inlaw (1727-1800), and Samuel, the fifth, 1st Lord of the name,distinguished in the naval service, assisted under Lord Howe at therelief of Gibraltar, and became an admiral in 1787 (1678-1764).

Barros, João de, a distinguished Portuguese historian; his greatwork. “Asia Portugueza,” relates, in a pure and simple style, thediscoveries and conquests of the Portuguese in the Indies; he did notlive to complete it (1493-1570).

Barrot, Odilon, famous as an advocate, born at Villefort;contributed to the Revolutions of both 1830 and 1848; accepted officeunder Louis Napoleon; retired after thecoup d'état, to return tooffice in 1872 (1791-1873).

Barrow, a river in Ireland rising in the Slievebloom Mts.; fallsinto Waterford harbour, after a course of 114 m.

Barrow, Isaac, English scholar, mathematician, and divine, born inLondon; a graduate of Cambridge, and fellow of Trinity College; appointedprofessor of Greek at Cambridge, and soon after Gresham professor ofGeometry; subsequently Lucasian professor of Mathematics (in which he hadNewton for successor), and master of Trinity, and founder of the library;a man of great intellectual ability and force of character; besidesmathematical works, left a “Treatise on the Pope's Supremacy,” and a bodyof sermons remarkable for their vigour of thought and nervousness ofexpression (1630-1677).

Barrow, Sir John, secretary to the Admiralty for 40 years, and muchesteemed in that department, distinguished also as a man of letters;wrote the Lives of Macartney, Anson, Howe, and Peter the Great(1764-1848).

Barrow-in-Furness (51), a town and seaport in N. Lancashire, ofrecent rapid growth, owing to the discovery of extensive deposits of ironin the neighbourhood, which has led to the establishment of smeltingworks and the largest manufacture of steel in the kingdom; the principallandowners in the district being the Dukes of Devonshire and Buccleuch.

Barry, James, painter, born in Cork; painted the “Death of GeneralWolfe”; became professor of Painting at the Royal Academy, but wasdeposed; died in poverty; his masterpiece is the “Victors at Olympia”(1741-1806).

Barry, Sir Charles, architect, born at Westminster; architect of thenew Palace of Westminster, besides other public buildings (1795-1860).

Barry Cornwall. SeeProcter.

Bart, orBarth, Jean, a distinguished French seaman, born atDunkirk, son of a fisherman, served under De Ruyter, entered the Frenchservice at 20, purchased a ship of two guns, was subsidised as aprivateer, made numerous prizes; having had other ships placed under hiscommand, was captured by the English, but escaped; defeated the Dutchadmiral, De Vries; captured his squadron laden with corn, for which hewas ennobled by Louis XIV.; he was one of the bravest of men and the mostindependent, unhampered by red-tapism of every kind (1651-1702).

Barth, Heinrich, a great African explorer, born at Hamburg; authorof “Travels in the East and Discoveries in Central Africa,” in fivevolumes (1821-1865).

Barthélemy, Auguste-Marseille, a poet and politician, born atMarseilles; author of “Nemesis,” and the best French translation of the“Æneid,” in verse; an enemy of the Bourbons, an ardent Imperialist, andwarm supporter of Louis Napoleon (1796-1867).

Barthélemy, The Abbé, Jean Jacques, a French historian andantiquary, born at Cassis, in Provence; educated by the Jesuits; hadgreat skill in numismatics; wrote several archæological works, in chief,“Voyage du Jeune Anacharsis en Grèce;” long treated as an authority inthe history, manners, and customs of Greece (1716-1795).

Barthélemy Saint-Hilaire, Jules, a French baron and politician, bornat Paris; an associate of Odilon Barrot in the Revolutions of 1830 and1848, and subsequently a zealous supporter of M. Thiers; for a timeprofessor of Greek and Roman Philosophy in the College of France; anOriental as well as Greek scholar; translated the works of Aristotle,his greatest achievement, and the “Iliad” into verse, as well as wrote onthe Vedas, Buddhism, and Mahomet;b. 1805.

Barthez, Paul Joseph, a celebrated physician, physiologist, andEncyclopædist, born at Montpellier, where he founded a medical school;suffered greatly during the Revolution; was much esteemed and honoured byNapoleon; is celebrated among physiologists as the advocate of what hecalled the Vital Principle as a physiological force in the functions ofthe human organism; his work “Nouveaux Eléments de la Science de l'Homme”has been translated into all the languages of Europe (1734-1806).

Bartholdi, a French sculptor, born at Colmar; his principal works,“Lion le Belfort,” and “Liberté éclairant le Monde,” the largest bronzestatue in the world, being 150 ft. high, erected at the entrance of NewYork harbour;b. 1834.

Bartholomew, St., an apostle of Christ, and martyr; represented inart with a knife in one hand and his skin in the other; sometimes beenpainted as being flayed alive, also as headless. Festival, Aug. 24.

Bartholomew Fair, an annual market held at Smithfield, London, andinstituted in 1133 by Henry I., to be kept on the saint's day, butabolished in 1853, when it ceased to be a market and became an occasionfor mere dissipation and riot.

Bartholomew Hospital, an hospital in Smithfield, London, founded in1123; has a medical school attached to it, with which the names of anumber of eminent physicians are associated.

Bartholomew's Day, St., 24th August, day in 1572 memorable for thewholesale massacre of the Protestants in France at the instance ofCatharine de Medici, then regent of the kingdom for her son, Charles IX.,an event, cruelly gloried in by the Pope and the Spanish Court, whichkindled a fire in the nation that was not quenched, although itextinguished Protestantism proper in France, till Charles was coerced togrant liberty of conscience throughout the realm.

Bartizan, an overhanging wall-mounted turret projecting from thewalls of ancient fortifications.

Bartlett, John H., an American ethnologist and philologist, born atRhode Island, U.S.; author of “Dictionary of Americanisms,” among otherworks particularly on ethnology (1805-1886).

Bartoli, Daniele, a learned Italian Jesuit, born at Ferrara(1635-1685).

Bartoli, Pietro, Italian engraver, engraved a great number ofancient works of art (1635-1700).

Bartolini, Lorenzo, a Florentine sculptor, patronised by Napoleon;produced a great number of busts (1777-1850).

Bartolomme`o, Fra, a celebrated Florentine painter of sacredsubjects, born at Florence; an adherent of Savonarola, friend of Raphael;“St. Mark” and “St. Sebastian” among his best productions (1469-1517).

Bartoloz`zi, Francesco, an eminent engraver, born at Florence;wrought at his art both in England and in Portugal, where he died; hischief works, “Clytie,” after Annibale Caracci, the “Prometheus,” afterMichael Angelo, and “Virgin and Child,” after Carlo Dolci; he was thefather of Madame Vestris (1725-1815).

Barton, Bernard, the “Quaker poet,” born in London; a clerk nearlyall his days in a bank; his poems, mostly on homely subjects, butinstinct with poetic feeling and fancy, gained him the friendship ofSouthey and Charles Lamb, as well as more substantial patronage in theshape of a government pension (1784-1849).

Barton, Elizabeth, “the Maid of Kent,” a poor country servant-girl,born in Kent, subject from nervous debility to trances, in which she gaveutterances ascribed by Archbishop Warham to divine inspiration, till hercommunications were taken advantage of by designing people, and she wasled by them to pronounce sentence against the divorce of Catharine ofAragon, which involved her and her abettors in a charge of treason, forwhich they were all executed at Tyburn (1506-1534).

Baruch, (1) the friend of the prophet Jeremiah, and his scribe, whowas cast with him into prison, and accompanied him into Egypt; (2) a bookin the Apocrypha, instinct with the spirit of Hebrew prophecy, ascribedto him; (3) also a book entitled the Apocalypse of Baruch, affecting topredict the fall of Jerusalem, but obviously written after the event.

Barye, a French sculptor, distinguished for his groups of statues ofwild animals (1795-1875).

Basaiti, a Venetian painter of the 15th and 16th centuries, a rivalof Bellini; his best works, “Christ in the Garden” and the “Calling ofSt. Peter and St. Andrew.”

Basedow, Johann Bernard, a zealous educational reformer, born atHamburg; his method modelled according to the principles of Rousseau;established a normal school on this method at Dessau, which, however,failed from his irritability of temper, which led to a rupture with hiscolleagues (1723-1790).

Basel (74), in the NW. of Switzerland, on the Rhine, just before itenters Germany; has a cathedral, university, library, and museum; was acentre of influence in Reformation times, and the home for several yearsof Erasmus; it is now a great money market, and has manufactures of silksand chemicals; the people are Protestant and German-speaking.

Basel, Council of, met in 1431, and laboured for 12 years to effectthe reformation of the Church from within. It effected some compromisewith the Hussites, but was hampered at every step by the opposition ofPope Eugenius IV. Asserting the authority of a general council over thePope himself, it cited him on two occasions to appear at its bar, on hisrefusal declared him contumacious, and ultimately endeavoured to suspendhim. Failing to effect its purpose, owing to the secession of hissupporters, it elected a rival pope, Felix V., who was, however, butscantily recognised. The Emperor Frederick III. supported Eugenius, andthe council gradually melted away. At length, in 1449, the pope died,Felix resigned, and Nicholas V. was recognised by the whole Church. Thedecrees of the council were directed against the immorality of theclergy, the indecorousness of certain festivals, the papal prerogativesand exactions, and dealt with the election of popes and the procedure ofthe College of Cardinals. They were all confirmed by Nicholas V., but arenot recognised by modern Roman canonists.

Ba`shan, a fertile and pastoral district in NE. Palestine ofconsiderable extent, and at one time densely peopled; the men of it wereremarkable for their stature.

Bashahr, a native hill state in the Punjab, traversed by the Sutlej;tributary to the British Government.

Bashi-Bazouks`, irregular, undisciplined troops in the pay of theSultan; rendered themselves odious by their brutality in the Bulgarianatrocities of 1876, as well as, more or less, in the time of the Crimeanwar.

Bashkirs, originally a Finnish nomad race (and still so to someextent) of E. Russia, professing Mohammedanism; they number some 500,000.

Bashkirtseff, Marie, a precocious Russian young lady of good family,but of delicate constitution, who travelled a good deal with her mother,noted her impressions, and left a journal of her life, which created,when published after her death, an immense sensation from the confessionsit contains (1860-1884).

Basil, St., The Great, bishop of Cæsarea, in Cappadocia, hisbirthplace; studied at Athens; had Julian the Apostate for afellow-student; the lifelong friend of Gregory Nazianzen; founded amonastic body, whose rules are followed by different monasticcommunities; a conspicuous opponent of the Arian heresy, and defender ofthe Nicene Creed; tried in vain to unite the Churches of the East andWest; is represented in Christian art in Greek pontificals, bareheaded,and with an emaciated appearance (326-380). There were several Basils ofeminence in the history of the Church: Basil, bishop of Ancyra, whoflourished in the 4th century; Basil, the mystic, and Basil, the friendof St. Ambrose.

Basil I., the Macedonian, emperor of the East; though he had raisedhimself to the throne by a succession of crimes, governed wisely;compiled, along with his son Leo, surnamed the Philosopher, a code oflaws that were in force till the fall of the empire; fought successfullyagainst the Saracens;d. 886.

Basilica, the code of laws, in 60 books, compiled by Basil I., andLeo, his son and successor, first published in 887, and named after theformer.

Basilica, a spacious hall, twice as long as broad, for publicbusiness and the administration of justice, originally open to the sky,but eventually covered in, and with the judge's bench at the end oppositethe entrance, in a circular apse added to it. They were first erected bythe Romans, 180 B.C.; afterwards, on the adoption of Christianity, theywere converted into churches, the altar being in the apse.

Basilicon Doron (i. e. Royal Gift), a work written by James I. in1599, before the union of the crowns, for the instruction of his son,Prince Henry, containing a defence of the royal prerogative.

Basili`des, a Gnostic of Alexandria, flourished at the commencementof the 2nd century; appears to have taught the Oriental theory ofemanations, to have construed the universe as made up of a series ofworlds, some 365 it is alleged, each a degree lower than the preceding,till we come to our own world, the lowest and farthest off from theparent source of the series, of which the God of the Jews was the ruler,and to have regarded Jesus as sent into it direct from the parent sourceto redeem it from the materialism to which the God of the Jews, asCreator and Lord of the material universe, had subjected it; whichteaching a sect called after his name accepted and propagated in both theEast and the West for more than two centuries afterwards.

Bas`ilisk, an animal fabled to have been hatched by a toad from theegg of an old cock, before whose breath every living thing withered anddied, and the glance of whose eye so bewitched one to his ruin that thebravest could confront and overcome it only by looking at the reflectionof it in a mirror, asPerseus (q. v.) was advised to do, anddid, when he cut off the head of the Medusa; seeing itself in a mirror,it burst, it as said, at the sight.

Baskerville, John, a printer and typefounder, originally awriting-master in Birmingham; native of Sion Hill, Worcestershire;produced editions of classical works prized for their pre-eminent beautyby connoisseurs in the art of the printer, and all the more for theirrarity (1706-1756).

Basnages, Jacques, a celebrated Protestant divine, born at Rouen;distinguished as a linguist and man of affairs; wrote a “History of theReformed Churches” and on “Jewish Antiquities” (1653-1723).

Basoche, a corporation of lawyers' clerks in Paris. SeeBazoche.

Basque Provinces, a fertile and mineral district in N. of Spain,embracing the three provinces of Biscaya, Guipuzcoa, and Alava, of whichthe chief towns are respectively Bilbao, St. Sebastian, and Vittoria; thenatives differ considerably from the rest of the Spaniards in race,language, and customs. SeeBasques.

Basque Roads, an anchorage between the Isle of Oléron and themainland; famous for a naval victory gained in 1809 over a French fleetunder Vice-Admiral Allemand.

Basques, a people of the Western Pyrenees, partly in France andpartly in Spain; distinguished from their neighbours only by theirspeech, which is non-Aryan; a superstitious people, conservative,irascible, ardent, proud, serious in their religious convictions, andpure in their moral conduct.

Bas-relief (i. e. low relief) a term applied to figures veryslightly projected from the ground.

Bass Rock, a steep basaltic rock at the mouth of the Firth of Forth,350 ft. high, tenanted by solan geese; once used as a prison, speciallyin Covenanting times.

Bass Strait, strait between Australia and Tasmania, about 150 m.broad.

Bassanio, the lover of Portia in the “Merchant of Venice.”

Bassano, a town in Italy, on the Brenta, 30 m. NW. of Padua;printing the chief industry.

Bassano, Duc de, an intriguing French diplomatist in the interest ofBonaparte, and his steadfast auxiliary to the last (1763-1839).

Bassano, Jacopo da Ponte, an eminent Italian painter, chiefly ofcountry scenes, though the “Nativity” at his native town, Bassano, showshis ability in the treatment of higher themes (1510-1592).

Bassompierre, François de, a marshal of France, born in Lorraine;entered military life under Henry IV., was a gallant soldier, and one ofthe most brilliant wits of his time; took part in the siege of Rochelle;incurred the displeasure of Richelieu; was imprisoned by his order twelveyears in the Bastille; wrote his Memoirs there; was liberated on thedeath of Richelieu; his Memoirs contain a lively description of hiscontemporaries, the manners of the time, his own intrigues, no less thanthose of his friends and enemies (1579-1646).

Bassorah (40), a port in Asiatic Turkey, on the Shatt-el-Arab; aplace of great commercial importance when Bagdad was the seat of thecaliphate; for a time sank into insignificance, but has of late revived.

Basti`a (22), a town in NE. Corsica, the most commercial in theisland, and once the capital; was founded by the Genoese in 1383, andtaken by the French in 1553; exports wine, oil, fruits, &c.

Bastian, Adolf, an eminent ethnologist, born at Bremen; travelledover and surveyed, in the interest of his science, all quarters of theglobe, and recorded the fruits of his survey in his numerous works, nofewer than thirty in number, beginning with “Der Mensch in derGeschichte,” in three vols.; conducts, along with Virchow and R. Hartman,theZeitschrift für Ethnologie;b. 1826.

Bastian, Dr. H. C., a physiologist, born at Truro; a materialist inhis theory of life; a zealous advocate of the doctrine of spontaneousgeneration;b. 1837.

Bastiat, Frédéric, an eminent political economist, born at Bayonne;a disciple of Cobden's; a great advocate of Free Trade; wrote on behalfof it and against Protection, “Sophismes Economiques”; a zealousAnti-Socialist, and wrote against Socialism (1801-1850).

Bastide, Jules, French Radical writer, born in Paris; took part inthe Revolution of 1848, and became Minister of Foreign Affairs(1800-1879).

Bastille (lit. the Building), a State prison in Paris, builtoriginally as a fortress of defence to the city, by order of Charles V.,between 1369 and 1382, but used as a place of imprisonment from thefirst; a square structure, with towers and dungeons for the incarcerationof the prisoners, the whole surrounded by a moat, and accessible only bydrawbridges; “tyranny's stronghold”; attacked by a mob on 14th July 1789;taken chiefly by noise; overturned, as “the city of Jericho, bymiraculous sound”; demolished, and the key of it sent to Washington; thetaking of it was the first event in the Revolution. SeeCarlyle's “FrenchRevolution” for the description of the fall of it.

Basutoland (250), a fertile, healthy, grain-growing territory in S.Africa, SE. of the Orange Free State, under protection of the Britishcrown, of the size of Belgium; yields large quantities of maize; thenatives keep large herds of cattle.

Basutos, a S. African race of the same stock as the Kaffirs, butsuperior to them in intelligence and industry.

Batangas, a port in the island of Luzon, one of the PhilippineIslands, which has a considerable trade.

Batavia (105), the capital of Java, on the N. coast, and of theDutch possessions in the Eastern Archipelago; the emporium, with a largetrade, of the Far East; with a very mixed population. Also the ancientname of Holland;insula Batavorum it was called—that is, island of theBatavi, the name of the native tribes inhabiting it.

Bates, Henry Walter, a naturalist and traveller, born at Leicester;friend of, and a fellow-labourer with, Alfred R. Wallace; author of “TheNaturalist on the Amazons”; an advocate of the Darwinian theory, andauthor of contributions in defence of it (1825-1892).

Bath (54), the largest town in Somerset, on the Avon; a cathedralcity; a place of fashionable resort from the time of the Romans, onaccount of its hot baths and mineral waters, of which there are sixsprings; it was from 1704 to 1750 the scene of Beau Nash's triumphs; hasa number of educational and other institutions, and a fine public park.

Bath, Major, a gentleman in Fielding's “Amelia,” who stoops from hisdignity to the most menial duties when affection prompts him.

Bath, Order of the, an English order of knighthood, traceable to thereign of Henry IV., consisting of three classes: the first, Knights GrandCross; the second, Knights Commanders, and the third, Knights Companions,abbreviated respectively into G.C.B., K.C.B., and C.B.; initiationinto the order originally preceded by immersion in a bath, whence thename, in token of the purity required of the members by the laws ofchivalry. It was originally a military order, and it is only since 1847that civil Knights, Knights Commanders, and Companions have been admittedas Knights. The first class, exclusive of royal personages andforeigners, is limited to 102 military and 28 civil; the second, to 102military and 50 civil; and the third, to 525 military and 200 civil. Themotto of the order isTria juncta in uno (Three united in one); andHenry VI.'s chapel at Westminster is the chapel of the order, with theplates of the Knights on their stalls, and their banners suspended overthem.

Bathgate (5), largest town in Linlithgowshire; a mining centre; thebirthplace of Sir J. Simpson, who was the son of a baker in the place.

Bathilda, St., queen of France, wife of Clovis II., who governedFrance during the minority of her sons, Clovis III., Childéric II., andThierry; died 680, in the monastery of Chelles.

Bath`ori, Elizabeth, a Polish princess, a woman of infamous memory,caused some 650 young girls to be put to death, in order, by bathing intheir blood, to renew her beauty; immersed in a fortress for life on thediscovery of the crime, while her accomplices were burnt alive;d.1614.

Bathos, an anti-climax, being a sudden descent from the sublime tothe commonplace.

Bath`urst (8), the capital of British Gambia, at the mouth of theriver Gambia, in Western Africa; inhabited chiefly by negroes; exportspalm-oil, ivory, gold dust, &c.

Bathurst (10), the principal town on the western slopes of New SouthWales, second to Sydney, with gold mines in the neighbourhood, and in afertile wheat-growing district.

Bathurst, a district in Upper Canada, on the Ottawa, a thrivingplace and an agricultural centre.

Bathyb`ius, (i. e. living matter in the deep), substance of aslimy nature found at great sea depth, over-hastily presumed to beorganic, proved by recent investigation to be inorganic, and of no availto the evolutionist.

Batley (28), a manufacturing town in the W. Riding of Yorkshire, 8m. SW. of Leeds; a busy place.

Batn-el-Hajar, a stony tract in the Nubian Desert, near the thirdcataract of the Nile.

Baton-Rouge (10), a city on the E. bank of the Mississippi, 130 m.above New Orleans, and capital of the state of Louisiana; originally aFrench settlement.

Baton-sinister, a bend-sinister like a marshal's baton, anindication of illegitimacy.

Batoum` (10), a town in Transcaucasia, on the E. of the Black Sea; aplace of some antiquity; recently ceded by Turkey to Russia, but only asa mere trading port; has an excellent harbour, and has improved underRussian rule.

Batrachomyomachia, a mock-heroic poem, “The Battle of the Frogs andMice,” falsely ascribed to Homer.

Battas, a Malay race, native to Sumatra, now much reduced innumbers, and driven into the interior.

Battersea, a suburb of London, on the Surrey side of the Thames,opposite Chelsea, and connected with it by a bridge; with a park 185acres in extent; of plain and recent growth; till lately a quite ruralspot.

Batthya`ni, Count, an Hungarian patriot, who fought hard to see hiscountry reinstated in its ancient administrative independence, but failedin his efforts; was arrested, tried for high treason by court-martial,and sentenced to be shot, to the horror, at the time, of the civilisedworld (1809-1849).

Battle, a market-town in Sussex, near Hastings, so called from thebattle of Senlac, in which William the Conqueror defeated Harold in 1066.

Battle of the Spurs, (a) an engagement at Courtrai in 1302 wherethe burghers of the town beat the knighthood of France, and the spurs of4000 knights were collected after the battle; (b) an engagement atGuinegate, 1513, in which Henry VIII. made the French forces take totheir spurs;of the Barriers (seeBarriers);of theBooks, a satire by Swift on a literary controversy of the time;ofthe Standard, a battle in 1138, in which the English, with ahigh-mounted crucifix for a standard, beat the Scots at Northallerton.

Battue, method of killing game after crowding them by cries andbeating them towards the sportsmen.

Baucis. SeePhilemon.

Baudelaire, Charles, French poet of the romantic school, born inParis; distinguished among his contemporaries for his originality, andhis influence on others of his class; was a charming writer of prose aswell as verse, as his “Petits Poèmes” in prose bear witness. Victor Hugoonce congratulated him on having “created a new shudder”; and as has beensaid, “this side of his genius attracted most popular attention, which,however, is but one side, and not really the most remarkable, of asingular combination of morbid but delicate analysis and reproduction ofthe remotest phases and moods of human thought and passion” (1821-1867).

Baudricourt, a French courtier whom Joan of Arc pressed to conducther into the presence of Charles VII.

Baudry, Paul, French painter, decorated thefoyer of the GrandOpera in Paris; is best known as the author of the “Punishment of aVestal Virgin” and the “Assassination of Marat” (1828-1886).

Bauer, Bruno, a daring Biblical critic, and violent polemic onpolitical as well as theological subjects; born at Saxe-Altenburg;regarded the Christian religion as overlaid and obscured by accretionsforeign to it; denied the historical truth of the Gospels, and, like atrue disciple of Hegel, ascribed the troubles of the 19th century to theovermastering influence of the “Enlightenment” or the“Aufklärung” (q. v.) that characterised the 18th. His last workwas entitled “Disraeli's Romantic and Bismarck's Socialistic Imperialism”(1809-1882).

Baumgarten, Alexander Gottlieb, professor of Philosophy atFrankfort-on-the-Oder; disciple of Wolf; born at Berlin; the founder ofÆsthetics as a department of philosophy, and inventor of the name(1714-1762).

Baumgarten-Crusius, a German theologian of the school ofSchleiermacher; professor of Theology at Jena; born at Merseburg; anauthority on the history of dogma, on which he wrote (1788-1843).

Baur, Ferdinand Christian, head of the Tübingen school ofrationalist divines, born near Stuttgart; distinguished by hisscholarship and his labours in Biblical criticism and dogmatic theology;his dogmatic treatises were on the Christian Gnosis, the Atonement, theTrinity, and the Incarnation, while his Biblical were on certain epistlesof Paul and the canonical Gospels, which he regarded as the product ofthe 2nd century; regarded Christianity of the Church as Judaic in itsorigin, and Paul as distinctively the first apostle of pure Christianity(1792-1861).

Bausset, cardinal, born at Pondicherry, who wrote the Lives ofBossuet and Fénélon (1748-1824).

Bautzen, a town of Saxony, an old town on the Spree, where Napoleondefeated the Prussians and Russians in 1813; manufactures cotton, linen,wool, tobacco, paper, etc.

Bavaria (5,590), next to Prussia the largest of the German States,about the size of Scotland; is separated by mountain ranges from Bohemiaon the E. and the Tyrol on the S.; Würtemburg lies on the W., Prussia,Meiningen, and Saxony on the N. The country is a tableland crossed bymountains and lies chiefly in the basin of the Danube. It is a busyagricultural state: half the soil is tilled; the other half is undergrass, planted with vineyards and forests. Salt, coal, and iron arewidely distributed and wrought. The chief manufactures are of beer,coarse linen, and woollen fabrics. There are universities at Münich,Würzburg, and Erlangen. Münich, on the Isar, is the capital; Nüremberg,where watches were invented, and Angsburg, a banking centre, the otherchief towns. Formerly a dukedom, the palatinate, on the banks of theRhine, was added to it in 1216. Napoleon I. raised the duke to the titleof king in 1805. Bavaria fought on the side of Austria in 1866, butjoined Prussia in 1870-71.

Bavie`ca, the famous steed of the Cid, held sacred after the hero'sdeath.

Bavou, St., a soldier monk, the patron saint of Ghent.

Baxter, Richard, an eminent Nonconformist divine, native ofShropshire, at first a conformist, and parish minister of Kidderminsterfor 19 years; sympathised with the Puritans, yet stopped short of goingthe full length with them; acted as chaplain to one of their regiments,and returned to Kidderminster; became, at the Restoration one of theking's chaplains; driven out of the Church by the Act of Uniformity, wasthrown into prison at 70, let out, spent the rest of his days in peace;his popular works, “The Saint's Everlasting Rest,” and his “Call to theUnconverted” (1615-1691).

Bay City (27), place of trade, and of importance as a great railwaycentre in Michigan, U.S.; the third city in it.

Bayadere, a dancing-girl in India, dressed in loose Eastern costume.

Bayard, a horse of remarkable swiftness belonging to the four sonsof Aymon, and which they sometimes rode all at once; also a horse ofAmadis de Gaul.

Bayard, Chevalier de, an illustrious French knight, born in theChâteau Bayard, near Grenoble; covered himself with glory in the wars ofCharles VIII., Louis XII., and Francis I.; his bravery and generositycommanded the admiration of his enemies, and procured for him thethrice-honourable cognomen of “The Knightsans peur et sans reproche”;one of his most brilliant feats was his defence, single-handed, of thebridge over the Garigliano, in the face of a large body of Spaniards; wasmortally wounded defending a pass at Abblategrasso; fell with his face tothe foe, who carried off his body, but restored it straightway afterwardsfor due burial by his friends (1476-1524).

Bayeux (7), an ancient Norman city in the dep. of Calvados, France;manufactures lace, hosiery, &c.; is a bishop's seat; has a very oldGothic cathedral.

Bayeux Tapestry, representations in tapestry of events connectedwith the Norman invasion of England, commencing with Harold's visit tothe Norman court, and ending with his death at the battle of Hastings;still preserved in the public library of Bayeux; is so called becauseoriginally found there; it is 214 ft. long by 20 in. wide, divided into72 scenes, and contains a variety of figures. It is a question whose workit was.

Bayle, Pierre, a native of Languedoc; first Protestant (as the sonof a Calvinist minister), then Catholic, then sceptic; Professor ofPhilosophy at Padua, then at Rotterdam, and finally retired to theBoompjes in the latter city; known chiefly as the author of the famousDictionnaire Historique et Critique, to the composition of which heconsecrated his energies with a zeal worthy of a religious devotee, andwhich became the fountain-head of the sceptical philosophy that floodedFrance on the eve of the Revolution; pronounced by a competent judge inthese matters, a mere “imbroglio of historical, philosophical, andanti-theological marine stores” (1647-1700).

Baylen, a town in the province of Jaen, Spain, where GeneralCastaños defeated Dupont, and compelled him to sign a capitulation, in1808.

Bayley, Sir John, a learned English judge; author of a standard work“On the Law of Bills of Exchange”;d. 1841.

Bayonne (24), a fortified French town, trading and manufacturing, inthe dep. of Basses-Pyrénées, at the confluence of the Adour and Nive, 4m. from the Bay of Biscay; noted for its strong citadel, constructed byVauban, and one of hischef-d'oeuvres, and its 12th-century cathedralchurch; it belonged to the English from 1152 to 1451.

Bazaine, François Achille, a marshal of France, born at Versailles;distinguished himself in Algiers, the Crimea, and Mexico; did goodservice, as commander of the army of the Rhine, in the Franco-German war,but after the surrender at Sedan was shut up in Metz, surrounded by theGermans, and obliged to surrender, with all his generals, officers, andmen; was tried by court-martial, and condemned to death, but wasimprisoned instead; made good his escape one evening to Madrid, where helived to write a justification of his conduct, the sale of the book beingprohibited in France (1811-1888).

Bazard, Saint-Amand, a French socialist, founder of theCharbonnerie Française; a zealous but unsuccessful propagator of St.Simonianism, in association withEnfantin (q. v.), from whom heat last separated (1791-1832).

Bazoche, a guild of clerks of the parliament of Paris, under a mockking, with the privilege of performing religious plays, which theyabused.

Beaches, Raised, elevated lands, formerly sea beaches, the result ofupheaval, or left high by the recession of the sea, evidenced to be suchby the shells found in them and the nature of the débris.

Beachy Head, a chalk cliff in Sussex, 575 ft. high, projecting intothe English Channel; famous for a naval engagement between the alliedEnglish and Dutch fleets and those of France, in which the latter weresuccessful.

Beaconsfield, capital of the gold-mining district in Tasmania; alsoa town in Buckinghamshire, 10 m. N. of Windsor, from which BenjaminDisraeli took his title on his elevation to the peerage.

Beaconsfield, Benjamin Disraeli, Earl of, English novelist andpolitician, born in London; son of Isaac D'Israeli, littérateur, and thusof Jewish parentage; was baptized at the age of 12; educated under aUnitarian minister; studied law, but did not qualify for practice. Hisfirst novel, “Vivian Grey,” appeared in 1826, and thereafter, wheneverthe business of politics left him leisure, he devoted it to fiction.“Contarini Fleming,” “Coningsby,” “Tancred,” “Lothair,” and “Endymion”are the most important of a brilliant and witty series, in which manyprominent personages are represented and satirised under thin disguises.His endeavours to enter Parliament as a Radical failed twice in 1832; in1835 he was unsuccessful again as a Tory. His first seat was forMaidstone in 1837; thereafter he represented Shrewsbury andBuckinghamshire. For 9 years he was a free-lance in the House, hating theWhigs, and after 1842 leading the Young England party; his onslaught onthe Corn Law repeal policy of 1846 made him leader of the ToryProtectionists. He was for a short time Chancellor of the Exchequer underLord Derby in 1852, and coolly abandoned Protection. Returning to powerwith his chief six years later, he introduced a Franchise Bill, thedefeat of which threw out the Government. In office a third time in 1866,he carried a democratic Reform Bill, giving household suffrage inboroughs and extending the county franchise. Succeeding Lord Derby in1868, he was forced to resign soon afterwards. In 1874 he entered hissecond premiership. Two years were devoted to home measures, among whichwere Plimsoll's Shipping Act and the abolition of Scottish Churchpatronage. Then followed a showy foreign policy. The securing of the halfof the Suez Canal shares for Britain; the proclamation of the Queen asEmpress of India; the support of Constantinople against Russia,afterwards stultified by the Berlin Congress, which he himself attended;the annexation of Cyprus; the Afghan and Zulu wars, were its salientfeatures. Defeated at the polls in 1880 he resigned, and died next year.A master of epigram and a brilliant debater, he really led his party. Hewas the opposite in all respects of his protagonist, Mr. Gladstone.Lacking in zeal, he was yet loyal to England, and a warm personal friendof the Queen (1804-1881).

Bear, name given in the Stock Exchange to one who contracts todeliver stock at a fixed price on a certain day, in contradistinctionfrom thebull, or he who contracts to take it, the interest of theformer being that, in the intervening time, the stocks should fall, andthat of the latter that they should rise.

Bear, Great. SeeUrsa Major.

Beam, an ancient prov. of France, fell to the crown with theaccession of Henry IV. in 1589; formed a great part of the dep. ofBasses-Pyrénées, capital Pau.

Beatification, religious honour allowed by the pope to certain whoare not so eminent in sainthood as to entitle them to canonisation.

Beaton, orBethune, David, cardinal, archbishop of St. Andrews,and primate of the kingdom, born in Fife; an adviser of James V., twiceover ambassador to France; on the death of James secured to himself thechief power in Church and State as Lord High Chancellor and Papal Legate;opposed alliance with England; persecuted the Reformers; condemned GeorgeWishart to the stake, witnessed his sufferings from a window of hiscastle in St. Andrews, and was assassinated within its walls shortlyafter; with his death ecclesiastical tyranny of that type came to an endin Scotland (1494-1546).

Beaton, James, archbishop of Glasgow and St. Andrews, uncle of thepreceding, a prominent figure in the reign of James V.; was partial toaffiliation with France, and a persecutor of the Reformers;d. 1539.

Beattie, James, a poet and essayist, born at Laurencekirk; becameprofessor of Logic and Moral Philosophy at Marischal College, Aberdeen;wrote an “Essay on Truth” against Hume; his most admired poem, “TheMinstrel,” a didactic piece, traces the progress of poetic genius,admitted him to the Johnsonian circle in London, obtained for him thedegree of LL.D. from Oxford, and brought him a pension of £200 per annumfrom the king; died at Aberdeen (1735-1803).

Beatrice, a beautiful Florentine maiden, Portinari, her family name,for whom Dante conceived an undying affection, and whose image abode withhim to the end of his days. She is his guide through Paradise.

Beau Nash, a swell notability at Bath; died in beggary (1674-1761).

Beau Tibbs, a character in Goldsmith's “Citizen of the World,” notedfor his finery, vanity, and poverty.

Beaucaire (8), a French town near Avignon, on the Rhône, which itspans with a magnificent bridge; once a great centre of trade, andfamous, as it still is, for its annual fair, frequented by merchants fromall parts of Europe.

Beauchamp, Alphonse de, a historian, born at Monaco; wrote the“Conquest of Peru,” “History of Brazil,” &c. (1769-1832).

Beauclerk, Henry I. of England, so called from his superiorlearning.

Beauclerk, Topham, a young English nobleman, the only son of LordSydney Beauclerk, a special favourite of Johnson's, who, when he died,lamented over him, as one whose like the world might seldom see again(1759-1780).

Beaufort, Duke of, grandson of Henry IV. of France; one of thechiefs of the Fronde; was surnamed Roi des Halles (King of theMarket-folk); appointed admiral of France; did good execution against thepirates; passed into the service of Venice; was killed at the siege ofCandia in 1669.

Beaufort, Henry, cardinal, bishop of Winchester, son of John ofGaunt, learned in canon law, was several times chancellor; took aprominent part in all the political movements of the time, exerted aninfluence for good on the nation, lent immense sums to Henry V. and HenryVI., also left bequests for charitable uses, and founded the hospital ofSt. Cross at Winchester (1377-1447).

Beauhar`nais, Alexandre, Vicomte de, born at Martinique, where hemarried a lady who, afterwards as wife of Napoleon, became the EmpressJoséphine; accepted and took part in the Revolution; was secretary of theNational Assembly; coolly remarked, on the news of the flight of theking, “The king's gone off; let us pass to the next business of theHouse”; was convicted of treachery to the cause of the Revolution and putto death; as the father of Hortense, who married Louis, Napoleon'sbrother, he became grandfather of Napoleon III. (1760-1794).

Beauharnais, Eugene de, son of the preceding and of Joséphine, bornat Paris, step-son of Napoleon, therefore was made viceroy of Italy; tookan active part in the wars of the empire; died at Münich, whither heretired after the fall of Napoleon (1781-1824).

Beauharnais, Hortense Eugenie, sister of the preceding, ex-queen ofHolland; wife of Louis Bonaparte, an ill-starred union; mother ofNapoleon III., the youngest of three sons (1783-1837).

Beaumar`chais, Pierre Augustin Caron de, a dramatist and pleader ofthe most versatile, brilliant gifts, and French to the core, born inParis, son of a watchmaker at Caen; ranks as a comic dramatist next toMolière; author of “Le Barbier de Seville” (1775), and “Le Mariage deFigaro” (1784), his masterpiece; astonished the world by his conduct of alawsuit he had, for which “he fought against reporters, parliaments, andprincipalities, with light banter, clear logic, adroitly, with aninexhaustible toughness of resource, like the skilfullest fencer.” He wasa zealous supporter of the Revolution, and made sacrifices on its behalf,but narrowly escaped the guillotine; died in distress and poverty. Of thetwo plays he wrote, Saintsbury says, “The wit is indisputable, but hischansons contain as much wit as the Figaro plays.” He made a fortune byspeculations in the American war, and lost by others, one of them beingthe preparation of a sumptuous edition of Voltaire. For the culminationand decline, as well as appreciation, of him, see the “FrenchRevolution,” by Carlyle (1732-1799).

Bauma`ris, principal town in Anglesea, Wales, on the Menai Strait,near Bangor, a favourite watering-place, with remains of a castle erectedby Edward I.

Beaumont, Christophe de, archbishop of Paris, born at Périgord,“spent his life in persecuting hysterical Jansenists and incredulousnon-confessors”; but scrupled to grant, though he fain would havegranted, absolution on his deathbed to the dissolute monarch of France,Louis XV.; issued a charge condemnatory of Rousseau's “Émile,” whichprovoked a celebrated letter from Rousseau in reply (1703-1781).

Beaumont, Francis, dramatic poet, born in Leicestershire, of afamily of good standing; bred for the bar, but devoted to literature; wasa friend of Ben Jonson; in conjunction with his friend Fletcher, thecomposer of a number of plays, about the separate authorship of whichthere has been much discussion, the dramatic power of which comes farshort of that so conspicuous in the plays of their great contemporaryShakespeare, though it is said contemporary criticism gave them thepreference (1585-1615).

Beaumont, Jean Baptiste Élie de, French geologist, born in Calvados;became secretary to the Academy of Sciences; was joint-editor of ageological map of France. He had a theory of his own of the formation ofthe crust of the earth (1798-1874).

Beauregard, Pierre Gustave Toutant, American Confederate general,born at New Orleans; adopted the cause of the South, and fought in itsbehalf (1818-1893).

Beaurepaire, a French officer, noted for his noble defence of Verdunagainst the Prussians; preferred death by suicide to the dishonour ofsurrender (1748-1792).

Beausobre, Isaac, a Huguenot divine, born at Poitou; fled to Hollandon the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, settled in Berlin, and became anotability in high quarters there; attracted the notice of the youngFrederick, the Great that was to be, who sought introduction to him, andthe young Frederick “got good conversation out of him”; author of a“History of Manichæism,” praised by Gibbon, and of other books famous intheir day, a translation of the New Testament for one (1659-1738).

Beautiful Parricide,Beatrice Cenci (q. v.).

Beauty and the Beast, the hero and heroine of a famous fairy tale.Beauty falls in love with a being like a monster, who has, however, theheart of a man, and she marries him, upon which he is instantlytransformed into a prince of handsome presence and noble mien.

Beauvais (19), capital of the dep. of Oise, in France, 34 in. SW. ofAmiens, an ancient town, noted for its cathedral, its tapestry weaving,and the feat of Jeanne-Hachette and her female following when the townwas besieged by Charles the Bold.

Beauvais, a French prelate, born at Cherbourg, Bishop of Senez,celebrated as a pulpit orator (1731-1790).

Beauvillier, a statesman, patron of letters, to whom Louis XIV.committed the governorship of his sons; died of a broken heart due to theshock the death of the dauphin gave him (1607-1687).

Bebek Bay, a fashionable resort on the Bosphorus, nearConstantinople, and with a palace of the sultan.

Beccafumi, Domenico, one of the best painters of the Sienese school,distinguished also as a sculptor and a worker in mosaic (1486-1550).

Becca`ria, Cæsare Bonesana, Marquis of, an Italian publicist, authorof a celebrated “Treatise on Crimes and Punishments,” which has beenwidely translated, and contributed much to lessen the severity ofsentences in criminal cases. He was a utilitarian in philosophy and adisciple of Rousseau in politics.

Beche-de-mer, a slug, called also the trepang, procured on the coralreefs of the Pacific, which is dried and eaten as a dainty by theChinese.

Becher, Johann Joachim, chemist, born at Spires; distinguished as apioneer in the scientific study of chemistry (1635-1682).

Bechstein, a German naturalist, wrote “Natural History of CageBirds” (1757-1822).

Bechuana-land, an inland tract in S. Africa, extends from the OrangeRiver to the Zambesi; has German territory on the W., the Transvaal andMatabele-land on the E. The whole country is under British protection;that part which is S. of the river Molopo was made a crown colony in1885. On a plateau 4000 ft. above sea-level, the climate is suited forBritish emigrants. The soil is fertile; extensive tracts are suitable forcorn; sheep and cattle thrive; rains fall in summer; in winter there arefrosts, sometimes snow. The Kalahari Desert in the W. will be habitablewhen sufficient wells are dug. Gold is found near Sitlagoli, and diamondsat Vryburg. The Bechuanas are the most advanced of the black races of S.Africa.

Bechua`nas, a wide-spread S. African race, totemists, rearers ofcattle, and growers of maize; are among the most intelligent of the Bantupeoples, and show considerable capacity for self-government.

Becker, Karl, German philologist; bred to medicine; author of aGerman grammar (1775-1842).

Becker, Nicolaus, author of the “Wacht am Rhein,” was an obscurelawyer's clerk, and unnoted for anything else (1810-1845).

Becker, William Adolphe, an archæologist, born at Dresden; wasprofessor at Leipzig; wrote books in reproductive representation ofancient Greek and Roman life; author of “Manual of Roman Antiquities”(1796-1846).

Becket, Thomas a, archbishop of Canterbury, born in London, ofNorman parentage; studied at Oxford and Bologna; entered the Church; wasmade Lord Chancellor; had a large and splendid retinue, but on becomingarchbishop, cast all pomp aside and became an ascetic, and devotedhimself to the vigorous discharge of the duties of his high office;declared for the independence of the Church, and refused to sign theConstitutions of Clarendon (q. v.); King Henry II. grew restiveunder his assumption of authority, and got rid of him by the hands offour knights who, to please the king, shed his blood on the steps of thealtar of Canterbury Cathedral, for which outrage the king did penancefour years afterwards at his tomb. The struggle was one affecting therelative rights of Church and king, and the chief combatants in the fraywere both high-minded men, each inflexible in the assertion of his claims(1119-1170).

Beckford, William, author of “Vathek,” son of a rich alderman ofLondon, who bequeathed him property to the value of £100,000 per annum;kept spending his fortune on extravagancies and vagaries; wrote “Vathek,”an Arabian tale, when a youth of twenty-two, at a sitting of three daysand two nights, a work which established his reputation as one of thefirst of the imaginative writers of his country. He wrote two volumes oftravels in Italy, but his fame rests on his “Vathek” alone (1759-1844).

Beckmann, a professor at Göttingen; wrote “History of Discoveriesand Inventions” (1738-1811).

Beckx, Peter John, general of the Jesuits, born in Belgium(1790-1887).

Becquerel, Antoine Cæsar, a French physicist; served as engineer inthe French army in 1808-14, but retired in 1815, devoting himself toscience, and obtained high distinction in electro-chemistry, working withAmpère, Biot, and other eminent scientists (1788-1878).

Bed of Justice, a formal session of the Parlement of Paris, underthe presidency of the king, for the compulsory registration of the royaledicts, the last session being in 1787, under Louis XVI., at Versailles,whither the whole body, now “refractory, rolled out, in wheeled vehicles,to receive the order of the king.”

Bedchamber, Lords orLadies of, officers or ladies of the royalhousehold whose duty it is to wait upon the sovereign—the chief of theformer called Groom of the Stole, and of the latter, Mistress of theRobes.

Beddoes, Thomas Lovell, born at Clifton, son of Thomas Beddoes; anenthusiastic student of science; a dramatic poet, author of “Bride'sTragedy”; got into trouble for his Radical opinions; his principal work,“Death's Jest-Book, or the Fool's Tragedy,” highly esteemed by BarryCornwall (1803-1849).

Bede, orBeda, surnamed “The Venerable,” an English monk andecclesiastical historian, born at Monkwearmouth, in the abbey of which,together with that of Jarrow, he spent his life, devoted to quiet studyand learning; his writings numerous, in the shape of commentaries,biographies, and philosophical treatises; his most important work, the“Ecclesiastical History” of England, written in Latin, and translated byAlfred the Great; completed a translation of John's Gospel the day hedied. An old monk, it is said, wrote this epitaph over his grave,Hacsunt in fossâ Bedæ ... ossa, “In this pit are the bones ... of Beda,”and then fell asleep; but when he awoke he found some invisible hand hadinsertedvenerabilis in the blank which he had failed to fill up,whence Bede's epinomen it is alleged.

Bedell, bishop of Kilmore and Ardagh, born in Essex; studied atCambridge; superintended the translation of the Old Testament into Irish;though his virtues saved him and his family for a time from outrage bythe rebels in 1641, he was imprisoned at the age of 70, and thoughreleased, died soon after (1571-1642).

Bedford (160), a midland agricultural county of England, generallylevel, with some flat fen-land; also the county town (28), on the GreatOuse, clean and well paved, with excellent educational institutions,famous in connection with the life of John Bunyan, where relics of himare preserved, and where a bronze statue of him by Boehm has been erectedto his memory by the Duke of Bedford in 1871; manufactures agriculturalimplements, lace, and straw plaiting; Elstow, Bunyan's birthplace, is notfar off.

Bedford, John, Duke of, brother of Henry V., protector of thekingdom and regent of France during the minority of Henry VI., whom, onthe death of the French king, he proclaimed King of France, taking uparms thereafter and fighting for a time victoriously on his behalf, tillthe enthusiasm created by Joan of Arc turned the tide against him andhastened his death, previous to which, however, though he prevailed overthe dauphin, and burnt Joan at the stake, his power had gone (1389-1435).

Bedford Level, a flat marshy district, comprising part of sixcounties, to the S. and W. of the Wash, about 40 m. in extent each way,caused originally by incursions of the sea and the overflowing of rivers;received its name from the Earl of Bedford, who, in the 17th century,undertook to drain it.

Bedlam, originally a lunatic asylum in London, so named from thepriory “Bethlehem” in Bishopsgate, first appropriated to the purpose,Bedlam being a corruption of the name Bethlehem.

Bedmar, Marquis de, cardinal and bishop of Oviedo, and a Spanishdiplomatist, notorious for a part he played in a daring conspiracy in1618 aimed at the destruction of Venice, but which, being betrayed, wasdefeated, for concern in which several people were executed, though thearch-delinquent got off; he is the subject of Otway's “Venice Preserved”;it was after this he was made cardinal, and governor of the Netherlands,where he was detested and obliged to retire (1572-1655).

Bedouins, Arabs who lead a nomadic life in the desert and subsist bythe pasture of cattle and the rearing of horses, the one element thatbinds them into a unity being community of language, the Arabic namely,which they all speak with great purity and without variation of dialect;they are generally of small stature, of wiry constitution, and darkcomplexion, and are divided into tribes, each under an independent chief.

Bee, The, a periodical started by Goldsmith, in which some of hisbest essays appeared, and his “Citizen of the World.”

Beecher, Henry Ward, a celebrated American preacher, born atLitchfield, Connecticut; pastor of a large Congregational church,Brooklyn; a vigorous thinker and eloquent orator, a liberal man both intheology and politics; wrote “Life Thoughts”; denied the eternity ofpunishment, considered a great heresy by some then, and which led to hissecession from the Congregational body (1813-1887).

Beecher-Stowe, Harriet Elizabeth, sister of the above, authoress of“Uncle Tom's Cabin,” of which probably over a million copies have beensold. Born at Litchfield, Connecticut, U.S.A., in 1812;d. 1896.

Beechy, Rear-Admiral, born in London, son of the following;accompanied Franklin in 1818 and Parry in 1819 to the Arctic regions;commanded theBlossom in the third expedition of 1825-1828 to the sameregions; published “Voyage of Discovery towards the North Pole”(1796-1856).

Beechy, Sir William, portrait-painter, born in Oxfordshire; amonghis portraits were those of Lord Nelson, John Kemble, and Mrs. Siddons(1753-1839).

Beef-eaters, yeomen of the royal guard, whose institution dates fromthe reign of Henry VII., and whose office it is to wait upon royalty onhigh occasions; the name is also given to the warders of the Tower,though they are a separate body and of more recent origin; the namesimply means (royal) dependant, a corruption of the French wordbuffetier, one who attends the sideboard.

Beehive houses, small stone structures, of ancient date, remains ofwhich are found (sometimes in clusters) in Ireland and the W. ofScotland, with a conical roof formed of stones overlapping one another,undressed and without mortar; some of them appear to have been monks'cells.

Beel`zebub, the god of flies, protector against them, worshipped bythe Phoenicians; as being a heathen deity, transformed by the Jews into achief of the devils; sometimes identified with Satan, and sometimes hisaide-de-camp.

Beerbohm Tree, Herbert, actor, born in London, son of a grainmerchant; his first appearance was as the timid curate in the “PrivateSecretary,” and then as the spy Macari in “Called Back”; is lessee of theHaymarket Theatre, London, and has had many notable successes; he isaccompanied by his wife, who is a refined actress;b. 1852.

Beer`sheba, a village in the S. of Canaan, and the most southerly,27 m. from Hebron; associated with Dan, in the N., to denote the limit ofthe land and what lies between; lies in a pastoral country abounding inwells, and is frequently mentioned in patriarchal history; means “theWell of the Oath.”

Beeswing, a gauze-like film which forms on the sides of a bottle ofgood port.

Beethoven, Ludwig von, one of the greatest musical composers, bornin Bonn, of Dutch extraction; the author of symphonies and sonatas thatare known over all the world; showed early a most precocious genius formusic, commenced his education at five as a musician; trained at first bya companion named Pfeiffer, to whom he confessed he owed more than allhis teachers; trained at length under the tuition of the most illustriousof his predecessors, Bach and Händel; revealed the most wonderful musicaltalent; quitted Bonn and settled in Vienna; attracted the attention ofMozart; at the age of 40 was attacked with deafness that became total andlasted for life; continued to compose all the same, to the admiration ofthousands; during his last days was a prey to melancholy; during athunderstorm he died. Goethe pronounced him at his best “an utterlyuntamed character, not indeed wrong in finding the world detestable,though his finding it so did not,” he added, “make it more enjoyable tohimself or to others” (1770-1827).

Beets, Nicolas, a Dutch theologian and poet, born at Haarlem; came,as a poet, under the influence of Byronism;b. 1814.

Befa`na, an Italian female Santa Claus, who on Twelfth Night fillsthe stockings of good children with good things, and those of bad withashes.

Begg, James, Scotch ecclesiastic, born at New Monkland, Lanark; wasa stalwart champion of old Scottish orthodoxy, and the last (1808-1883).

Beghards, a religious order that arose in Belgium in the 13thcentury, connected with the Beguins, a mystic and socialistic sect.

Beguins, a sisterhood confined now to France and Germany, who,without taking any monastic vow, devote themselves to works of piety andbenevolence.

Begum, name given in the E. Indies to a princess, mother, sister, orwife of a native ruler.

Behaim, Martin, a geographer and chartographer, born in Nüremberg;accompanied Diego Cam on a voyage of discovery along W. coast of Africa;constructed and left behind him a famous terrestrial globe; some wouldmake him out to be the discoverer of America (1459-1507).

Behar (24,393), a province of Bengal, in the valley of the Ganges,which divides it into two; densely peopled; cradle of Buddhism.

Behe`moth, a large animal mentioned in Job, understood to be thehippopotamus.

Behis`tun, a mountain in Irak-Ajemi, a prov. of Persia, on whichthere are rocks covered with inscriptions, the principal relating toDarius Hystaspes, of date about 515 B.C., bearing on his genealogy,domains, and victories.

Behm, Ernst, a German geographer, born in Gotha (1830-1884).

Behn, Afra, a licentious writer, born in Kent, for whom, for herfree and easy ways, Charles II. took a liking; sent by him as a spy toHolland, and through her discovered the intention of the Dutch to burnthe shipping in the Thames. She wrote plays and novels (1640-1689).

Behring Strait, a strait about 50 m. wide between Asia and N.America, which connects the Arctic Ocean with the Pacific; discovered bythe Danish navigator Vitus Behring in 1728, sent out on a voyage ofdiscovery by Peter the Great.

Beira (1,377), a central province of Portugal, mountainous andpastoral; gives title to the heir-apparent to the Portuguese throne.

Beke, Dr., traveller, born in London; travelled in Abyssinia andPalestine; author of “Origines Biblicæ,” or researches into primevalhistory as shown not to be in keeping with the orthodox belief.

Bekker, Immanuel, philologist, born in Berlin, and professor inHalle; classical textual critic; issued recensions of the Greek and Latinclassics (1780-1871).

Bel and the Dragon, History of, one of the books of the Apocrypha, aspurious addition to the book of Daniel, relates how Daniel persuadedCyrus of the vanity of idol-worship, and is intended to show itsabsurdity.

Bela I., king of Hungary from 1061 to 1063; an able ruler;introduced a great many measures for the permanent benefit of thecountry, affecting both religion and social organisation.

Bela IV., king of Hungary, son of Andreas II., who had in 1222 beencompelled to sign the Golden Bull, theMagna Charta of Hungarianliberty; faithfully respected the provisions of this charter, andincurred the enmity of the nobles by his strenuous efforts to subdue themto the royal power.

Belch, Sir Toby, a reckless, jolly, swaggering character in “TwelfthNight.”

Belcher, Sir Edward, admiral, was engaged in several exploring andsurveying expeditions; sailed round the world, and took part in theoperations in China (1812-1877).

Belfast (256), county town of Antrim, and largest and mostflourishing city in the N. of Ireland; stands on the Lagan, at the headof Belfast Lough, 100 m. N. of Dublin; is a bright and pleasant city,with some fine streets and handsome buildings, Presbyterian, Catholic,and Methodist colleges. It is the centre of the Irish linen and cottonmanufactures, the most important shipbuilding centre, and has alsorope-making, whisky, and aerated-water industries. Its foreign trade islarger than even Dublin's. It is the capital of Ulster, and head-quartersof Presbyterianism in Ireland.

Belfort (83), a fortified town in dep. of Haut-Rhin, and is itscapital, 35 m. W. by N. of Basel; capitulated to the Germans in 1870;restored to France; its fortifications now greatly strengthened. Thecitadel was by Vauban.

Belgæ, Cæsar's name for the tribes of the Celtic family in Gaul N.of the Seine and Marne; mistakenly rated as Germans by Cæsar.

Belgium (6,136), a small European State bordering on the North Sea,with Holland to the N., France to the S., and Rhenish Prussia andLuxemburg on the E.; is less than a third the size of Ireland, but it isthe most densely populated country on the Continent. The people are ofmixed stock, comprising Flemings, of Teutonic origin; Walloons, of Celticorigin; Germans, Dutch, and French. Roman Catholicism is the predominantreligion. Education is excellent; there are universities at Ghent, Liège,Brussels, and Louvain. French is the language of educated circles and ofthe State; but the prevalence of dialects hinders the growth of anational literature. The land is low and level and fertile in the N. andW., undulating in the middle, rocky and hilly in the S. and E. The Meuseand Scheldt are the chief rivers, the basin of the latter embracing mostof the country. Climate is similar to the English, with greater extremes.Rye, wheat, oats, beet, and flax are the principal crops. Agriculture isthe most painstaking and productive of the world. The hilly country isrich in coal, iron, zinc, and lead. After mining, the chief industriesare textile manufactures and making of machinery: the former at Antwerp,Ghent, Brussels, and Liège; the latter at Liège, Mons, and Charleroi. Thetrade is enormous; France, Germany, and Britain are the best customers.Exports are coal to France; farm products, eggs, &c., to England; and rawmaterial imported from across seas, to France and the basin of the Rhine.It is a small country of large cities. The capital is Brussels (480), inthe centre of the kingdom, but communicating with the ocean by a shipcanal. The railways, canals, and river navigation are very highlydeveloped. The government is a limited monarchy; the king, senate, andhouse of representatives form the constitution. There is a conscript armyof 50,000 men, but no navy. Transferred from Spain to Austria in 1713.Belgium was under French sway from 1794 till 1814, when it was unitedwith Holland, but established its independence in 1830.

Belgrade (54), the capital of Servia, on the confluence of the Saveand Danube; a fortified city in an important strategical position, andthe centre of many conflicts; a commercial centre; once Turkish inappearance, now European more and more.

Belgra`via, a fashionable quarter in the southern part of the WestEnd of London.

Belial, properly a good-for-nothing, a child of worthlessness; anincarnation of iniquity and son of perdition, and the name in the Biblefor the children of such.

Belief, a word of various application, but properly definable asthat which lies at the heart of a man or a nation's convictions, or isthe heart and soul of all their thoughts and actions, “the thing a mandoes practically lay to heart, and know for certain concerning his vitalrelations to this mysterious universe, and his duty and destiny there.”

Belinda, Arabella Fermor, the heroine in Pope's “Rape of the Lock.”

Belisa`rius, a general under the Emperor Justinian, born in Illyria;defeated the Persians, the Vandals, and the Ostrogoths; was falselyaccused of conspiracy, but acquitted, and restored to his dignities bythe emperor; though another tradition, now discredited, alleges that forthe crimes charged against him he had his eyes put out, and was reducedto beggary (505-565).

Belize, British Honduras, a fertile district, and its capital (6);exports mahogany, rosewood, sugar, india-rubber, &c.

Bell, Acton. SeeBrontë.

Bell, Andrew, LL.D., educationist, born at St. Andrews; founder ofthe Monitorial system of education, which he had adopted, for want ofqualified assistants, when in India as superintendent of an orphanage inMadras, so that his system was called “the Madras system”; returned fromIndia with a large fortune, added to it by lucrative preferments, andbequeathed a large portion of it, some £120,000, for the endowment ofeducation in Scotland, and the establishment of schools, such as theMadras College in his native city (1753-1832).

Bell, Bessy, andMary Gray, the “twa bonnie lassies” of aScotch ballad, daughters of two Perthshire gentlemen, who in 1666 builtthemselves a bower in a spot retired from a plague then raging; suppliedwith food by a lad in love with both of them, who caught the plague andgave it to them, of which they all sickened and died.

Bell, Book, and Candle, a ceremony at one time attending the greaterexcommunication in the Romish Church, when after sentence was read fromthe “book,” a “bell” was rung, and the “candle” extinguished.

Bell, Currer. SeeBrontë.

Bell, Ellis. SeeBrontë.

Bell, George Joseph, a brother of Sir Charles, distinguished in law;author of “Principles of the Law of Scotland” (1770-1843).

Bell, Henry, bred a millwright, born in Linlithgowshire; the firstwho applied steam to navigation in Europe, applying it in a smallsteamboat called theComet, driven by a three horse-power engine(1767-1830).

Bell, Henry Glassford, born in Glasgow, a lawyer and literary man,sheriff of Lanarkshire; wrote a vindication of Mary, Queen of Scots, andsome volumes of poetry (1803-1874).

Bell, John, of Antermony, a physician, born at Campsie; accompaniedRussian embassies to Persia and China; wrote “Travels in Asia,” whichwere much appreciated for their excellency of style (1690-1780).

Bell, Peter, Wordsworth's simple rustic, to whom the primrose wasbut a yellow flower and nothing more.

Bell, Robert, journalist and miscellaneous writer, born at Cork;edited “British Poets, from Chaucer to Cowper,” his best-known work,which he annotated, and accompanied with careful memoirs of each(1800-1867).

Bell, Sir Charles, an eminent surgeon and anatomist, born inEdinburgh, where he became professor of Surgery; distinguished chieflyfor his discoveries in connection with the nervous system, which hepublished in his “Anatomy of the Brain” and his “Nervous System,” andwhich gained him European fame; edited, along with Lord Brougham, Paley's“Evidences of Natural Religion” (1774-1842).

Bell, Thomas, a naturalist, born at Poole; professor of Zoology inKing's College, London; author of “British Quadrupeds” and “BritishReptiles,” “British Stalk-eyed Crustacea,” and editor of “White's NaturalHistory of Selborne” (1792-1880).

Bell Rock, orInchcape Rock, a dangerous reef of sandstonerocks in the German Ocean, 12 m. SE. of Arbroath, on which a lighthouse120 ft. high was erected in 1807-10; so called from a bell rung by thesway of the waves, which the abbot of Arbroath erected on it at one timeas a warning to seamen.

Bell-the-Cat, Archibald Douglas, Earl of Arran, so called from hisoffer to dispose by main force of an obnoxious favourite of the king,James III.

Bella, Stephano della, a Florentine engraver of great merit,engraved over 1000 plates; was patronised by Richelieu in France, and theMedici in Florence (1610-1664).

Bell`amy, Jacob, a Dutch poet, born at Flushing; his poems highlyesteemed by his countrymen (1752-1821).

Bellange, a celebrated painter of battle-pieces, born at Paris(1800-1866).

Bellar`mine, Robert, cardinal, born in Tuscany; a learned Jesuit,controversial theologian, and in his writings, which are numerous, avaliant defender at all points of Roman Catholic dogma; the greatestchampion of the Church in his time, and regarded as such by theProtestant theologians; he was at once a learned man and a doughtypolemic (1542-1621).

Bellay, Joachim du, French poet; author of sonnets entitled“Regrets,” full of vigour and poetry; wrote the “Antiquités de Rome”; wascalled the Apollo of the Pléiade, the best poet and the best prose-writeramong them (1524-1560).

Belle France, (i. e. Beautiful France), a name of endearmentapplied to France, like that of “Merry” applied to England.

Belle-Isle (60), a fortified island on the W. coast of France, nearwhich Sir Edward Hawke gained a brilliant naval victory over the French,under M. de Conflans, in 1759.

Belleisle, Charles Louis Auguste Fouquet, Count of, marshal ofFrance; distinguished in the war of the Spanish Succession; an ambitiousman, mainly to blame for the Austrian Succession war; had grand schemesin his head, no less than the supremacy in Europe and the world ofFrance, warranting the risk; expounded them to Frederick the Great;concluded a fast and loose treaty with him, which could bind no one;found himself blocked up in Prague with his forces; had to force his wayout and retreat, but it was a retreat the French boast comparable only tothe retreat of the Ten Thousand; was made War Minister after, and wroughtimportant reforms in the army (1684-1761). SeeCarlyle's“Frederick” for a graphic account of him and his schemes, speciallyin Bk. xii. chap. ix.

Bellenden, John, of Moray, a Scottish writer in the 16th century;translated, at the request of James V., Hector Boece's “History ofScotland,” and the first five books of Livy, which remain the earliestextant specimens of Scottish prose, and remarkable specimens they are,for the execution of which he was well rewarded, being made archdeacon ofMoray for one thing, though he died in exile;d. 1550.

Bellenden, William, a Scottish writer, distinguished for diplomaticservices to Queen Mary, and for the purity of his Latin composition; aprofessor of belles-lettres in Paris University (1550-1613).

Beller`ophon, a mythical hero, son of Glaucus and grandson ofSisyphus; having unwittingly caused the death of his brother, withdrewfrom his country and sought retreat with Proetus, king of Argos, who,becoming jealous of his guest, but not willing to violate the laws ofhospitality, had him sent to Iobates, his son-in-law, king of Lycia, withinstructions to put him to death. Iobates, in consequence, imposed uponhim the task of slaying the Chimæra, persuaded that this monster wouldbe the death of him. Bellerophon, mounted on Pegasus, the winged horsegiven him by Pallas, slew the monster, and on his return received thedaughter of Iobates to wife.

Bellerophon, Letters of, name given to letters fraught with mischiefto the bearer. Seesupra.

Belles-lettres, that department of literature which implies literaryculture and belongs to the domain of art, whatever the subject may be orthe special form; it includes poetry, the drama, fiction, and criticism.

Belleville, a low suburb of Paris, included in it since 1860; thescene of one of the outrages of the Communists.

Belliard, Comte de, a French general and diplomatist; fought in mostof the Napoleonic wars, but served under the Bourbons on Napoleon'sabdication; was serviceable to Louis Philippe in Belgium by his diplomacy(1769-1832).

Belli`ni, the name of an illustrious family of Venetian painters.

Bellini, Gentile, the son of Jacopo Bellini, was distinguished as aportrait-painter; decorated along with his brother the council-chamber ofthe ducal palace; his finest picture the “Preaching of St. Mark”(1421-1508).

Bellini, Giovanni, brother of the preceding, produced a great manyworks; the subjects religious, all nobly treated; had Giorgione andTitian for pupils; among his best works, the “Circumcision,” “Feast ofthe Gods,” “Blood of the Redeemer”; did much to promote painting in oil(1426-1516).

Bellini, Jacopo, a painter from Florence who settled in Venice, thefather and founder of the family;d. 1470.

Bellini, Vincenzo, a musical composer, born at Catania, Sicily; hisworks operas, more distinguished for their melody than their dramaticpower; the best are “Il Pirati,” “La Somnambula,” “Norma,” and “IlPuritani” (1802-1835).

Bellmann, the poet of Sweden, a man of true genius, called the“Anacreon of Sweden,” patronised by Gustavus Adolphus (1741-1795).

Bello`na, the goddess of fury in war among the Romans, related bythe poets to Mars as sister, wife, or daughter; inspirer of thewar-spirit, and represented as armed with a bloody scourge in one handand a torch in the other.

Bellot, Joseph René, a naval officer, born in Paris, distinguishedin the expedition of 1845 to Madagascar, and one of those who went inquest of Sir John Franklin; drowned while crossing the ice (1826-1853).

Belloy, a French poet, born at St. Flour; author of “Le Siège duCalais” and numerous other dramatic works (1727-1775).

Belon, Pierre, a French naturalist, one of the founders of naturalhistory, and one of the precursors of Cuvier; wrote in differentdepartments of natural history, the chief, “Natural History of Birds”;murdered by robbers while gathering plants in the Bois de Boulogne(1518-1564).

Bel`phegor, a Moabite divinity.

Belphoebe (i. e. Beautiful Diana), a huntress in the “FaërieQueene,” the impersonation of Queen Elizabeth, conceived of, however, asa pure, high-spirited maiden, rather than a queen.

Belsham, Thomas, a Unitarian divine, originally Calvinist, born atBedford; successor to the celebrated Priestley at Hackney, London; wrotean elementary work on psychology (1750-1829).

Belshazzar, the last Chaldean king of Babylon, slain, according tothe Scripture account, at the capture of the city by Cyrus in 538 B.C.

Belt, Great andLittle, gateways of the Baltic: the Greatbetween Zealand and Fünen, 15 m. broad; the Little, between Fünen andJutland, half as broad; both 70 m. long, the former of great depth.

Belt of Calms, the region in the Atlantic and Pacific, 4° or 5°latitude broad, where the trade-winds meet and neutralise each other, inwhich, however, torrents of rain and thunder-storms occur almost daily.

Beltane, orBeltein, an ancient Celtic festival connected withthe sun-worship, observed about the 1st of May and the 1st of November,during which fires were kindled on the tops of hills, and variousceremonies gone through.

Belted Will, name given to Lord William Howard, warden in the 16thand 17th centuries of the Western Marches of England.

Belu`chistan (200 to 400), a desert plateau lying between Persia andIndia, Afghanistan and the Arabian Sea; is crossed by many mountainranges, the Suliman, in the N., rising to 12,000 ft. Rivers in the NE.are subject to great floods. The centre and W. is a sandy desert exposedto bitter winds in winter and sand-storms in summer. Fierce extremes oftemperature prevail. There are few cattle, but sheep are numerous; thecamel is the draught animal. Where there is water the soil is fertile,and crops of rice, cotton, indigo, sugar, and tobacco are raised; in thehigher parts, wheat, maize, and pulse. Both precious and useful metalsare found; petroleum wells were discovered in the N. in 1887. Thepopulation comprises Beluchis, robber nomads of Aryan stock, in the E.and W., and Mongolian Brahuis in the centre. All are Mohammedan. Kelat isthe capital; its position commands all the caravan routes. Quetta, in theN., is a British stronghold and health resort. The Khan of Kelat is theruler of the country and a vassal of the Queen.

Be`lus, another name forBaal (q. v.), or the legendary godof Assyria and Chaldea.

Bel`vedere, name given a gallery of the Vatican at Rome, especiallythat containing the famous statue of Apollo, and applied topicture-galleries elsewhere.

Belzo`ni, Giovanni Battista, a famous traveller and explorer inEgypt, born at Padua, of poor parents; a man of great stature; figured asan athlete in Astley's Circus, London, and elsewhere, first of all inLondon streets; applied himself to the study of mechanics; visited Egyptas a mechanician and engineer at the instance of Mehemet Ali; commencedexplorations among its antiquities, sent to the British Museum trophiesof his achievements; published a narrative of his operations; opened anexhibition of his collection of antiquities in London and Paris;undertook a journey to Timbuctoo, was attacked with dysentery, and diedat Gato (1778-1823).

Bem, Joseph, a Polish general, born in Galicia; served in the Frencharmy against Russia in 1812; took part in the insurrection of 1830;joined the Hungarians in 1848; gained several successes against Austriaand Russia, but was defeated at Temesvar; turned Mussulman, and was madepasha; died at Aleppo, where he had gone to suppress an Arabinsurrection; he was a good soldier and a brave man (1791-1850).

Bemba, a lake in Africa, the highest feeder of the Congo, of an ovalshape, 150 m. long and over 70 m. broad, 3000 ft. above the sea-level.

Bembo, Pietro, cardinal, an erudite man of letters and patron ofliterature and the arts, born at Venice; secretary to Pope Leo X.;historiographer of Venice, and librarian of St. Mark's; made cardinal byPaul III., and bishop of Bergamo; a fastidious stylist and a sticklerfor purity in language (1470-1547).

Ben Lawers, a mountain in Perthshire, 3984 ft. high, on the W. ofLoch Tay.

Ben Ledi, a mountain in Perthshire, 2873 ft. high, 4½ m. NW. ofCallander.

Ben Lomond, a mountain in Stirlingshire, 3192 ft. high, on the E. ofLoch Lomond.

Ben Nevis, the highest mountain in Great Britain, in SW.Inverness-shire, 4406 ft. high, and a sheer precipice on the NE. 1500 ft.high, and with an observatory on the summit supported by the ScottishMeteorological Society.

Ben Rhydding, a village in the West Riding of Yorkshire, 15 m. NW.of Leeds, with a thoroughly equipped hydropathic establishment, muchresorted to.

Benares (219), the most sacred city of the Hindus, and an importanttown in the NW. Provinces; is on the Ganges, 420 m. by rail NW. ofCalcutta. It presents an amazing array of 1700 temples and mosques withtowers and domes and minarets innumerable. The bank of the river is laidwith continuous flights of steps whence the pilgrims bathe; but the cityitself is narrow, crocked, crowded, and dirty. Many thousand pilgrimsvisit it annually. It is a seat of Hindu learning; there is also agovernment college. The river is spanned here by a magnificent railwaybridge. There is a large trade in country produce, English goods,jewellery, and gems; while its brass-work, “Benares ware,” is famous.

Benbow, John, admiral, born at Shrewsbury; distinguished himself inan action with a Barbary pirate; rose rapidly to the highest post in thenavy; distinguished himself well in an engagement with a French fleet inthe W. Indies; he lost a leg, and at this crisis some of his captainsproved refractory, so that the enemy escaped, were tried bycourt-martial, and two of them shot; the wound he received and hisvexation caused his death. He was a British tar to the backbone, and of aclass extinct now (1653-1702).

Bencoolen, a town and a Dutch residency in SW. of Sumatra; exportspepper and camphor.

Bender, a town in Bessarabia, remarkable for the siege which CharlesXII. of Sweden sustained there after his defeat at Pultowa.

Benedek, Ludwig von, an Austrian general, born in Hungary;distinguished himself in the campaigns of 1848-1849; was defeated by thePrussians at Sadowa; superseded and tried, but got off; retired to Grätz,where he died (1804-1871).

Benedetti, Count Vincent, French diplomatist, born at Bastia, inCorsica; is remembered for his draft of a treaty between France andPrussia, published in 1870, and for his repudiation of all responsibilityfor the Franco-German war;b. 1817.

Benedict, the name of fourteen popes:B. I., from 574 to 575;B. II., from 684 to 685;B. III., from 855 to 858;B. IV.,from 900 to 907;B. V., from 964 to 965;B. VI., from 972 to974;B. VII., from 975 to 984;B. VIII., from 1012 to 1024;extended the territory of the Church by conquest, and effected certainclerical reforms;B. IX., from 1033 to 1048, a licentious man, anddeposed;B. X., from 1058 to 1059;B. XI., from 1303 to 1304;B. XII., from 1334 to 1342;B. XIII., from 1724 to 1730;B. XIV., from 1740 to 1758. Of all the popes of this name it wouldseem there is only one worthy of special mention.

Benedict XIV., a native of Bologna, a man of marked scholarship andability; a patron of science and literature, who did much to purify themorals and elevate the character of the clergy, and reform abuses in theChurch.

Benedict, Biscop, an Anglo-Saxon monk, born in Northumbria; made twopilgrimages to Rome; assumed the tonsure as a Benedictine monk inProvence; returned to England and founded two monasteries on the Tyne,one at Wearmouth and another at Jarrow, making them seats of learning;b. 628.

Benedict, St., the founder of Western monachism, born near Spoleto;left home at 14; passed three years as a hermit, in a cavern nearSubiaco, to prepare himself for God's service; attracted many to hisretreat; appointed to an abbey, but left it; founded 12 monasteries ofhis own; though possessed of no scholarship, composed his “RegulaMonachorum,” which formed the rule of his order; represented in art asaccompanied by a raven with sometimes a loaf in his bill, or surroundedby thorns or by howling demons (480-543). SeeBenedictines.

Benedict, Sir Julius, musician and composer, native of Stuttgart;removed to London in 1835; author of, among other pieces, the “Gipsy'sWarning,” the “Brides of Venice,” and the “Crusaders”; conducted theperformance of “Elijah” in which Jenny Lind made her first appearancebefore a London audience, and accompanied her as pianist to America in1850 (1806-1885).

Benedictines, the order of monks founded by St. Benedict andfollowing his rule, the cradle of which was the celebrated monastery ofMonte Casino, near Naples, an institution which reckoned among itsmembers a large body of eminent men, who in their day rendered immenseservice to both literature and science, and were, in fact, the onlylearned class of the Middle Ages; spent their time in diligentlytranscribing manuscripts, and thus preserving for posterity the classicliterature of Greece and Rome.

Benedictus, part of the musical service at Mass in the RomanCatholic Church; has been introduced into the morning service of theEnglish Church.

Benefit of Clergy, exemption of the persons of clergymen fromcriminal process before a secular judge.

Be`neke, Friedrich Eduard, a German philosopher and professor inBerlin of the so-called empirical school, that is, the Baconian; anopponent of the methods and systems of Kant and Hegel; confined hisstudies to psychology and the phenomena of consciousness; was more aBritish thinker than a German (1798-1854).

Benenge`li, an imaginary Moorish author, whom Cervantes credits withthe story of “Don Quixote.”

Bénetier, the vessel for holding the holy water in Roman Catholicchurches.

Benevento (20), a town 33 m. NE. of Naples, built out of and amidthe ruins of an ancient one; also the province, of which Talleyrand wasmade prince by Napoleon.

Benevolence, the name of a forced tax exacted from the people bycertain kings of England, and which, under Charles I., became soobnoxious as to occasion the demand of thePetition of Rights (q.v.), that no tax should be levied without consent of Parliament; firstenforced in 1473, declared illegal in 1689.

Benfey, Theodor, Orientalist, born near Göttingen, of Jewish birth;a great Sanskrit scholar, and professor of Sanskrit and ComparativePhilology at his native place; author of “Lexicon of Greek Roots,”“Sanskrit Grammar,” &c. (1809-1881).

Bengal (76,643), one of the three Indian presidencies, but moreparticularly a province lying in the plain of the Lower Ganges and thedelta of the Ganges-Brahmaputra, with the Himalayas on the N. At the baseof the mountains are great forests; along the seaboard dense jungles. Theclimate is hot and humid, drier at Behar, and passing through everygradation up to the snow-line. The people are engaged in agriculture,raising indigo, jute, opium, rice, tea, cotton, sugar, &c. Coal, iron,and copper mines are worked in Burdwân. The manufactures are of cottonand jute. The population is mixed in blood and speech, but Hindusspeaking Bengali predominate. Education is further advanced thanelsewhere; there are fine colleges affiliated to Calcutta University, andmany other scholastic institutions. The capital, Calcutta, is the capitalof India; the next town in size is Patna (165).

Benga`zi (7), the capital of Barca, on the Gulf of Sidra, in N.Africa, and has a considerable trade.

Bengel, Johann Albrecht, a distinguished Biblical scholar andcritic, born at Würtemberg; best known by his “Gnomon Novi Testamenti,”being an invaluable body of short notes on the New Testament; devotedhimself to the critical study of the text of the Greek Testament(1687-1752).

Bengue`la, a fertile Portuguese territory in W. Africa, S. ofAngola, with considerable mineral wealth; has sunk in importance sincethe suppression of the slave-trade.

Benicia, the former capital of California, 30 m. NE. of SanFrancisco; has a commodious harbour and a U.S. arsenal.

Beni-Hassan, a village in Middle Egypt, on the right bank of theNile, above Minieh, with remarkable catacombs that have been excavated.

Beni-Israel (i. e. Sons of Israel), a remarkable people, few innumber, of Jewish type and customs, in the Bombay Presidency, and thathave existed there quite isolatedly for at least 1000 years, with alanguage of their own, and even some literature; they do not mingle withthe Jews, but they practise similar religious observances.

Benin`, a densely populated and fertile country in W. Africa,between the Niger and Dahomey, with a city and river of the name; formspart of what was once a powerful kingdom; yields palm-oil, rice, maize,sugar, cotton, and tobacco.

Beni-souef`, a town in Middle Egypt, on the right bank of the Nile,70 m. above Cairo; a centre of trade, with cotton-mills and quarries ofalabaster.

Benjamin, Jacob's youngest son, by Rachel, the head of one of thetwelve tribes, who were settled in a small fertile territory betweenEphraim and Judah; the tribe to which St. Paul belonged.

Bennett, James Gordon, an American journalist, born at Keith,Scotland; trained for the Catholic priesthood; emigrated, a poor lad of19, to America, got employment in a printing-office in Boston asproof-reader; started theNew York Herald in 1835 at a low price asboth proprietor and editor, an enterprise which brought him great wealthand the success he aimed at (1795-1872).

Bennett, James Gordon, son of preceding, conductor of theHerald;sent Stanley out to Africa, and supplied the funds.

Bennett, Sir Sterndale, an English musical composer and pianist,born at Sheffield, whose musical genius recommended him to Mendelssohnand Schumann; became professor of Music in Cambridge, and conductor ofthe Philharmonic Concerts; was president of the Royal Academy of Music(1816-1873).

Bennett, Wm., a High-Churchman, celebrated for having provoked thedecision that the doctrine of the Real Presence is a dogma notinconsistent with the creed of the Church of England (1804-1886).

Ben`ningsen, Count, a Russian general, born at Brunswick; enteredthe Russian service under Catherine II.; was commander-in-chief at Eylau,fought at Borodino, and victoriously at Leipzig; he died at Hanover,whither he had retired on failure of his health (1745-1826).

Bentham, George, botanist, born near Plymouth, nephew of Jeremy andeditor of his works, besides a writer on botany (1800-1884).

Bentham, Jeremy, a writer on jurisprudence and ethics, born inLondon; bred to the legal profession, but never practised it; spent hislife in the study of the theory of law and government, his leadingprinciple on both these subjects being utilitarianism, or what is calledthe greatest happiness principle, as the advocate of which he is chieflyremembered; a principle against which Carlyle never ceased to protest asa philosophy of man's life, but which he hailed as a sign that the crisiswhich must precede the regeneration of the world was come; a lowerestimate, he thought, man could not form of his soul than as “a deadbalance for weighing hay and thistles, pains and pleasures, &c.,” anestimate of man's soul which he thinks mankind will, when it wakes upagain to a sense of itself, be sure to resent and repudiate (1748-1832).

Bentinck, Lord George, statesman and sportsman, a member of thePortland family; entered Parliament as a Whig, turned Conservative on thepassing of the Reform Bill of 1832; served under Sir Robert Peel; assumedthe leadership of the party as a Protectionist when Sir Robert Peelbecame a Free-trader, towards whom he conceived a strong personalanimosity; died suddenly; the memory of him owes something to the memoirof his life by Lord Beaconsfield (1802-1848).

Bentinck, Lord William Henry Cavendish, Indian statesman, governorof Madras in 1806, but recalled for an error which led to the mutiny atVellore; but was in 1827 appointed governor-general of India, which hegoverned wisely, abolishing many evils, such as Thuggism and Suttee, andeffecting many beneficent reforms. Macaulay held office under him. Hereturned to England in 1835, became member for Glasgow in 1837, and diedbefore he made any mark on home politics (1774-1839).

Bentinck, William, a distinguished statesman, first Earl ofPortland, born in Holland; a favourite, friend, and adviser of WilliamIII., whom he accompanied to England, and who bestowed on him for hisservices great honours and large domains, which provoked ill-will againsthim; retired to Holland, after the king died in his arms, but returnedafterwards (1648-1709).

Bentivoglio, an Italian family of princely rank, long supreme inBologna; B., Guido, cardinal, though a disciple of Galileo, was one ofthe Inquisitors-General who signed his condemnation (1579-1641).

Bentley, Richard, scholar and philologist, born in Yorkshire; fromthe first devoted to ancient, especially classical, learning; rose toeminence as an authority on literary criticism, his “Dissertation uponthe Epistles of Phalaris,” which he proved to be a forgery, commendinghim to the regard and esteem of all the scholars of Europe, a work whichmay be said to have inaugurated a new era in literary historicalcriticism (1662-1742).

Benuë, an affluent of the Niger, 300 m. long, falling into it 230 m.up, described by Dr. Barth and explored by Dr. Baikic, and offers greatfacilities for the prosecution of commerce.

Benvolio, a cantankerous, disputatious gentleman in “Romeo andJuliet.”

Benyow`sky, Count, a Hungarian, fought with the Poles againstRussia; taken prisoner; was exiled to Kamchatka; escaped with thegovernor's daughter; came to France; sent out to Madagascar; was electedking by the natives over them; fell in battle against the French(1741-1786).

Benzene, a substance compounded of carbon and hydrogen, obtained bydestructive distillation from coal-tar and other organic bodies, used asa substitute for turpentine and for dissolving grease.

Benzoin, a fragrant concrete resinous juice flowing from astyrax-tree of Sumatra, used as a cosmetic, and burned as incense.

Beowulf, a very old Anglo-Saxon romance consisting of 6356 shortalliterative lines, and the oldest extant in the language, recording theexploits of a mythical hero of the name, who wrestled Hercules-wise, atthe cost of his life, with first a formidable monster, and then a dragonthat had to be exterminated or tamed into submission before the race hebelonged to could live with safety on the soil.

Béranger, Pierre Jean de, a celebrated French song-writer, born atParis, of the lower section of the middle class, and the first of hiscountrymen who in that department rose to the high level of a true lyricpoet; his first struggles with fortune were a failure, but LucienBonaparte took him up, and under his patronage a career was opened up forhim; in 1815 appeared as an author, and the sensation created wasimmense, for the songs were not mere personal effusions, but in stirringaccord with, and contributed to influence, the great passion of thenation at the time; was, as a Republican—which brought him into troublewith the Bourbons—a great admirer of Napoleon as an incarnation of thenational spirit, and contributed not a little to the elevation of hisnephew to the throne, though he declined all patronage at his hands,refusing all honours and appointments; has been compared to Burns, but helacked both the fire and the humour of the Scottish poet. “His poeticalworks,” says Professor Saintsbury, “consist entirely of chansonspolitical, amatory, bacchanalian, satirical, philosophical after afashion, and of almost every other complexion that the song can possiblytake” (1780-1859).

Berar` (896), one of the central provinces of India, E. of Bombay;it occupies a fertile, well-watered valley, and yields large quantitiesof grain, and especially cotton.

Berat, Frédéric, a French poet and composer, author of a greatnumber of popular songs (1800-1853).

Berber, native language spoken in the mountainous parts of Barbary.

Berber (8), a town in Nubia, on the Nile, occupied by the English;starting-point of caravans for the Red Sea; railway was begun to Suakim,but abandoned.

Ber`berah, the seaport of Somaliland, under Britain, with an annualfair that brings together at times as many as 30,000 people.

Berbers (3,000), a race aboriginal to Barbary and N. Africa, of aproud and unruly temper; though different from the Arab race, are of thesame religion.

Berbice, the eastern division of British Guiana; produces sugar,cocoa, and timber.

Berbrugger, a French archæologist and philologist; wrote on Algiers,its history and monuments (1801-1869).

Berchta, a German Hulda, but of severer type. SeeBertha.

Bercy, a commune on the right bank of the Seine, outside Paris,included in it since 1860; is the great mart for wines and brandies.

Bere`ans, a sect formed by John Barclay in 1778, who regard theBible as the one exclusive revelation of God.

Berenger, orBerenga`rius, of Tours, a distinguishedtheologian, born at Tours; held an ecclesiastical office there, and wasmade afterwards archdeacon of Angers; ventured to deny the doctrine oftransubstantiation, a denial for which he was condemned by successivecouncils of the Church, and which he was compelled more than oncepublicly to retract, though he so often and openly recalled hisretractation that the pope, notwithstanding the opposition of theorthodox, deemed it prudent at length to let him alone. After this heceased to trouble the Church, and retired to an island on the Loire,where he gave himself up to quiet meditation and prayer (998-1088).

Berenger I., king of Italy, grandson of Louis the Débonnaire, anable general; provoked the jealousy of the nobles, who dreaded theabridgment of their rights, which led to his assassination at their handsin 934.B. II., king of Italy, grandson of the preceding, wasdethroned twice by the Emperor Otho, who sent him a prisoner to Bamberg,where he died, 966.

Berenger, Thomas, a French criminalist and magistrate (1785-1866).

Bereni`ce, a Jewish widow, daughter of Herod Agrippa, with whomTitus was fascinated, and whom he would have taken to wife, had not theRoman populace protested, from their Anti-Jewish prejudice, against it.The name was a common one among Egyptian as well as Jewish princesses.

Beresford, William Carr, Viscount, an English general, natural sonof the first Marquis of Waterford; distinguished himself in many amilitary enterprise, and particularly in the Peninsular war, for which hewas made a peer; he was a member of the Wellington administration, andmaster-general of the ordnance (1770-1854).

Beresi`na, a Russian river, affluent of the Dnieper, into which itfalls after a course of 350 m.; it is serviceable as a water conveyancefor large rafts of timber to the open sea, and is memorable for thedisastrous passage of the French in their retreat from Moscow in 1812.

Berezov`, a town in Siberia, in the government of Tobolsk; a placeof banishment.

Berg, Duchy of, on right bank of the Rhine, between Düsseldorf andCologne, now part of Prussia; Murat was grand-duke of it by Napoleon'sappointment.

Ber`gamo (42), a Lombard town, in a province of the same name, and34 m. NE. of Milan, with a large annual fair in August, the largest inItaly; has grindstone quarries in the neighbourhood.

Bergasse, French jurisconsult, born at Lyons; celebrated for hisquarrel with Beaumarchais; author of an “Essay on Property” (1750-1832).

Bergen (52), the old capital of Norway, on a fjord of the name, opento the Gulf Stream, and never frozen; the town, consisting of woodenhouses, is built on a slope on which the streets reach down to the sea,and has a picturesque appearance; the trade, which is considerable, is infish and fish products; manufactures gloves, porcelain, leather, etc.;the seat of a bishop, and has a cathedral.

Bergen-op-Zoom (11), a town in N. Brabant, once a strong place, andmuch coveted and frequently contested for by reason of its commandingsituation; has a large trade in anchovies.

Ber`genroth, Gustav Adolph, historian, born in Prussia; held a Stateoffice, but was dismissed and exiled because of his sympathy with therevolutionary movement of 1848; came to England to collect materials fora history of the Tudors; examined in Simancas, in Spain, under greatprivations, papers on the period in the public archives; made of these acollection and published it in 1862-68, under the title of “Calendar ofLetters, Despatches, &c., relating to Negotiations between England andSpain” (1813-1869).

Bergerac (11), a manufacturing town in France, 60 m. E. of Bordeaux,celebrated for its wines; it was a Huguenot centre, and suffered greatlyin consequence.

Bergerac, Savinien Cyrano de, an eccentric man with comic power, aGascon by birth; wrote a tragedy and a comedy; his best work a fictionentitled “Histoire Comique des États et Empires de la Lune et du Soleil”;fought no end of duels in vindication, it is said, of his preposterouslylarge nose (1619-1655).

Berghaus, Heinrich, a geographer of note, born at Clèves; served inboth the French and Prussian armies as an engineer, and was professor ofmathematics at Berlin; his “Physical Atlas” is well known (1797-1884).

Berghem, a celebrated landscape-painter of the Dutch school, born atHaarlem (1624-1683).

Bergman, Torbern Olof, a Swedish chemist, studied under Linnæus, andbecame professor of Chemistry at Upsala; discovered oxalic acid; was thefirst to arrange and classify minerals on a chemical basis (1735-1784).

Beri, a town in the Punjab, 40 m. NW. of Delhi, in a trading centre.

Berkeley, a town in Gloucestershire, famous for its cattle.

Berkeley, George, bishop of Cloyne, born in Kilkenny; aphilanthropic man, who conducted in a self-sacrificing spirit practicalschemes for the good of humanity, which failed, but the interest in whomhas for long centred, and still centres, in his philosophic teaching, hisown interest in which was that it contributed to clear up our idea of Godand consolidate our faith in Him, and it is known in philosophy asIdealism; only it must be understood, his idealism is not, as it wasabsurdly conceived to be, a denial of the existence of matter, but is anassertion of the doctrine that the universe, with every particular in it,as man sees it and knows it, is not the creation of matter but thecreation of mind, and a reflex of the Eternal Reason that creates anddwells in both it and him; for as Dr. Stirling says, “the object can onlybe known in the subject, and therefore is subjective, and if subjective,ideal.” The outer, as regards our knowledge of it, is within; such isBerkeley's fundamental philosophical principle, and it is a principleradical to the whole recent philosophy of Europe (1684-1753).

Berkshire (238), a midland county of England, with a fertile,well-cultivated soil on a chalk bottom, in the upper valley of theThames, one of the smallest but most beautiful counties in the country.In the E. part of it is Windsor Forest, and in the SE. Bagshot Heath. Itis famous for its breed of pigs.

Berlichingen, Goetz von, surnamed “The Iron Hand,” a brave butturbulent noble of Germany, of the 15th and 16th centuries, the story ofwhose life was dramatised by Goethe, “to save,” as he said, “the memoryof a brave man from darkness,” and which was translated from the Germanby Sir Walter Scott.

Berlin` (1,579), capital of Prussia and of the German empire; standson the Spree, in a flat sandy plain, 177 m. by rail SE. of Hamburg. Theroyal and imperial palaces, the great library, the university, nationalgallery and museums, and the arsenal are all near the centre of the city.There are schools of science, art, agriculture, and mining; technical andmilitary academies; a cathedral and some old churches; zoological andbotanical gardens. Its position between the Baltic and North Seas, theSpree, the numerous canals and railways which converge on it, render it amost important commercial centre; its staple trade is in grain, cattle,spirits, and wool. Manufactures are extensive and very varied; the chiefare woollens, machinery, bronze ware, drapery goods, and beer.

Berlin Decree, a decree of Napoleon of Nov. 21, 1806, declaringBritain in a state of blockade, and vessels trading with it liable tocapture.

Berlioz, Hector, a celebrated musical composer and critic, born nearGrenoble, in the dep. of Isère, France; sent to study medicine in Paris;abandoned it for music, to which he devoted his life. His best knownworks are the “Symphonie Fantastique,” “Romeo and Juliet,” and the“Damnation of Faust”; with the “Symphonie,” which he produced while hewas yet but a student at the Conservatoire in Paris, Paganini was sostruck that he presented him with 20,000 francs (1803-1869).

Ber`mondsey, a busy SE. suburb of London, on the S. bank of theThames.

Bermoo`thes, the Bermudas.

Bermu`das (15), a group of 400 coral islands (five inhabited) inmid-Atlantic, 677 m. SE. of New York; have a delightful, temperateclimate, and are a popular health resort for Americans. They produce afine arrowroot, and export onions. They are held by Britain as a valuablenaval station, and are provided with docks and fortifications.

Bernadotte, Jean Baptiste Jules, a marshal of France, born at Pau;rose from the ranks; distinguished himself in the wars of the Revolutionand the Empire, though between him and Napoleon there was constantdistrust; adopted by Charles XIII., king of Sweden; joined the Allies asa naturalised Swede in the war against France in alliance with Russia;became king of Sweden himself under the title of Charles XIV., to thematerial welfare, as it proved, of his adopted country (1764-1844).

Bernard, Claude, a distinguished French physiologist, born at St.Julien; he studied at Paris; was Majendie's assistant and successor inthe College of France; discovered that the function of the pancreas isthe digestion of ingested fats, that of the liver the transformation intosugar of certain elements in the blood, and that there are nervouscentres in the body which act independently of the great cerebro-spinalcentre (1813-1878).

Bernard, St., abbot of Clairvaux, born at Fontaines, in Burgundy;pronounced one of the grandest figures in the church militant; studied inParis, entered the monastery of Citeaux, founded in 1115 a monastery atClairvaux, in Champagne; drew around him disciples who rose to eminenceas soldiers of the cross; prepared the statutes for the Knights-Templar;defeated Abelard in public debate, and procured his condemnation; founded160 monasteries; awoke Europe to a second crusade; dealt death-blows allround to no end of heretics, and declined all honours to himself, contentif he could only awake some divine passion in other men; represented inart as accompanied by a white dog, or as contemplating an apparition ofthe Virgin and the Child, or as bearing the implements of Christ'spassion (1091-1174). Festival, Aug. 20.

Bernard, Simon, a French engineer, born at Dôle; distinguished assuch in the service of Napoleon, and for vast engineering works executedin the United States, in the construction of canals and forts(1779-1839).

Bernard of Menthon, an ecclesiastic, founder of the monasteries ofthe Great and the Little St. Bernard, in the passage of the Alps(923-1008). Festival, June 15.

Bernard of Morlaix, a monk of Cluny, of the 11th century; wrote apoem entitled “De Contemptu Mundi,” translated by Dr. Neale, including“Jerusalem the Golden.”

Bernardin de Saint-Pierre, commonly called Saint-Pierre simply, acelebrated French writer, born at Havre; author of “Paul and Virginia,”written on the eve of the Revolution, called by Carlyle “the swan-song ofold dying France,” (1739-1814).

Bernardine, St., of Siena, born at Massa Carrara, in Italy, of noblefamily; founder of the Observantines, a branch, and restoration on strictlines, of the Franciscan order; established 300 monasteries of the saidbranch; his works, written in a mystical vein, fill five folio vols.(1380-1444).

Bernauer, Agnes, wife of Duke Albrecht of Bavaria, whom his father,displeased at the marriage, had convicted of sorcery and drowned in theDanube.

Berne (47), a fine Swiss town on the Aar, which almost surrounds it,in a populous canton of the same name; since 1848 the capital of theSwiss Confederation; commands a magnificent view of the Bernese Alps; abusy trading and manufacturing city.

Berners, John Bouchier, Lord, writer or translator of romance; wasChancellor of the Exchequer in 1516, and governor of Calais from 1520;translated Froissart's “Huon of Bordeaux,” &c.

Berners, Juliana, writer on hunting and hawking; lived in the 14thcentury; said to have been prioress of a nunnery.

Bernese Alps, a chain in the Middle Alps, of which the eastern halfis called the Bernese Oberland; form the watershed between the Aar andthe Rhône.

Bernhard, Duke of Weimar, a great German general; distinguishedhimself on the Protestant side in the Thirty Years' war; fought under thestandard of Gustavus Adolphus; held command of the left wing at thebattle of Lützen, and completed the victory after the fall of Gustavus;died at Neuburg, as alleged, without sufficient proof, by poison(1604-1639).

Bernhardt, Sarah, a dramatic artiste, born in Paris; of Jewishdescent, but baptized as a Christian; distinguished specially as atragédienne; of abilities qualifying her to shine in other departments ofthe profession and of art, of which she has given proof;b. 1844.

Berni, Francesco, an Italian poet, born in Tuscany, who excelled inthe burlesque, to whom the Italian as a literary language owes much;remodelled Boiardo's “Orlando Innamorato” in a style surpassing that ofthe original.

Bernier, a French physician and traveller, born at Angers; physicianfor 12 years to Aurungzebe, the Great Mogul; published “Travels,” a workfull of interest, and a model of exactitude (1625-1688).

Bernier, The Abbé, born in Mayenne, France; one of the principalauthors of the Concordat; promoted afterwards to be Bishop of Orleans(1762-1806).

Berni`na, a mountain in the Swiss canton of Grisons, 13,290 ft.high, remarkable for its extensive glaciers.

Bernini, Giovanni Lorenzo, an Italian painter, sculptor, andarchitect, born at Naples; produced his “Apollo and Daphne” at eighteen,his masterpiece; was architect to the Pope, and designed the colonnade ofSt. Peter's; he died wealthy (1598-1680).

Bernouil`li, name of a Swiss family of mathematicians, born atBasel, though of Dutch origin—James,John, andDaniel, ofwhom John is the most celebrated; was professor first at St. Petersburgand then at Basel; discovered the exponential calculus and the method ofintegrating rational fractions, as well as the line of swiftest descent(1667-1748).

Bernstorff, Count, a celebrated statesman, diplomatist, andphilanthropist of Denmark; called the Danish Oracle by Frederick theGreat; founded an Agricultural Society and an hospital at Copenhagen, andobtained the emancipation of the serfs (1711-1772).

Bernstorff, Count, a nephew of the preceding; also statesman anddiplomatist (1712-1772).

Bernstorff, Pierre, Danish minister, son of the preceding, aguardian of civil and political liberty (1735-1797).

Bero`sus, a priest of the temple of Belus in Babylon, who, 3rdcentury B.C., translated into Greek certain records of Babylonishhistory, valuable fragments of which are preserved by Josephus andEusebius; these have been collected and published by W. Richter, inGermany.

Berri, an ancient province of France, forms dep. of Indre and Cher,which became crown property in 1100 under Philippe I., and a duchy in1630, giving title to a succession of French princes.

Berri, Duc de, second son of Charles X. and father of Count deChambord, a benevolent man; assassinated by a fanatic, Louvel, as he wasleaving the Opera House (1778-1820).

Berri, Duchesse de, dowager of preceding, distinguished herself byher futile efforts to restore the Bourbon dynasty in the reign of LouisPhilippe (1798-1890).

Berryer, Pierre Antoine, an eminent French barrister, born at Paris;a red-hot Legitimist, which brought him into trouble; was member of theNational Assembly of 1848; inimical to the Second Empire, and openlyprotested against thecoup d'état (1790-1868).

Ber`serker, a Norse warrior who went into battle unharnessed, whencehis name (which means bare of sark or shirt of mail), and is said to havebeen inspired with such fury as to render him invulnerable andirresistible.

Bert, Paul, a French physiologist and statesman, born at Auxerre;was professor of Physiology at Paris; took to politics after the fall ofthe Empire; Minister of Public Instruction under Gambetta; sent governorto Tonquin; died of fever soon after; wrote a science primer for childrenentitled “La Première Année d'Enseignement Scientifique” (1833-1886).

Bertha, goddess in the S. German mythology, of the spinning-wheelprincipally, and of the household as dependent on it, in behalf of whichand its economical management she is often harsh to idle spinners; at herfestival thrift is the rule.

Bertha, St., a British princess, wife of Ethelbert, king of Kent;converted him to Christianity.

Berthe “au Grand Pied” (i. e. Long Foot), wife of Pepin the Short,and mother of Charlemagne, so called from her club foot.

Berthelier, a Swiss patriot, an uncompromising enemy of the Duke ofSavoy in his ambition to lord it over Geneva.

Berthelot, Pierre Eugène, a French chemist, born at Paris; professorin the College of France; distinguished for his researches in organicchemistry, and his attempt to produce organic compounds; the dyeing tradeowes much to his discoveries in the extraction of dyes from coal-tar; helaid the foundation of thermo-chemistry;b. 1827.

Berthier, Alexandre, prince of Wagram and marshal of France, born atVersailles; served with Lafayette in the American war, and rose todistinction in the Revolution; became head of Napoleon's staff, and hiscompanion in all his expeditions; swore fealty to the Bourbons at therestoration of 1814; on Napoleon's return retired with his family toBamberg; threw himself from a window, maddened at the sight of Russiantroops marching past to the French frontier (1753-1815).

Berthollet, Count, a famous chemist, native of Savoy, to whom we owethe discovery of the bleaching properties of chlorine, the employment ofcarbon in purifying water, &c., and many improvements in themanufactures; became a senator and officer of the Legion of Honour underNapoleon; attached himself to the Bourbons on their return, and wascreated a peer (1744-1822).

Berthoud, a celebrated clockmaker, native of Switzerland; settled inParis; invented the marine chronometer to determine the longitude at sea(1727-1807).

Bertin “l'Ainé,” or the Elder, a French journalist, born at Paris;founder and editor of theJournal des Débats, which he started in 1799;friend of Châteaubriand (1766-1841).

Bertin, Pierre, introduced stenography into France, invented byTaylor in England (1751-1819).

Bertin, Rose, milliner to Marie Antoinette, famed for her devotionto her.

Bertinazzi, a celebrated actor, born at Turin, long a favourite inParis (1710-1788).

Bertrand andRaton, two personages in La Fontaine's fable ofthe Monkey and the Cat, of whom R. cracks the nut and B. eats it.

Ber`trand, Henri Gratien, Comte, a French general, and faithfuladherent of Napoleon, accompanied him in all his campaigns, to and fromElba, as well as in his exile at St. Helena; conducted his remains backto France in 1840 (1770-1844).

Bertrand de Molleville, Minister of Marine under Louis XVI.; a fierypartisan of royalty, surnamed theenfant terrible of the monarchy(1744-1818).

Berton, Pierre, French composer of operas (1726-1780). Henri, hisson, composed operas; wrote a treatise on harmony (1761-1844).

Bérulle, Cardinal, born at Troyes; founder of the order ofCarmelites, and of the Congregation of the Oratory (1576-1629).

Berwick, James Fitz-James, Duke of, a natural son of James II., anaturalised Frenchman; defended the rights of his father; was presentwith him at the battle of the Boyne; distinguished himself in Spain,where he gained the victory of Almanza; was made marshal of France; fellat the siege of Philippsburg; left “Memoirs” (1670-1734).

Berwick, North, a place on the S. shore of the Forth, inHaddingtonshire; a summer resort, specially for the golfing links.

Berwick-on-Tweed (13), a town on the Scotch side of the Tweed, atits mouth, reckoned since 1835 in Northumberland, though at one timetreated as a separate county; of interest from its connection with theBorder wars, during which it frequently changed hands, till in 1482 theEnglish became masters of it.

Berwickshire (32), a fertile Scottish county between theLammermoors, inclusive, and the Tweed; is divided into the Merse, arichly fertile plain in the S., the Lammermoors, hilly and pastoral,dividing the Merse from Mid and East Lothian, and Lauderdale, of hill anddale, along the banks of the Leader; Greenlaw the county town.

Berze`lius, Johan Jakob, Baron, a celebrated Swedish chemist, one ofthe creators of modern chemistry; instituted the chemical notation bysymbols based on the notion of equivalents; determined the equivalents ofa great number of simple bodies, such as cerium and silenium; discoveredsilenium, and shared with Davy the honour of propounding theelectro-chemical theory; he ranks next to Linnæus as a man of science inSweden (1779-1848).

Besançon (57), capital of the dep. of Doubs, in France; a verystrong place; fortified by Vauban; abounds in relics of Roman andmediæval times; watchmaking a staple industry, employing some 15,000 ofthe inhabitants; manufactures also porcelain and carpets.

Besant, Mrs. Annie,néeWood, born in London; of Irishdescent; married to an English clergyman, from whom she was legallyseparated; took a keen interest in social questions and secularism;drifted into theosophy, of which she is now an active propagandist; is aninteresting woman, and has an interesting address as a lecturer;b.1847.

Besant, Sir Walter, a man of letters, born at Portsmouth; eminentchiefly as a novelist of a healthily realistic type; wrote a number ofnovels jointly with James Rice, and is the author of “French Humourists,”as well as short stories; champion of the cause of AuthorsversusPublishers, and is chairman of the committee;b. 1838.

Besenval, Baron, a Swiss, commandant of Paris under Louis XVI.; aroyalist stunned into a state of helpless dismay at the first outbreak ofthe Revolution in Paris; could do nothing in the face of it but run forhis life (1722-1791).

Besika Bay, a bay on the Asiatic coast, near the mouth of theDardanelles.

Besme, a Bohemian in the pay of the Duke of Guise; assassinatedColigny, and was himself killed by Berteauville, a Protestant gentleman,in 1571.

Bess, Good Queen, a familiar name of Queen Elizabeth.

Bessara`bia (1,688), a government in the SW. of Russia, between theDniester and the Pruth; a cattle-breeding province; exports cattle, wool,and tallow.

Bessar`ion, John, cardinal, native of Trebizond; contributed by hiszeal in Greek literature to the fall of scholasticism and the revival ofletters; tried hard to unite the Churches of the East and the West;joined the latter, and was made cardinal; too much of a Grecian torecommend himself to the popehood, to which he was twice over nearlyelevated (1395-1472).

Bessel, Friedrich Wilhelm, a Prussian astronomer of prominentability, born at Minden; professor of Mathematics at Königsberg, anddirector of the Observatory; discovered—what was a greatachievement—the parallax of the fixed star 61 Cygne; his greatest work,“Fundamenta Astronomiæ,” on which he spent 10 years, a marvel, like allhe did, of patient toil and painstaking accuracy (1784-1846).

Bessemer, Sir Henry, civil engineer and inventor, born at Charlton,Herts; of his many inventions the chief is the process, named after him,of converting pig-iron into steel at once by blowing a blast of airthrough the iron while in fusion till everything extraneous is expelled,and only a definite quantity of carbon is left in combination, a processwhich has revolutionised the iron and steel trade all over the world,leading, as has been calculated, to the production of thirty times asmuch steel as before and at one-fifth of the cost per ton (1813-1898).

Bessemer process. SeeBessemer.

Bessières, Jean Baptiste, Duke of Istria, marshal of France,born at Languedoc, of humble parentage; rose from the ranks; a friend andone of the ablest officers of Napoleon, and much esteemed by him;distinguished himself in the Italian campaign, in Egypt, and at Marengo;was shot at Lützen the day before the battle (1768-1813).

Bessus, a satrap of Bactria under Darius, who assassinated hismaster after the battle of Arbela, but was delivered over by Alexander toDarius's brother, by whom he was put to death, 328 B.C.

Bestiary, a name given to a class of books treating of animals,viewed allegorically.

Bethany, village on E. of the Mount of Olives, abode of Lazarus andhis sisters.

Bethel (i. e. house of God), a place 11 m. N. of Jerusalem, sceneof Jacob's dream, and famous in the history of the patriarchs.

Bethencourt, a Norman baron, in 1425 discovered and conquered theCanaries, and held them as a fief of the crown of Castile.

Bethlehem (3), a village 6 m. S. of Jerusalem, the birthplace ofJesus Christ and King David, with a convent containing the Church of theNativity; near it is the grotto where St. Jerome translated the Bibleinto Latin.

Bethlen-Gabor, prince of Transylvania, assumed the title of king ofHungary; assisted Bohemia in the Thirty Years' war (1580-1629).

Bethnal Green (129), an eastern suburb of London, a parliamentaryborough, a poor district, and scene of benevolent enterprises.

Betterton, Thomas, born at Westminster, a tragic actor, and as suchan interpreter of Shakespeare on, it is believed, the traditional lines.

Bettina, the Countess of Arnim, a passionate admirer of Goethe.

Betty, W. Henry, a boy actor, known as the Infant Roscius; amassed afortune; lived afterwards retired (1791-1874).

Beule, a French statesman and archæologist; superintendedexcavations on the Acropolis of Athens; held office under Macmahon(1826-1874).

Beust, Count von, a German statesman, born at Dresden; Minister forForeign Affairs in Saxony; of strong conservative leanings, friendly toAustria; became Chancellor of the Austro-Hungarian empire; adopted aliberal policy; sympathised with France in the Franco-German war;resigned office in 1871; left “Memoirs” (1809-1886).

Beuthen (36), a manufacturing town in Prussian Silesia, in thecentre of a mining district.

Beverley (12), a Yorkshire manufacturing town, 8 m. NW. of Hull,with a Gothic minster, which contains the tombs of the Percys.

Beverley, John, a learned man, tutor to the Venerable Bede,archbishop of York, and founder of a college for secular priests atBeverley; was one of the most learned men of his time;d. 721.

Bevis of Southampto, orHampton, Sir, a famous knight ofEnglish mediæval romance, a man of gigantic stature, whose marvellousfeats are recorded in Drayton's “Polyolbion.”

Bewick, Thomas, a distinguished wood-engraver, born inNorthumberland, apprenticed to the trade in Newcastle; showed his artfirst in woodcuts for his “History of Quadrupeds,” the success of whichled to the publication of his “History of British Birds,” in which heestablished his reputation both as a naturalist, in the truest sense, andan artist (1753-1828).

Bewick, William, a great wood-engraver; did a cartoon from the ElginMarbles for Goethe (1795-1866).

Beyle, Marie Henri, French critic and novelist, usually known by hispseudonym “De Stendal,” born at Grenoble; wrote in criticism “Del'Amour,” and in fiction “La Chartreuse de Parme” and “Le Rouge et leNoir”; an ambitious writer and a cynical (1788-1842).

Beypur, a port in the Madras presidency, a railway terminus, withcoal and iron in the neighbourhood.

Beyrout (200), the most nourishing commercial city on the coast ofSyria, and the port of Damascus, from which it is distant 55 m.; a veryancient place.

Beza, Theodore, a French Protestant theologian, born in Burgundy, ofgood birth; professor of Greek at Lausanne; deputed from Germany tointercede for the Huguenots in France, persuaded the king of Navarre tofavour the Protestants; settled in Geneva, became the friend andsuccessor of Calvin; wrote a book, “De Hereticis a Civili MagistratuPuniendis,” in which he justified the burning of Servetus, and a “Historyof the Reformed Churches” in France; died at 86 (1519-1605).

Bezants, Byzantine gold coins of varying weight and value,introduced by the Crusaders into England, where they were current tillthe time of Edward III.

Béziers (42), a manufacturing town in the dep. of Hérault, 49 m. SW.of Montpellier; manufactures silk fabrics and confectionary.

Bhagalpur` (69), a town in Bengal, on the right bank of the Ganges,265 m. NW. of Calcutta.

Bhagavad Gîtâ, (i. e. Song of Krishna), a poem introduced into theMahâbhârata, divided into three sections, and each section into sixchapters, called Upanishads; being a series of mystical lecturesaddressed by Krishna to his royal pupil Arjuna on the eve of a battle,from which he shrunk, as it was with his own kindred; the whole conceivedfrom the point of view or belief, calculated to allay the scruples ofArjuna, which regards the extinction of existence as absorption in theDeity.

Bhamo` (6), a town in Burmah, the chief centre of trade with China,conducted mainly by Chinese, and a military station, only 40 m. from theChinese frontier.

Bhartpur` (68), a town in Rajputana, in a native state of the name;yielding wheat, maize, cotton, sugar, with quarries of building stone; 30m. W. of Agra; carries on an industry in the manufacture of chowries.

Bhartrihari, Indian author of apothegms, who appears to have livedin the 11th century B.C., and to have been of royal rank.

Bhils, a rude pro-Aryan race of Central India, still untrained tosettled life; number 750,000.

Bhod-pa, name given to the aborigines of Thibet, and applied by theHindus to all the Thibetan peoples.

Bhopal` (952), a well-governed native state in Central India, underBritish protection, with a capital city (70) of the same name; under agovernment that has been always friendly to Britain.

Bhutan (20), an independent state in the Eastern Himalayas, withmagnificent scenery; subsidised by Britain; has a government like that ofThibet; religion the same, though the people are at a low stage ofcivilisation; the country exports horses, musk, and salt.

Biaf`ra, Bight of, a large bay in the Gulf of Guinea, in W. Africa;includes several islands, and receives into it the waters of the Calabarrivers.

Biard, Auguste François, Frenchgenre painter, born at Lyons;journeyed round the world, sketching by the way; was successful inrendering burlesque groups (1800-1882).

Biarritz, a bathing-place on the Bay of Biscay, 6 m. SW. of Bayonne;became a place of fashionable resort by the visits of the EmpressEugenie.

Bias, one of the seven wise men of Greece, born at Priene, in Ionia;lived in the 6th century B.C.; many wise sayings are ascribed to him;was distinguished for his indifference to possessions, which moth andrust can corrupt, and thieves break through and steal.

Bible, The (i. e. the Bookpar excellence, and not so much abook as a library of books), a collection of sacred writings divided intotwo parts, the Old Testament and the New; the Old, written in Hebrew,comprehending three groups of books, the Pentateuch, the Prophets, andthe Hagiographa, bearing on the religion, the history, the institutions,and the manners of the Jews; and the New, written in Greek, comprehendingthe Four Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, and the Epistles. The OldTestament was translated into Greek at Alexandria by 72 Jews, 280 B.C.,and is known as the Septuagint; and the whole book, Old and New, wastranslated into Latin in a grotto near Bethlehem by St. Jerome, A.D.385-404, and is known as the Vulgate, after which the two came to beregarded by the Church as of equal divine authority and as sections ofone book. It may be permitted to note that the Bible is writtenthroughout, not in a speculative or a scientific, but a spiritualinterest, and that its final aim is to guide men in the way of life. Thespirit in which it is composed is the spirit of conviction; its essence,both in the root of it and the fruit of it, is faith, and that primarilyin a moral power above, and ultimately a moral principle within, bothequally divine. The one principle of the book is that loyalty to thedivine commands is the one foundation of all well-being, individual andsocial.

Biblia Pauperum (i. e. Bible of the Poor), a book consisting ofsome 50 leaves, with pictures of scenes in the Life of Christ, andexplanatory inscriptions, printed, from wooden blocks, in the 15thcentury, and before the invention of printing by movable types.

Bibulus, a colleague of Julius Cæsar; a mere cipher, afainéant.

Bicêtre, a hospital, originally a Carthusian monastery, in the S.side of Paris, with a commanding view of the Seine and the city; sinceused for old soldiers, and now for confirmed lunatics.

Bichât, Marie François Xavier, an eminent French anatomist andphysiologist; physician to the Hôtel-Dieu, Paris; one of the first toresolve the structure of the human body into, as “Sartor” has it,“cellular, vascular, and muscular tissues;” his great work “AnatomieGénérale appliquée à la Physiologie et à la Medecine”; died at 31(1771-1802).

Bickerstaff, Isaac, an Irish dramatist of 18th century, whose namewas adopted as anom de plume by Swift and Steele.

Bickersteth, Edward, English clergyman; author of severalevangelical works, and one of the founders of the Evangelical Alliance(1786-1850).

Bickerton, Sir Richard, vice-admiral, served in several navalengagements, and died commander-in-chief at Plymouth in 1792.

Biddery ware, ware of tin, copper, lead, and zinc, made at Bidar, inIndia.

Bidding Prayer, an exhortation to prayer in some special reference,followed by the Lord's Prayer, in which the congregation joins.

Biddle, John, a Socinian writer in the time of Charles I. and theCommonwealth; much persecuted for his belief, and was imprisoned, butreleased by Cromwell; regarded as the founder of English Unitarianism;author of a “Confession of Faith concerning the Holy Trinity”(1615-1662).

Bidpaï, orPilpaï, the presumed author of a collection of Hindufables of ancient date, in extensive circulation over the East, andwidely translated.

Biela's Comet, a comet discovered by Biela, an Austrian officer, in1826; appears, sometimes unobserved, every six years.

Bielefeld (39), a manufacturing town in Westphalia, with a largetrade in linen, and the centre of the trade.

Bielu`ka, with its twin peaks, highest of the Altai Mountains,11,100 ft.

Bienne, Lake of, in the Swiss canton of Berne; the Aar is led intoit when in flood, so as to prevent inundation below; on the shores of itare remains of lake-dwellings, and an island in it, St. Pierre, theretreat of Rousseau in 1765.

Bifröst, a bridge in the Norse mythology stretching from heaven toearth, of firm solidity and exquisite workmanship, represented in therainbow, of which the colours are the reflections of the precious stones.

Bigelow, Erastus Brigham, American inventor of weaving machines,born in Massachusetts (1814-1879).

Big-endians, a name given to the Catholics, as Little-endians is thename given to the Protestants, in the imaginary kingdom of Lilliput, ofwhich the former are regarded as heretics by the latter because theybreak their eggs at the big end.

Biggar, a town in Lanarkshire, birthplace of Dr. John Brown and ofthe Gladstone ancestry.

Biglow, imaginary author of poems in the Yankee dialect, written byJames Russell Lowell.

Bijapur`, city in the presidency of Bombay, once the capital of anextensive kingdom, now deserted, but with remains of its formergreatness.

Bilba`o (50), capital of the Basque prov. of Biscay, in Spain; acommercial city of ancient date, famous at one time for its steel,specially in Queen Elizabeth's time, when a rapier was called a “bilbo.”

Bilderdijk, Willem, Dutch poet, born at Amsterdam (1756-1831).

Bile, a fluid secreted from the blood by the liver to aid indigestion, the secretion of which is most active after food.

Billaud-Varennes, Jean Nicolas, “a grim, resolute, unrepentant”member of the Jacobin Club; egged on the mob during the Septembermassacres in the name of liberty; was president of the Convention;assisted at the fall of Robespierre, but could not avert his own; wasdeported to Surinam, and content to die there rather than return toFrance, which Bonaparte made him free to do; died at Port-au-Prince(1756-1819).

Billaut, Adam, the carpenter poet, called “Maître Adam,” born atNevers, and designated “Virgile au Rabot” (a carpenter's plane);d.1662.

Billings, Robert William, architect, born in London; delineator ofold historical buildings; his great work “Baronial and EcclesiasticalAntiquities of Scotland,” richly illustrated; was engaged in therestoration of old buildings, as well as delineating them (1813-1874).

Billingsgate, a fish-market in London, below London Bridge; also aname given to low, coarse language indulged in there.

Billington, Elizabeth,néeWeichsel, a celebrated singer,born in London, of German descent; kept up her celebrity to the last;died at Venice in 1817.

Bilney, Thomas, martyr, born in Norfolk, a priest who adopted thereformed doctrine; was twice arraigned, and released on promise not topreach, but could not refrain, and was at last burned as a heretic in1531.

Bilocation, the power or state, ascribed to certain of the saints,of appearing in two places at the same time.

Bimetallism, the employment of two metals (gold and silver) in thecurrency of a country as legal tender at a fixed relative value, theratio usually proposed being 1 to 15½.

Bimini, a fabulous island with a fountain possessed of the virtue ofrestoring youth.

Binet, a French littérateur, translator of Horace and Virgil(1732-1812).

Bingen, a manufacturing and trading town on the left bank of theRhine, in Grand-Duchy of Hesse Darmstadt, opposite which is the towerassociated with the myth of Bishop Hatto.

Bingham, Joseph, an English divine, born at Wakefield; author of“Origines Ecclesiasticæ,” a laborious and learned work; lost his all inthe South-Sea Scheme and died (1668-1723).

Biogenesis, name of the theory that derives life from life, andopposed toAbiogenesis (q. v.).

Biology, the science of animal life in a purely physical reference,or of life in organised bodies generally, including that of plants, inits varied forms and through its successive stages.

Bion, a Greek pastoral poet of 3rd century B.C., born at Smyrna; acontemporary of Theocritus; settled in Sicily; was poisoned, it is said,by a rival; little of his poetry survives.

Biot, Jean Baptiste, an eminent French mathematician, astronomer,and physicist, born at Paris; professor of Physics in the College ofFrance; took part in measuring an arc of the meridian along with Arago;made observations on the polarisation of light, and contributed numerousmemoirs to scientific journals; wrote works on astronomy (1774-1862).

Birague, René de, cardinal and chancellor of France, born at Milan;charged, especially by contemporary historians, as the chief instigatorof the St. Bartholomew Massacre (1507-1583).

Birch, Samuel, archæologist and Egyptologist, born in London; keeperof Oriental antiquities in the British Museum; had an extensive knowledgeof Egyptology, wrote largely, and contributed articles on that andkindred archæological subjects (1813-1885).

Birch, Thomas, antiquary, born in London; wrote a history of theRoyal Society (1705-1765).

Birch-Pfeiffer, Charlotte, actress, born in Stuttgart; acted inBerlin; wrote dramas (1800-1868).

Bird, Edward, an Englishgenre painter, born in Wolverhampton,settled in Bristol; among his works are the “Choristers Rehearsing,” the“Field of Chevy Chase,” and the “Day after the Battle,” pronounced hismasterpiece (1772-1819).

Bird, Golding, M.D., a great authority in kidney disease, of whichhe himself died (1815-1854).

Bird, William, a musician in the time of Elizabeth, composedmadrigals; “Non Nobis, Domine,” is ascribed to him (1563-1623).

Bird's nest, the nest of a species of swift, formed from a marineplant that has been first digested by a bird, and esteemed a great luxuryby the Chinese.

Biren, Duke of Courland, son of a peasant, favourite of the RussianEmpress Anne; held the reins of government even after her death; ruledwith great cruelty; was banished to Siberia, but recalled, and had hishonours restored to him, which in six years after he relinquished infavour of his eldest son (1687-1772).

Birkbeck, George, M.D., a Yorkshireman, a zealous promoter all overthe country of mechanics' institutes, was founder of the LondonInstitute, in consociation with Brougham and others interested in thediffusion of useful knowledge (1776-1841).

Birkenhead (100), in Cheshire, on the Mersey, opposite Liverpool anda suburb of it; a town of rapid growth, due to the vicinity of Liverpool;has large shipbuilding-yards and docks.

Birkenhead, Sir John, a political writer, several times imprisonedduring the Commonwealth for his obtrusive royalism (1615-1679).

Birmingham (478), in the NW. of Warwickshire, 112 m. NW. of Londonby rail; is the chief town of the Midlands, and celebrated all over theworld for its metal ware. All kinds of engines and machinery, fine gold,silver, copper, and brass ware, cutlery and ammunition are made here;steel pens, buttons, nails, and screws are specialties. It is apicturesque town with many fine buildings, libraries, art gallery andmuseums, educational institutions, a cathedral, and a great town-hall,where the triennial musical festival is held. Of this town Burne-Joneswas a native, and Priestley, George Dawson, and Dale were dissentingministers.

Birnam, a hill near Dunkeld, in Perthshire; contains part of aforest mentioned in “Macbeth.”

Biron, a madcap lord in “Love's Labour's Lost.”

Biron, Baron de, marshal of France, born at Périgord; served bravelyunder Henry IV.; though a Catholic, favoured the Huguenots; narrowlyescaped at the Massacre of St. Bartholomew; was killed at the siege ofÉpernay; carried a note-book with him everywhere, and so observant was hethat it passed into proverb, “You will find it in Biron's note-book”(1524-1592).

Biron, Duc de, son of the preceding; served also bravely under HenryIV.; but being a man of no principle and discontented with the reward hegot for his services, intrigued with the Duke of Savoy and with Spainagainst Henry; was arrested and sent to the Bastille, where, after trial,he was beheaded (1562-1602).

Biscay, Bay of, a bay in the Atlantic, extending from Cape Ortegal,in Spain, to Cape Finisterre, in France, and 400 m. broad, of depthvarying from 20 to 200 fathoms, and, under SW. winds particularly, one ofthe stormiest of seas.

Bischof, Karl Gustav, chemist, born at Nüremberg, professor at Bonn;experimented on the inflammable power of gas (1792-1870).

Bischoff, Theodor Ludwig Wilhelm, distinguished biologist, born atHanover; made a special study of embryology; was professor of Anatomy atHeidelberg, of Physiology at Giessen, and of both at Münich (1807-1882).

Bishop, originally an overseer of souls, eventually an overseer ofchurches, especially of a district, and conceived of by High-Churchmen asrepresenting the apostles and deriving his powers by transmission fromthem.

Bishop, Sir Henry Rowley, an English composer, born in London,composer and director of music in Covent Garden Theatre for 14 years;produced 60 pieces, of which “Guy Mannering,” “The Miller and his Men,”are still in favour; was for a brief space professor of Music inEdinburgh University, and eventually held a similar chair in Oxford(1786-1855).

Bishop of Hippo, St. Augustine, as once in office there.

Bishop-Auckland (10), a market-town 9 m. SW. of Durham, where thebishop of Durham has his residence, a palatial structure; it hascoal-mines close by; manufactures machinery and cotton goods.

Bismarck Archipelago (188), an archipelago formerly called NewBritain, NE. of New Guinea; under the protectorate of Germany.

Bismarck-Schönhausen, Eduard Leopold, Prince von, born atSchönhausen; woke up into civil life by the events of 1848; took a boldstand against revolutionary ideas and measures; conceived the idea offreeing the several States of Germany from foreign control, and weldingthem into one under the crown of Prussia. Summoned in 1862 by KingWilliam to be his political adviser, his influence was at firstdistrusted, but the annexation of Sleswig-Holstein by force of arms in1863 raised him into general favour. His next feat, the humiliation ofAustria at Königgrätz in 1866, and the consequent erection of a GermanConfederation, with Prussia at its head, made him the idol of the nation.His treatment of Napoleon III. provoked the latter into a declaration ofwar, and to an advance on the part of the French against Berlin. To thesurprise of nearly all Europe, the Germans proved to be a nation ofsoldiers, marshalled as army never was before, and beat the Frenchignominiously back from the Rhine. Count Bismarck had the satisfaction ofseeing the power of France, that still threatened, as well as that ofAustria, helpless at his feet, the German empire restored under aHohenzollern king, and himself installed as chancellor of the monarch hehad served so well. Nothing he did after this—though he reformed thecoinage, codified the law, established protection, increased the army,and repressed Socialism—equalled this great feat, and for this agrateful nation must ever honour his name. If he ceased to be chancellorof Germany on the accession of William II., it was because the young kingfelt he would have a freer hand with a minister more likely to be underhis control (1815-1898).

Bissa`gos, a group of some 20 volcanic islands off the coast ofSenegambia, with a large negro population; yield tropical products, andbelong now to Portugal.

Bissen, a Danish sculptor, born in Sleswig; a pupil of Thorwaldsen;intrusted by him to finish a statue he left unfinished at his death; heproduced some fine works, but his best known are his “Cupid Sharpeninghis Arrow” and “Atalanta Hunting” (1798-1868).

Bithur, a town on the right bank of the Ganges, 12 m. aboveCawnpore, where Nana Sahib lived, and concocted the conspiracy whichdeveloped into the mutiny of 1857.

Bithynia, a country in the NW. of Asia Minor, anciently so called;the people of it were of Thracian origin.

Bitlis (25), a high-lying town in Asiatic Turkey, 62 m. W. of Van;stands in a valley 8470 ft. above, the sea-level, with a population ofMohammedans and Armenians.

Bitumen, an inflammable mineral substance, presumably of vegetableorigin, called Naphtha when liquid and light-coloured, Petroleum whenless fluid and darker, Maltha when viscid, and Asphalt when solid.

Bitzius, a Swiss author, composed stories of Swiss life under thenom de plume of Jeremias Gotthelf, fascinating from their charmingsimplicity and truth; he is much admired by Ruskin; was by profession aProtestant pastor, the duties of which he continued to discharge till hisdeath (1797-1854).

Bizerta (10), a seaport of Tunis, northernmost town in Africa, 38 m.NW. of the capital, with an excellent harbour.

Bizet, Georges, an operatic composer, born at Paris; his greatestwork “Carmen”; died of heart-disease shortly after its appearance(1838-1875).

Björnsen, a Norwegian author, born at Kvikne; composed tales,dramas, and lyrics, all of distinguished merit and imbued with apatriotic spirit; his best play “Sigurd the Bastard”; an active andzealous promoter of liberalism, sometimes extreme, both in religion andpolitics; his writings are numerous, and they rank high; his songs beinghighly appreciated by his countrymen;b. 1832.

Black, Joseph, a celebrated chemist, born at Bordeaux, of Scotchparents; the discoverer of what has been called latent heat, but what isreally transformed energy; professor of Chemistry, first in Glasgow, thenin Edinburgh, where his lectures were very popular; his discoveries inchemistry were fruitful in results (1728-1799).

Black, William, novelist, born in Glasgow; started life as ajournalist in connection with theMorning Star; has written severalnovels, over 30 in number, about the West Highlands of Scotland, rich inpicturesque description; the best known and most admired, “A Daughter ofHeth,” the “Madcap Violet,” “Macleod of Dare,” “The Strange Adventures ofa Phæton,” and “A Princess of Thule.” “But when are you going to write abook, Mr. Black?” said Carlyle to him one day (1841-1898).

Black Art, name given to the presumed power of evoking evil spirits.

Black Assize, a plague at Oxford in 1557, which carried off 300victims; caught at the assize from the prisoners under trial.

Black Death, a name given to a succession of fatal epidemics thatdevastated the world from China to Ireland in the 14th century, believedto be the same as the Oriental plague, though attended with peculiarsymptoms; the most serious was that of 1348, which, as is reckoned,stripped England alone of one-third of its inhabitants.

Black Forest (488), a wooded mountain chain 4000 ft. high (so calledfrom the black pines that cover it), which runs parallel with the Rhine,and E. of it, through Würtemberg and Baden, from the Swiss frontier toCarlsruhe; is remarkable for its picturesque scenery and its mineralwealth; it possesses many health resorts, as Baden-Baden and Wildbad,where are mineral springs; silver, copper, cobalt, lead, and iron arewrought in many places; the women and children of the region makearticles of woodwork, such as wooden clocks, &c.

Black Friars, monks of the Dominican order; name of a district inLondon where they had a monastery.

Black Hole of Calcutta, a confined apartment 13 ft. square, intowhich 146 English prisoners were crammed by the orders of Surajah Dowiaon the 19th June 1756; their sufferings were excruciating, and only 23survived till morning.

Black Lands, lands in the heart of Russia, extending between theCarpathians and the Urals, constituting one-third of the soil, andconsisting of a layer of black earth or vegetable mould, of from 3 to 20ft. in thickness, and a chief source, from its exhaustless fertility, ofthe wealth of the country.

Black Monday, Easter Monday in 1351, remarkable for the extremedarkness that prevailed, and an intense cold, under which many died.

Black Prince, Prince of Wales, son of Edward III., so called, it issaid, from the colour of his armour; distinguished himself at Crécy,gained the battle of Poitiers, but involved his country in furtherhostilities with France; returned to England, broken in health, to die(1330-1376).

Black Rod, Gentleman Usher of, an official of the House of Lords,whose badge of office is a black rod surmounted by a gold lion; summonsthe Commons to the House, guards the privileges of the House, &c.

Black Saturday, name given in Scotland to Saturday, 4th August 1621;a stormy day of great darkness, regarded as a judgment of Heaven againstActs then passed in the Scottish Parliament tending to establishEpiscopacy.

Black Sea, orEuxine, an inland sea, lying between Europe andAsia, twice the size of Britain, being 700 m. in greatest length and 400m. in greatest breadth; communicates in the N. with the Sea of Azov, andin the SW., through the Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmora, and theDardanelles, with the Mediterranean. It washes the shores of Turkey,Rumelia, Bulgaria, Russia, and Asia Minor; receives the waters of theDanube, Dneister, Bug, and Don, from Europe, and the Kizil-Irmak andSakaria from Asia—three times as much as is received by theMediterranean. It has but one island, Adassi, off the mouths of theDanube; no reefs or shoals; hence in summer navigation is very safe. Inwinter it is harassed by severe storms. Among the chief ports are Odessa,Kherson, Batoum, Trebizond, and Sinope; the first two are ice-bound inJanuary and February. For three centuries the Turks excluded all othernations from its waters; but the Russians (1774), Austrians (1784),French and English (1802) secured trading rights. Russia and Turkey keepfleets in it, but other warships are excluded. Its waters are fresherthan those of the ocean, and it has no noticeable tides.

Black Watch, two Highland regiments, the 42nd and 73rd, so calledfrom the dark colour of the tartan; raised originally for thepreservation of the peace in the Highlands.

Blackburn (120), a manufacturing town in Lancashire, 21 m. NW. ofManchester, a centre of the cotton industry, and the greatest in theworld; is the birthplace of Hargreaves, the inventor of thespinning-jenny.

Blackheath, a common 7 m. SE. of London, once a favourite haunt ofhighwaymen, now a place of holiday resort for Londoners; for longprovided the only golfing-course in England.

Blackie, John Stuart, a man of versatile gifts and warm humansympathies, born in Glasgow; bred to the bar, but devoted to literarypursuits; studied German; executed a metrical translation of Goethe's“Faust,” Part I.; filled the chair of Humanity in Aberdeen, andafterwards that of Greek in Edinburgh; was a zealous educationalreformer; took an active interest in everything affecting the welfare andhonour of Scotland; founded a Celtic Chair in Edinburgh University; spokemuch and wrote much in his day on manifold subjects; Æschylus, andHomer's “Iliad” in verse; among his works, which are numerous,“Self-Culture” is the most likely to survive him longest (1809-1895).

Blacklock, Thomas, a clergyman, born in Annan, blind from earlyinfancy; after occupying a charge for two years, set up as a teacher inEdinburgh; was influential in inducing Burns to abandon his intention toemigrate, and may be credited, therefore, with saving for his country andhumanity at large one of the most gifted of his country's sons(1721-1791).

Blackmore, Richard Doddridge, novelist, born in Berks; bred to thebar; has written several novels, the best known “Lorna Doone,” which,though coldly received at first, became highly popular; he is pronouncedunrivalled in his day as a writer of rustic comedy;b. 1825.

Blackmore, Sir Richard, physician, born in Wilts; the mostvoluminous of poetasters, published four long worthless poems, besidesessays and psalms, &c., and made himself the butt of all the wits of theperiod;d. 1729.

Blackpool (23), a watering-place on the coast of Lancashire, 18 m.NW. of Preston, sometimes called the “Brighton of the North.”

Blackstone, Sir William, an eminent jurist and judge, born inLondon, the son of a silk-mercer; was fellow of Pembroke College, Oxford,and in 1746 called to the bar; became first Vinerian professor of Law atOxford; had Jeremy Bentham for one of his pupils; author of thewell-known “Commentaries on the Laws of England,” an authority on thesubject and a work that has appeared in many editions (1723-1780).

Blackwell, Alexander, adventurer, born in Aberdeen; studiedmedicine; took to printing; thrown into prison for debt; was supported byhis wife; on his release went to Sweden, was patronised by the king;convicted of conspiracy, and beheaded in 1747.

Blackwell, Elizabeth, a lady doctor, born in Bristol, and the firstto hold a medical diploma in the United States; graduated in 1849; wasadmitted into the Maternity Hospital in Paris, and to St. Bartholomew'sin London, and has since distinguished herself as a social reformer;b.1821.

Blackwood, Sir Henry, British admiral, much trusted by Nelson;distinguished at Aboukir Bay and Trafalgar; was present at Nelson'sdeath; held subsequently high naval positions (1770-1832).

Blackwood, William, born in Edinburgh, originator ofBlackwood'sMagazine; originally a bookseller; startedMaga, as it was called, in1817, his principal literary advisers being Professor Wilson andLockhart; conducted it as editor till his death (1776-1834).John,his third son, his successor, no less distinguished in the cause ofliterature (1818-1879).

Blaeu, Willem Janzsoon, Dutch cartographer, born at Alkmaar; histerrestrial and celestial globes have been admired for their excellenceand accuracy (1571-1638). His sonJan edited a valuable atlas called“Atlas Major,” in 11 volumes;d. 1673.

Blainville, Henri Marie, a French naturalist; devoted himself tomedicine; became assistant to Cuvier; succeeded him as professor ofComparative Anatomy; wrote largely on natural science, and particularlyon subjects connected with his appointment as a professor (1777-1850).

Blair, Hugh, clergyman, born in Edinburgh; held in successionseveral charges in Scotland, and became professor of Rhetoric inEdinburgh University; author of “Lectures on Rhetoric” and “Sermons,”which latter are of the nature of moral essays rather than sermons, weremuch esteemed at one time for their polished style, and procured him apension of £200 from the king; he was a man of great critical acumen, andthe celebrated Schleiermacher did not think it beneath him to translatesome of them into German (1718-1800).

Blair, Robert, author of “The Grave,” a thoughtful and cultured man,born in Edinburgh; minister of Athelstaneford, where he was succeeded byHome, the author of “Douglas.” His poem has the merit of having beenillustrated by William Blake (1699-1743).

Blake, Robert, the great English admiral and “Sea King,” born atBridgewater; successful as a soldier under the Commonwealth, before hetried seamanship; took first to sea in pursuit of Prince Rupert and theroyalist fleet, which he destroyed; beat the Dutch under Van Tromp deRuyter and De Witt; sailed under the great guns of Tunis into theharbour, where he fired a fleet of Turkish pirates; and finally, hisgreatest feat, annihilated a Spanish fleet in Santa Cruz Bay under theshadow of the Peak of Teneriffe, “one of the fiercest actions ever foughton land or water” (1598-1657).

Blake, William, poet, painter, and engraver, born in London, where,with rare intervals, he spent his life a mystic from his very boyhood;apprenticed to an engraver, whom he assisted with his drawings; startedon original lines of his own as illustrator of books and a painter;devoted his leisure to poetry; wrote “Songs of Innocence,” “Marriage ofHeaven and Hell,” “Gates of Paradise,” and “Songs of Experience”; was anintensely religious man of deep spiritual insight, most vivid feeling andimagination; illustrated Young's “Night Thoughts,” Blair's “Grave,” andthe “Book of Job.” He was a man of stainless character but eccentrichabits, and had for wife an angel, Catherine Boucher (1757-1828).

Blanc, Charles, a French art critic, brother of Louis Blanc(1813-1882).

Blanc, Jean Joseph Louis, a French Socialist, born at Madrid;started as a journalist, founded theRevue du Progrès, and publishedseparately in 1840 “Organisation of Labour,” which had already appearedin theRevue, a work which gained the favour of the working-classes;was member of the Provisional Government of 1848, and eventually of theNational Assembly; threatened with impeachment, fled to England; returnedto France on the fall of the Empire, and was elected to the Chamber ofDeputies in 1871; wrote an “elaborate and well-written” “History of theFrench Revolution”; died at Cannes (1811-1882).

Blanc, Mont, the highest mountain in Europe, 15,780 ft., almostentirely within France; sends numerous glaciers down its slopes, the Merde Glace the chief.

Blanchard, François, a celebrated French aëronaut, inventor of theparachute; he fell from his balloon and was killed at the Hague(1738-1809).

Blanchard, Laman, a prolific periodical and play writer, born atYarmouth; a man of a singularly buoyant spirit, crushed by calamities;died by suicide (1803-1845).

Blanche of Castile, wife of Louis VIII. of France and mother of St.Louis; regent of France during the minority of her son and during hisabsence in crusade; governed with great discretion and firmness; died ofgrief over the long absence of her son and his rumoured intention to stayin the Holy Land (1186-1252).

Blanchet, The Abbé, French littérateur; author of “Apologues andTales,” much esteemed (1707-1784).

Blandrata, Giorgio, Piedmontese physician, who for his religiousopinions was compelled to take refuge, first in Poland, then inTransylvania, where he sowed the seeds of Unitarianism (1515-1590).

Blanqui, Adolphe, a celebrated French publicist and economist, bornat Nice; a disciple of J. B. Say, and a free-trader; his principal work,“History of Political Economy in Europe” (1798-1854).

Blanqui, Louis Auguste, a brother of the preceding, a Frenchrepublican of extreme views and violent procedure; would appear to haveposed as a martyr; spent nearly half his life in prison (1805-1881).

Blarney-stone, a stone in Castle Blarney, Cork, of difficult access,which is said to endow whoso kisses it with a fair-spoken tongue, hencethe application of the word.

Blasius, St., bishop of Sebaste, in Armenia; the patron ofwool-combers; suffered martyrdom in 316.

Blasphemy, defined by Ruskin as the opposite of euphemy, and aswishing ill to anything, culminating in wishing ill to God, as the heightof “ill-manners.”

Blatant Beast, Spenser's name for the ignorant, slanderous, clamourof the mob.

Blavatsky, Mme., a theosophist, born in Russia; a great authority ontheosophy, the doctrines of which she professed she derived from thefountain-head in Thibet (1813-1891).

Bleek, Friedrich, eminent German Biblical exegete and critic of theSchleiermacher school, born in Holstein; professor at Bonn; his chiefwork, “Commentary on the Hebrews,” a great work; others are Introductionsto the Old and to the New Testaments (1793-1859).

Bleek, Wm., son of preceding, a philologist; accompanied Colenso toNatal; author of “Comparative Grammar of the S. African Languages”(1827-1875).

Blefuscu, an island separated from Lilliput by a strait 800 yardswide, inhabited by pigmies; understood to represent France.

Blenheim, a village in Bavaria, near Augsburg; famous forMarlborough's victory in 1704, and giving name to it.

Blenheim Park, near Woodstock, Oxford, the gift, with the Woodstockestate, of the country to the Duke of Marlborough, for his militaryservices in the Spanish Succession war.

Blessington, Countess of, an Irish lady celebrated for her beautyand wit; figured much in intellectual circles in London; had her salon atKensington; was on intimate terms with Byron, and published“Conversations with Byron,” and wrote several novels; being extravagant,fell into debt, and had to flee the country (1789-1849).

Blicher, Steen Steensen, Danish poet of rural life (1782-1848).

Bligh, Wm., a naval officer; served under Captain Cook; commandedtheBounty at Tahiti, when his crew mutinied under his harsh treatment,and set him adrift, with 18 others, in an open boat, in which, afterincredible privations, he arrived in England; was afterwards governor ofN.S. Wales, but dismissed for his rigorous and arbitrary conduct(1753-1817).

Blimber, Mrs. Cornelia, a prim school-matron in “Dombey & Son.”

Blind, Karl, revolutionist and journalist, born at Mannheim; tookpart in the risings of 1848, and sentenced to prison in consequence of apamphlet he wrote entitled “German Hunger and German Princes,” butrescued by the mob; found refuge in England, where he interested himselfin democratic movements, and cultivated his literary as well as hispolitical proclivities by contributing to magazines, and otherwise;b.1826.

Blind Harry, a wandering Scottish minstrel of the 15th century;composed in verse “The Life of that Noble Champion of Scotland, SirWilliam Wallace.”

Blinkert Dune, a dune near Haarlem, 197 ft. above the sea-level.

Bloch, Marcus Elieser, a naturalist, born at Anspach, of Jewishdescent; his “Ichthyology” is a magnificent national work, produced atthe expense of the wealthiest princes of Germany (1723-1799).

Bloemært, a family of Flemish painters and engravers in 16th and17th centuries.

Blois, capital of the deps. of Loire and Cher, France, on the Loire,35 m. S. of Orleans; a favourite residence of Francis I. and Charles IX.,and the scene of events of interest in the history of France.

Blomefleld, Francis, a clergyman, born at Norfolk; author of“Topographical History of the County of Norfolk” (1705-1751).

Blomfield, bishop of London, born at Bury St. Edmunds; Greekscholar; active in the Church extension of his diocese (1785-1857).

Blondel, a troubadour of the 12th century; a favourite of RichardCoeur de Lion, who, it is said, discovered the place of Richard'simprisonment in Austria by singing the first part of a love-song whichRichard and he had composed together, and by the voice of Richard inresponding to the strain.

Blondin, Charles, an acrobat and rope-dancer, born at St. Omer,France; celebrated for his feats in crossing Niagara Falls on thetight-rope;b. 1824.

Blood, Thomas, Colonel, an Irish desperado, noted for his daringattempts against the life of the Duke of Ormonde, and for carrying offthe regalia in the Tower; unaccountably pardoned by Charles II., andreceived afterwards into royal favour with a pension of £500 per annum.He was afterwards charged with conspiracy, and committed to the King'sBench, and released.

Bloody Assizes, the judicial massacres and cruel injusticesperpetrated by Judge Jeffreys during Circuit in 1685.

Bloody Bones, a hobgoblin feared by children.

Bloody Statute, statute of Henry VIII. making it a crime involvingthe heaviest penalties to question any of the fundamental doctrines ofthe Romish Church.

Bloomfleld, Robert, an English poet, born in Suffolk, by trade ashoemaker; author of the “Farmer's Boy,” a highly popular production,translated into French and Italian; spent his last days in ill-healthstruggling with poverty, which brought on dejection of mind (1766-1823).

Blount, Charles, a deist, born in London; assailant of revealedreligion; was involved in all the controversies of the time; died by hisown hand (1654-1693).

Blowpipe, a contrivance by which a current of air is driven througha flame, and the flame directed upon some fusible substance to fuse orvitrify it.

Blücher, Prussian field-marshal, familiarly named “MarshalForwards,” born at Rostock; served first in the Swedish army, then in thePrussian; distinguished as a leader of cavalry, and met with varyingfortune; at the age of 70 commanded the centre of the Allied Army in1813; distinguished himself at Lützen and Leipzig; pursued the Frenchacross the Rhine; pressed forward to Paris at the time of Napoleon'sabdication; defeated by Napoleon at Ligny, 16th June 1815; arrived on thefield of Waterloo just as the French were preparing to make their lastcharge, and contributed to decide the fate of the day (1742-1819).

Blue Mountains, a range of thickly wooded mountains traversingJamaica from E. to W., from 5000 to 7000 ft. in height; also a chain ofmountains in New South Wales of two parallel ranges, with a deep chasmbetween, and full of gloomy ravines and beetling precipices, the highest4100 ft.

Blue Nose, a nickname given to an inhabitant of Nova Scotia or NewBrunswick.

Bluebeard, a wealthy seigneur, the owner of a castle; marries abeautiful woman, and leaves her in charge of the keys of the apartmentsin his absence, with injunctions not to unlock any of the doors, aninjunction which she fails to respect, and finds to her horror theremains of his former wives locked up in one of them; her disobedience isdiscovered, and she is to prepare for death, but is rescued, as she lieswith her head on the block, by the timely arrival of her brothers, who atonce despatch the husband to his merited doom.

Blue-books, Parliamentary documents bound inblue paper, as thecorresponding documents in France are inyellow; they have beenpublished regularly since the beginning of the 18th century, those of asingle session now forming a collection of some 60 folio volumes.

Blue-coat School, a name given to Christ's Hospital, London, foundedin the reign of Edward VI., from the blue coats worn by the boys.

Blue-gown, in Scotland a beggar, a bedesman of the king, who wore ablue gown, the gift of the king, and had his license to beg.

Blue-stocking, a female pedant orfemme savante, a name derivedfrom a learned coterie, formed in the 15th century, at Venice, who woreblue stockings as a badge.

Bluff Hal, orHarry, Henry VIII. of England.

Blum, a German politician, born at Cologne; tried by court-martialand shot for abetting a political movement in Vienna in 1848, aproceeding which created a wide-spread sensation at the time all overEurope;b. 1807.

Blumenbach, Johann Friedrich, a distinguished German naturalist andethnologist, born at Gotha; studied at Jena; became professor atGöttingen, an office he filled for 60 years; his works gave a greatimpulse to scientific research in all directions; the chief were“Institutiones Physiologicæ,” “Manual of Natural History,” “Manual ofComparative Anatomy and Physiology”; he made craniology a special study;was a great advocate for religious liberty (1752-1840).

Blumenthal, Leonard von, field-marshal in the Prussian army;distinguished in the wars with Denmark, Austria, and France; an eminentstrategist;b. 1810.

Blumi`ne, the siren that Calypsowise in “Sartor” seducedTeufelsdröckh at the commencement of his career, but who opened his eyesto see that it is not in sentiment, however fine, that the soul'scravings can find satisfaction.

Blunt, John Henry, D.D., born at Chelsea; wrote largely ontheological and ecclesiastical subjects (1823-1884).

Bluntschli, Johann Kaspar, a distinguished jurist, born at Zurich;an authority in international law; a liberal conservative both in Churchand State; founder and president of the Protestant Union called theProtestantenverein (1808-1881).

Boabdil, orAbu-Abdallah, surnamed “The Unfortunate,” the lastMoorish king of Granada, from 1481 to 1492; expelled from his throne byFerdinand of Castile and Aragon; as he rode off he halted on a hillcalled “The Last Sigh of the Moor,” and wept as he looked back on theAlhambra, while his mother added to his bitterness with the cuttingsarcasm, “Weep as a woman for a throne you have not been able to defendas a man”; died shortly after in Africa, recklessly throwing away hislife on a field of battle.

Boadice`a, a British heroine, queen of the Iceni, who occupiedNorfolk and Suffolk; roused by indignity done to her and her people bythe Romans, gathered round her an army, who, with a murderous onslaught,attacked their settlements and destroyed them; but being attacked anddefeated in turn by Suetonius Paulinus, the Roman governor, she put, inher despair, an end to her life by poison, A.D. 61. Cowper made her thetheme of one of his poems.

Boanerges (i. e. Sons of Thunder), applied by Christ to the sonsof Zebedee for the vehemence of their zeal.

Boaz andJachin, two pillars of brass at the entrance ofSolomon's Temple, signifying respectively strength and stability.

Bob`adil, Captain, a braggadocio in Ben Jonson's “Every Man in hisHumour.”

Bobèche, a French theatrical clown, under the Empire and theRestoration, son of an upholsterer of the St. Antoine faubourg, the typeof the merry-andrew at country fairs.

Boccaccio, Giovanni, the celebrated Italianraconteur, born nearFlorence; showed early a passion for literature; sent by his father toNaples to pursue a mercantile career; gave himself up to story-telling inprose and verse; fell in love with Maria, a beautiful woman, daughter ofthe king, styled by him Fiammetta, for whom he wrote several of hisworks, and his great work, the “Decameron”; early formed a lifelongfriendship with Petrarch, along with whom he contributed to the revivaland study of classic literature; lectured on Dante in Florence;Petrarch's death deeply affected him, and he died the year after(1313-1375).

Boccherini, Luigi, a celebrated Italian musical composer, born atLucca; was associated with Manfredi, the violinist; his works werenumerous; appears to have lived in poverty and obscurity (1740-1805).

Bochart, Samuel, a Protestant divine, born at Rouen; pastor at Caen;a geographer and an Orientalist; wrote a treatise on sacred geography;celebrated for a nine-days' discussion with the Jesuit Verin (1599-1667).

Bode, Johann Elert, an astronomer, born at Hamburg; was professor ofAstronomy and director of Observatory at Berlin; produced a number ofastronomical works, one of his best, “An Introduction to the Knowledge ofthe Starry Heavens;” gave name to the law of the planetary distances,called Bode's Law, although it was observed by Kepler long before his day(1747-1826).

Bodel, a celebrated troubadour of the 13th century, born at Arras.

Bodensee, another name for the Lake of Constance, well called thefilter of the Rhine.

Bodin, Jean, a publicist and diplomatist, born at Angers; author of“The Republic,” in six books, published at first in French and then inLatin, which summed up all the political philosophy of his time, andcontributed to prepare the way for subsequent speculations; was theprecursor of Hobbes and Montesquieu (1530-1596).

Bodleian Library, the university library of Oxford, founded, orrather restored, by Sir Thomas Bodley in 1593; enlarged from time to timeby bequests, often munificent. It possesses 400,000 printed volumes and30,000 MSS.

Bodley, Sir Thomas, born at Exeter; employed on embassies byElizabeth on the Continent, where he collected a number of valuablebooks; bequeathed them and his fortune to the university library ofOxford, named after him (1545-1613).

Bodmer, Johann Jacob, a distinguished Swiss critic, born nearZurich; the first, by study of the masters in literature of Greece andRome, France, England, and Italy, to wake up Germany to a sense of itspoverty in that line, and who aided, along with others, in theinauguration of a new era, which he did more by his republication of theMinnesingers and part of the “Nibelungen Lied” than by his advocacy(1698-1783).

Bodmin (5), the county town of Cornwall, supersedes Truro ascapital; an important agricultural centre; has large annual fairs forcattle, horses, and sheep.

Bodoni, an Italian printer; settled at Parma, where his press wasset up in the ducal palace, whence issued magnificent editions of theclassics, Horace, Virgil, Tacitus, Tasso, and, last of all, Homer. He wasoften tempted to Rome, but he refused to quit Parma and the patronage ofthe ducal house there (1740-1813).

Bödtcher, Ludwig, a Danish lyric poet, born at Copenhagen; livedchiefly in Italy (1793-1874).

Boece, Hector, a humanist and Scottish historian, born at Dundee;professor of Philosophy at Paris; friend of Erasmus; was principal ofuniversity at Aberdeen; wrote “History of Bishops of Mortlach andAberdeen,” and “History of Scotland” in excellent Latin (1465-1536).

Boeckh, Philip August, classical antiquary, born at Carlsruhe;professor of Ancient Literature in Berlin; a classic of the first rank,and a contributor on a large scale to all departments of Greek classicallearning; was an eminently learned man, and an authority in differentdepartments of learning (1785-1867).

Boehm, Sir Joseph Edgar, sculptor, born in Vienna, of Hungarianparentage; settled in England; executed a colossal statue of the Queen atWindsor, a seated statue of Carlyle on the Thames Embankment, a statue ofBunyan at Bedford, &c.; patronised by the Queen and royal family; buriedin St. Paul's by the Queen's desire (1785-1869).

Boehme, Jacob, a celebrated German mystic, born at Görlitz; of animaginatively meditative turn from boyhood as a neat-herd, and afterwardsin his stall as a shoemaker; spent his whole life in meditation on divinethings; saw in the Bible a revelation of these as in no other book;seemed to have eyes given him to see visions of these things himself, forwhich he felt he had no organ to express, and which he conveyed to othersin mystical, apocalyptical speech; a thinker very fascinating to allminds of the seer class. He was subject to persecution, as all of hisstamp are, by the men of the letter, and bore up with the meekness whichall men of his elevation of character ever do—“quiet, gentle, andmodest,” as they all are to the very core, in his way of thinking; andhis philosophy would seem to have anticipated the secret of Hegel, whoacknowledges him as one of the fathers of German philosophy. He leftwritings which embody a scheme of mystical theology, setting forth thetrinity in unity of the Hegelian system, that is, viewing the divine asit is in itself, as it comes out in nature, and as it returns to itselfin the human soul (1575-1624).

Boehmer, a German historian, born at Frankfort; author of works onthe Carlovingian period of history (1795-1863).

Boeo`tia, a country of ancient Greece, N. of the Gulf of Corinth;the natives, though brave, were mere tillers of the soil under a heavyatmosphere, innocent of culture, and regarded as boors and dullards bythe educated classes of Greece, and particularly of Athens, and yetHesiod, Pindar, and Plutarch were natives of Boeotia.

Boerhaave, a great physician, born near Leyden, and son of a pastor;ultimately professor of Medicine and Botany there, as well as ofChemistry; chairs of which he filled and adorned with the greatestdistinction; his reputation spread over Europe, and even as far asChina—a letter from which bore the simple address, “To M. Boerhaave,Europe,” and found him; his system was adopted by the profession, andpatients from far and wide came to consult him—among others, PopeBenedict VIII. and Peter the Great; his character was as noble as hisabilities were great; his principal works were “Institutiones Medicæ,”“Aphorismi de Cognoscendis et Curandis Morbis,” “Libellus de MateriaMedica,” and “Institutiones Chemicæ” (1668-1738).

Boers (i. e. peasants engaged in tillage), Dutch colonists of anindependent republican temper, who in the 17th century squatted in S.Africa; gave themselves to agriculture and cattle-rearing; settled atlength in the Transvaal in a self-governed community by themselves.

Boëthius, Anicius Manlius Severinus, a Roman statesman, born atRome, of Consular rank, a profoundly learned man, held the highestoffices, Consul among others, under Theodoric the Goth; his integrity andopposition to injustice procured him enemies, who accused him of treason;he was cast into prison, and finally put to death; wrote in prison his“De Consolatione Philosophiæ,” in five parts, employing verse and prosealternately, which King Alfred translated into Anglo-Saxon; he wascanonised as a martyr, and his influence was great during the Middle Ages(470-524).

Boeuf, Front de, a character in “Ivanhoe.”

Bogatzky, Karl Heinrich von, religious writer; wrote hymns and anautobiography; is best known as the author of the “Golden Treasury”(1690-1744).

Bogdanovitch, a Russian poet, called by his countrymen the “RussianAnacreon”; his best-known poem “Psyche” (1743-1803).

Bogermann, Johann, Dutch divine, translated the Bible into Dutch,and was President of the Synod of Dort (1576-1633).

Bogota` (100), capital of the United State of Colombia, situated ona remarkable, almost mountain-encircled, plateau, on the river Bogotá, 65m. SE. of its port, Honda, the highest navigable point of the Magdalena,is 8600 ft. above sea-level, and has a spring-like climate. It isregularly built, with innumerable churches, a mint, university, library,and observatory, and several schools. Though the country is fertile andthe mountains rich in coal, iron, salt, and precious metals, itssituation and the want of a railway hinder trade.

Bog-trotter, a name given to the Scottish moss-troopers, now tocertain Irish for their agility in escaping over bogs.

Bogue, David, born in Berwickshire, a Congregational minister; oneof the founders of the London Foreign Missionary, the Foreign Bible, andthe Religious Tract Societies (1750-1825).

Bohemia (5,843), the most northerly province in Austria, two-thirdsthe size of Scotland; is encircled by mountains, and drained by the upperElbe and its tributaries. The Erzgebirge separate it from Saxony; theRiesengebirge, from Prussia; the Böhmerwald, from Bavaria; and theMoravian Mountains, from Moravia. The mineral wealth is varied and great,including coal, the most useful metals, silver, sulphur, and porcelainclay. The climate is mild in the valleys, the soil fertile; flax and hopsthe chief products; forests are extensive. Dyeing, calico-printing, linenand woollen manufactures, are the chief industries. The glassware iswidely celebrated; there are iron-works and sugar-refineries. The transittrade is very valuable. The people are mostly Czechs, of the Slavonicrace, Roman Catholics in religion; there is a large and influentialGerman minority of about two millions, with whom the Czechs, who aretwice as numerous, do not amalgamate; the former being riled at theofficial use of the Czech language, and the latter agitating for theelevation of the province to the same status as that of Hungary.Education is better than elsewhere in Austria; there is a university atPrague, the capital. In the 16th century the crown was united with theAustrian, but in 1608 religious questions led to the election of theProtestant Frederick V. This was followed by the Thirty Years' War, theextermination of the Protestants, and the restoration of the AustrianHouse.

Bohemian, name given to one who lives by his wits and shunsconventionality.

Bohemian Brethren, a fraternity of an extreme sect of the Hussites,organised as United Brethren in 1455; broken up in the Thirty Years' War,met in secret, and were invited, under the name of Moravians orHerrnhuters, by Count Zinzendorf to settle on his estate.

Bohemond, first prince of Antioch, son of Robert Guiscard; set outon the first crusade; besieged and took Antioch; was besieged in turn bythe Saracens, and imprisoned for two years; liberated, he collectedtroops and recaptured the city (1056-1111).

Bohlen, von, a German Orientalist, professor at Königsberg(1796-1840).

Bonn, Henry George, an enterprising publisher, a German, born inLondon; issued a series of works identified with his name (1796-1884).

Böhtlingk, Otto, Sanskrit scholar, a German, born in St. Petersburg;author, among other works, of a Sanskrit dictionary in 7 vols.;b.1815.

Boiardo, Matteo Maria, Count of Scandiano, surnamed the “Flower ofChivalry”; an Italian poet, courtier, diplomatist, and statesman; authorof “Orlando Innamorato” (1456), the model of Ariosto's “Orlando Furioso,”which eclipsed it (1434-1494).

Boieldieu, Adrien François, a distinguished French musical composerof operas; author of the “Calife de Bagdad,” “Télémaque,” and “La DameBlanche,” reckoned his masterpiece; called the French Mozart (1775-1834).

Boigne, Count de, a French soldier of fortune, born at Chambéry;served under France, Russia, East India Company, and the prince of theMahrattas, to whom he rendered signal service; amassed wealth, which hedealt out generously and for the benefit of his country (1751-1830).

Boii, an ancient people of Gaul, occupying territory between theAllier and the Loire.

Boileau, Nicolas (surnamed Despréaux, to distinguish him from hisbrother), poet and critic, born in Paris; brought up to the law, butdevoted to letters, associating himself with La Fontaine, Racine, andMolière; author of “Satires” and “Epistles,” “L'Art Poétique,” “LeLutrin,” &c., in which he attached and employed his wit against the badtaste of his time; did much to reform French poetry, as Pascal did toreform the prose, and was for long the law-giver of Parnassus; was animitator of Pope, but especially of Horace (1636-1711).

Boisard, a French fabulist of remarkable fecundity (1743-1831).

Bois-Guillebert, a French economist, cousin of Vauban; advocate offree trade;d. 1714.

Bois-le-Duc (27), capital of North Brabant, 45 m. SE. of Amsterdam,and with a fine cathedral; seat of an archbishop.

Boismont, The Abbé, one of the best French pulpit orators of the18th century (1715-1786).

Boisrobert, The Abbé, a French poet, one of the first members of theFrench Academy; patronised by Richelieu (1592-1662).

Boissonade, Jean François, a French Greek scholar; for a timecarried away by the revolutionary movement, but abandoned politics forletters (1774-1857).

Boissiere, a French lexicographer (1806-1885).

Boissy d'Anglas, Count, a member and president of the Convention inParis, noted for his firmness and coolness during the frenzy of theRevolution: one day the Parisian mob burst in upon the Convention, shotdead a young deputy, Féraud, “sweeping the members of it before them tothe upper-bench ... covered, the president sat unyielding, like a rock inthe beating of seas; they menaced him, levelled muskets at him, heyielded not; they held up Féraud's bloody head to him; with grave, sternair he bowed to it, and yielded not”; became a senator and commander ofthe Legion of Honour under Napoleon; was made a peer by Louis XVIII.(1756-1826).

Boiste, a French lexicographer (1765-1824).

Bokha`ra (1,800), a Mohammedan State in Central Asia, N. ofAfghanistan, nominally independent; but the Khan is a vassal of the Czar.The surface is arid, and cultivation possible only near the rivers-theOxus, Zarafshan, and Karshi. In the sands of the Oxus, gold and salt arefound. Rice, cotton, and cereals are grown; silk, cotton-thread,jewellery, cutlery, and firearms are manufactured. The people are of Turkand Persian origin. The capital, Bokhara (70), is on the plain of theZarafshan, a walled, mud-built city, 8 or 9 m. in circumference, withnumerous colleges and mosques, the centre of learning and religious lifein Central Asia. It has important trade and large slave markets.

Bolan` Pass, a high-lying, deep, narrow gorge, extending betweenQuetta (Beluchistan) and Kandahar (Afghanistan), sloping upwards at aninclination of 90 ft. a mile; is traversed by a torrent.

Boleslaus, the name of several dukes of Poland, of whom the mostfamous is Boleslaus I. the Great, who ruled from 992 to 1025.

Boleyn, Anne, orBullen, second wife of Henry VIII. and motherof Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Thoman Bullen (afterwards Earl ofWiltshire); after a three years' residence at the French Court becamemaid of honour to Queen Katherine; attracted the admiration of Henry; wasmarried to him, and became queen; charged with adultery and conspiracy,was found guilty and beheaded; was of the Reformed faith; her marriagewith Henry had important bearings on the English Reformation (1507-1536).

Bolingbroke, Henry St. John, Viscount, English statesman, orator,and political writer, born at Battersea; Prime Minister of Queen Anne inthe Tory interest, after her dismissal of the Whigs; on the accession ofGeorge I. fled to France and joined the Pretender; was impeached andattainted; returned in 1723 to his estates, but denied a seat in theHouse of Lords, an indignity which he resented by working the overthrowof Walpole; was the friend of Pope and Swift, and the author of “Letters”bearing upon politics and literature. “Bolingbroke,” says Prof.Saintsbury, “is a rhetorician pure and simple, but the subjects of hisrhetoric were not the great and perennial subjects, but puny ephemeralforms of them—the partisan and personal politics of his day, thesingularly shallow form of infidelity called Deism and the like; and histime deprived him of many, if not most, of the rhetorician's most tellingweapons. The 'Letter to Windham,' a sort of apologia, and the 'Ideal of aPatriot King,' exhibit him at his best.” It was he who suggested to Popehis “Essay on Man” (1678-1751).

Bolivar, Simon, surnamed the Liberator, general and statesman, bornat Caracas; a man of good birth and liberal education; seized with thepassion for freedom during a visit to Madrid and Paris, devoted himselfto the cause of S. American independence; freed from the yoke of SpainVenezuela and New Grenada, which, in 1819, he erected into a republicunder the name of Colombia; achieved in 1824 the same for Upper Peru,henceforth called Bolivia, after his name; accused of aspiring to theDictatorship, he abdicated, and was preparing to leave the country whenhe died of fever, with the sage reflection on his lips, “The presence ofa soldier, however disinterested he may be, is always dangerous in aState that is new to freedom”; he has been called the Washington of S.America (1783-1830).

Bolivia (1,500), an inland republic of S. America, occupying loftytablelands E. of the Andes, and surrounded by Peru, Brazil, Paraguay,Argentina, and Chili. The S. is chiefly desert; in the N. are LakeTiticaca and many well-watered valleys. The very varied heights affordall kinds of vegetation, from wheat and maize to tropical fruits. In thelower plains coffee, tobacco, cotton, and cinchona are cultivated. Themost important industry is mining: gold, silver, copper, and tin. Tradeis hampered by want of navigable rivers, but helped by railways fromChili, Peru, and Argentina. Silver is the chief export; manufacturedgoods are imported. The country has been independent since 1825; it lostits sea provinces in the war with Chili, 1879-83. The capital is Sucre(12), but La Pay (45) and Cochabamba (14) are larger towns.

Bolland, John, a Jesuit of Antwerp, born in Belgium; compiled fivevols. of the Lives of the Saints called “Acta Sanctorum,” which wascontinued by others, called after him “Bollandists.”

Bollandists, a succession of Jesuits who produced the Lives of theSaints, now extended to sixty vols.

Bologna (147), an ancient walled city of Italy, on a fertile plain,at the foot of the Lower Apennines, 83 m. N. of Florence; has many finebuildings, a university, one of the oldest in Europe, schools of musicand art, libraries, and art collections. There are some silk and otherindustries, and considerable trade.

Bologna, John Of, one of the most celebrated sculptors of art in histime, born at Douai, settled at Florence (1524-1608).

Bolor-Tagh, a high tableland in Central Asia, stretching from theHindu Kush mountains northwards to the Tian Shan.

Bolse`na, a small town in Italy, on the E. shore of Lake Bolsena.

Bolsena, a lake with clear water in a hollow crater of a volcano,and abounding with fish, but with an unwholesome atmosphere.

Bolton (115), manufacturing town of Lancashire.

Bolton Abbey, an old abbey in Yorkshire, 6 m. E. of Skipton; wasfounded by the Augustinian canons.

Boma, a station on the Lower Congo, in the Congo Independent State;once a great slave mart.

Bomarsund, a fortress of the island of Aland occupied by Russia,destroyed by the Anglo-French fleet in 1854; the Russians bound not torestore it.

Bomba, nickname of Ferdinand II., late king of the Two Sicilies,given him, it is alleged, from his calling upon his soldiers to bombardhis people during an insurrection.

Bombastes Furioso, an opera by Thomas Rhodes in ridicule of thebombastic style of certain tragedies in vogue.

Bombay (26,960), the western Presidency of India, embraces 26British districts and 19 feudatory states. N. of the Nerbudda River thecountry is flat and fertile; S. of it are mountain ranges and tablelands.In the fertile N. cotton, opium, and wheat are the staple products. Inthe S., salt, iron, and gold are mined; but coal is wanting. The climateis hot and moist on the coast and in the plains, but pleasant on theplateaux. Cotton manufacture has developed extensively and cotton cloths,with sugar, tea, wool, and drugs are exported. Machinery, oil, coal, andliquors are imported.Bombay (822), the chief city, stands on anisland, connected with the coast by a causeway, and has a magnificentharbour and noble docks. It is rapidly surpassing Calcutta in trade, andis one of the greatest of seaports; its position promises to make it themost important commercial centre in the East, as it already is in thecotton trade of the world. It swarms with people of every clime, and itsmerchandise is mainly in the hands of the Parsees, the descendants of theancient fire-worshippers. It is the most English town in India. It cameto England from Portugal as dowry with Catherine of Braganza, wife ofCharles II., who leased it to the East India Company for £10 a year. Itsprosperity began when the Civil War in America afforded it an opening forits cotton.

Bon Gaultier,nom de plume assumed by Professor Aytoun and SirTheodore Martin.

Bona (30), a seaport in Algeria, in the province of Constantine, ona bay of the Mediterranean, with an excellent harbour and a growingtrade; is much improved since its occupation by the French in 1832. Nearit are the ruins of Hippo, the episcopal city of Augustine.

Bona, an ascetic writer, surnamed the Fénélon of Italy, one offeuillant order of monks (1609-1674).

Bona Dea (the good goddess), a Roman goddess of fertility,worshipped by women; her priests vestals and her worship by rites fromwhich men were excluded. Her symbol was a serpent, but the name underwhich she was worshipped is not known.

Bonald, Vicomte de, a French publicist, a violent royalist andultramontanist; looked upon the Catholic religion and the royal authorityas fundamental to the stability of the social fabric, and was opposed tothe law of divorce, which led to its alteration. He denied that languagewas innate, but revealed, and that causation was inherent in matter(1758-1840).

Bonaparte, name of a celebrated family of Italian origin settled inCorsica; the principal members of it were:Charles Marie, born atAjaccio, 1744; died at Montpellier, 1785; married, 1767.Marie-LætitiaRamolino, born at Ajaccio, 1750; died at Rome, 1836; of this unionwere born eight children:Joseph, became king of Naples, 1806; kingof Spain from 1808 to 1813; retired to United States after Waterloo;returned to Europe, and died at Florence, 1844.Napoleon I. (q.v.).Lucien,b. 1775; became president of the Council of the FiveHundred, and prince of Canino; died in Viterbo, 1840.Marie-Anne-Eliza,b. 1777; married Felix Bacciochi, who becameprince of Lucca; died at Trieste, 1826.Louis,b. 1778; marriedHortense de Beauharnais; father of Napoleon III.; king of Holland (from1806 to 1810); died at Leghorn, 1846.Marie Pauline,b. 1780;married General Leclerc, 1801; afterwards, in 1803, Prince CamilleBorghese; became Duchess of Guastalla; died at Florence, 1825.Caroline-Marie,b. 1782; married Marat in 1800; becameGrand-duchess of Berg and Clèves, then queen of Naples; died at Florence,1839. Jerome,b. 1784, king of Westphalia (from 1807 to 1813); marshalof France in 1850; married, by second marriage, Princess Catherine ofWürtemburg; died in 1860; his daughter, the Princess Mathilde,b. 1820,and his son, Prince Napoleon, called Jerome,b. 1822, married PrincessClothilde, daughter of Victor Emmanuel, of which marriage was born PrinceVictor Napoleon in 1862.

Bonar, Horatius, a clergyman of the Free Church of Scotland, and acelebrated hymn writer, born at Edinburgh (1808-1889).

Bonaventura, St., cardinal, surnamed the Seraphic Doctor, his realname John Fidenza, born in Tuscany; entered the Franciscan Order; waschosen general of the Order and papal legate at the Council of Lyons in1274, during the session of which he died; was a mystic in theology;ascribed knowledge of the truth to union with God, such as existedbetween man and his Maker prior to the Fall, a state which could berecovered only by a life of purity and prayer; his writings were admiredby Luther (1221-1274).

Bonchamp, Charles, Marquis de, French general, born in Anjou, servedin the American war; became one of the chiefs of the Vendéan army; fellat the battle of Cholet, and when dying, relented over the blood alreadyshed; ordered the release of 5000 prisoners which his party, in theirrevenge, was about to massacre;d. 1793.

Bond, William, a distinguished American astronomer (1789-1815), whowith his son,George Phillips, discovered a satellite of Neptune andan eighth satellite of Saturn (1826-1865).

Bondu (30), a country of Senegambia, a dependency of France; yieldsmaize, cotton, fruits.

Bone, Henry, a celebrated enamel painter, especially in miniature onivory; born at Truro (1755-1834).

Boner, Ulrich, a German fabulist and Dominican monk of the 14thcentury, author of “Der Edelstein” (The Jewel), a book of fables.

Bonheur, Rosa, a celebrated French animal painter, born at Bordeaux;brought up in poverty from ill-fortune; taught by her father; exhibitedwhen she was 19; her best-known works are the “Horse Fair” and the “HayHarvest in Auvergne,” “Ploughing with Oxen,” considered her masterpiece;through the Empress Eugenie she received the Cross of the Legion ofHonour; during the siege of Paris her studio was spared by order of theCrown Prince;b. 1822.

Bonhomme, Jacques, a name of contempt given by the nobility ofFrance to the peasants in the 14th century.

Boniface, the name of nine Popes.B. I., pope from 418 to 422,assumed the title of First Bishop of Christendom;B. II., pope from530 to 532;B. III., pope for 10 months, from 607 to 608;B. IV.,pope from 608 to 614;B. V., pope from 617 to 625;B. VI.,pope in 896;B. VII., pope from 974 to 985;B. VIII.,pope from 1294 to 1303, a strenuous assertor of the papal supremacy overall princes, and a cause of much turmoil in Europe, provoked a war withPhilip the Fair of France, who arrested him at Anagni, and thoughliberated by the citizens died on his way to Rome;B. IX., pope from1389 to 1405, the first pope to wear the Triple Crown.

Boniface, St., the Apostle of Germany, born in Devonshire, his realname Winfried; consecrated Pepin le Bref; was made Primate of Germany;was, with 53 companions, massacred by the barbarians of Friesland, whomhe sought to convert (680-755).

Bonin`, a group of rocky islands SE. of Japan, and since 1878subject to it.

Bonington, Richard, an eminent English landscape painter ofexceptional precocity, born near Nottingham; painted the “Ducal Palace”and “Grand Canal” at Venice, his masterpieces (1801-1828).

Bonivard, François de, a Genevese patriot and historian, twiceimprisoned by Charles III., a Duke of Savoy, for his sympathy with thestruggles of the Genevese against his tyranny, the second time for sixyears in the Castle of Chillon; immortalised by Lord Byron in his“Prisoner of Chillon”; he was released at the Reformation, and adoptedProtestantism (1496-1571).

Bonn (38), a Prussian town on the Rhine, SE. of Cologne, an oldRoman station, with a famous university; the birthplace of Beethoven,with a monument to his memory; it is a stronghold of the old Catholics.

Bonnat, Joseph Leon, a French painter, born at Bayonne; imitated fora time the religious paintings of the old masters, but since 1862 hasfollowed a style of his own; “Christ at the Cross” in the Palais deJustice, Paris, is his work;b. 1833.

Bonner, Edmund, bishop of London, born at Worcester; was chaplain toWolsey; sided with Henry VIII. against the Pope; fell into disgrace underEdward VI.; was restored by Mary, whom he served in her Anti-Protestantzeal; affected to welcome Elizabeth to the throne; was again deposed andimprisoned for refusing to take the oath of supremacy under Elizabeth;died in the Marshalsea Prison: he does not deserve all the odium that hasbeen heaped on his memory; he was faithful as a bishop, consistent in hisconduct, and bore the indignities done him with manly fortitude(1495-1569).

Bonnet, Charles de, Swiss naturalist and philosopher, born atGeneva; his studies as a naturalist gave a materialistic cast to hisphilosophy; though he did not deny the existence of mind, still less thatof its sovereign Author, he gave to material impressions a dominantinfluence in determining its manifestations (1720-1793).

Bonnet-piece, a gold coin of James V. of Scotland, so called fromthe king being represented on it as wearing a bonnet instead of a crown.

Bonneval, Claude-Alexandre, Comte de. SeeAchmed Pasha.

Bonnie Dundee, Graham of Claverhouse, Viscount Dundee.

Bonpland, Aimé, a French botanist and traveller, born at Rochelle;companion of Alexander von Humboldt in his S. American scientificexplorations; brought home a large collection of plants, thousands ofspecies of them new to Europe; went out again to America, arrested by Dr.Francia in Paraguay as a spy, kept prisoner there for about nine years;released, settled in the prov. of Corrientes, where he died; wroteseveral works bearing on plants (1773-1858).

Bonstetten, Charles Victor de, a Swiss publicist and judge, born atBerne; wrote on anthropology, psychology, &c. (1745-1832).

Bontemps, Roger, a French personification of a state of leisure andfreedom from care.

Bonze, a Buddhist priest in China, Japan, Burmah, &c.

Boole, English mathematician, born at Lincoln; mathematicalprofessor at Cork; author of “Laws of Thought,” an original work, and“Differential Equations” (1815-1864).

Boomerang, a missile of hard curved wood used by the Australianaborigines of 2½ ft. long; a deadly weapon, so constructed that, thoughthrown forward, it takes a whirling course upwards till it stops, when itreturns with a swoop and falls in the rear of the thrower.

Boone, Daniel, a famous American backwoodsman;d. 1822, aged 84.

Boötes (the ox-driver or waggoner), a son of Ceres; inventor of theplough in the Greek mythology; translated along with his ox to become aconstellation in the northern sky, the brightest star in which isArcturus.

Booth, Barton, English actor, acted Shakespearean, characters andHamlet's ghost (1681-1733).

Booth, John Wilkes, son of an actor, assassinated Lincoln, and wasshot by his captors (1839-1865).

Booth, William, founder and general of the Salvation Army, born inNottingham; published “In Darkest England”; a man of singularself-devotion to the religious and social welfare of the race;b. 1839.

Boothia, a peninsula of British N. America, W. of the Gulf ofBoothia, and in which the N. magnetic pole of the earth is situated;discovered by Sir John Boss in 1830.

Booton, an island in the Malay Archipelago, SE. of Celebes; subjectto the Dutch.

Bopp, Franz, a celebrated German philologist and Sanskrit scholar,born at Mayence; was professor of Oriental Literature and GeneralPhilology at Berlin; his greatest work, “A Comparative Grammar ofSanskrit, Zend, Greek, Latin, Lithuanian, Old Slave, Gothic, and German”;translated portions of the “Mahâbhârata,”q. v. (1791-1867).

Bora, Katharina, the wife of Luther, born in Meissen, originally anun, who, with eight others, was at Luther's instance released from herconvent; proved “a pious and faithful wife” to Luther, as he says of her,and became the mother to him of six children, three sons and threedaughters (1499-1552).

Borda, a French mathematician and physicist, born at Dax, in thedep. of Landes, served in both army and navy; one of those employed inmeasuring an arc of the meridian to establish the metric system in France(1733-1799).

Bordeaux (256), a great industrial and commercial city, and chiefseat of the wine trade in France and the third seaport on the Garonne;cap. of the dep. of Gironde; the birthplace of Rosa Bonheur and RichardII., his father, the Black Prince, having had his seat here as governorof Aquitaine. There are sugar-refineries, potteries, foundries, glass andchemical works. The cod-fishing industry has its base here. A cathedraldates from the 11th century. There are schools of science, art, theology,medicine, and navigation, a library, museum, and rich picture-gallery.

Border Minstrel, Sir Walter Scott.

Borders, the, the shifting boundary between Scotland and Englandbefore the Union, a centre of endless fighting and marauding on theopposite sides for centuries.

Bordone, an Italian painter, born at Treviso, a pupil of Titian andGiorgione; his most celebrated picture, “The Gondolier presenting theRing of St. Mark to the Doge” (1500-1570).

Bore, a watery ridge rushing violently up an estuary, due to astrong tidal wave travelling up a gradually narrowing channel. Bores arecommon in the estuary of the Ganges and other Asiatic rivers, in those ofBrazil, and at the mouth of the Severn, in England.

Boreas, the god of the north wind, and son of the Titan Astræus andof Aurora.

Borghese, name of a family of high position and great wealth inRome: Camillo, having become Pope in 1605 under the title of Paul V.; andPrince Borghese having married Pauline Bonaparte, sister of Napoleon, whoseparated himself from her on the fall of her brother (1775-1832); thepalace of the family one of the finest in Rome, and has a rich collectionof paintings.

Borghesi, Count, an Italian savant skilled in numismatics(1781-1860).

Borgia, Cæsar, fourth son of Pope Alexander VI.; was made cardinalat the age of 17, an honour he relinquished to become a soldier, in whichcapacity it is alleged he gave himself up to deeds of inhumanity, whichhave made his name a synonym for every action that is most crafty,revolting, and cruel; a portrait of him by Raphael, in the Borghesegallery, is a masterpiece. Notwithstanding the execration in which hismemory is held, he is reputed to have been just as a ruler in his owndomain, and a patron of art and literature;d. 1507.

Borgia, Franceso, third general of the Order of the Jesuits, a posthe filled with great zeal as well as prudent management; was beatified byUrban VIII., and canonised by Clement IX., 1671 (1510-1572).

Borgia, Lucretia, sister of Cæsar Borgia, born at Rome; her fatherannulled her first marriage, and gave her to a nephew of the king ofNaples, who was murdered by her brother's assassins, when she married theDuke of Ferrara; was celebrated for her beauty and her patronage ofletters, though she has been accused of enormities as well as her brother(1480-1523).

Borgu, fertile and densely-peopled state in Africa, traversed by theNiger, subject to the Royal Niger Company, in one of the chief towns ofwhich Mungo Park lost his life.

Borlase, William, antiquary and naturalist, born in St. Just,Cornwall; author of “Observations on the Antiquities of Cornwall” and“Natural History of Cornwall”; was vicar in his native parish(1696-1772).

Born, Bertrand, one of the most celebrated troubadours of the 12thcentury, born in Périgord; aggravated the quarrel between Henry II. ofEngland and his sons; is placed by Dante in the “Inferno.”

Borne, Ludwig, a political writer, born at Frankfort, of Jewishparentage; disgusted with the state of things in Germany, went to Parisafter the Revolution there of 1830; was disappointed with the result, andturned Radical; he and Heine were at deadly feud (1787-1837).

Borneo (1,800), an island in the Malay Archipelago, the thirdlargest in the globe, Australia and New Guinea being larger; its length800 m., and its breadth 700, covered with mountains in the interior,Kinabalu the highest (13,000 ft.); has no volcanoes; bordered all roundwith wide plains and low marshy ground; rich in vegetation and inminerals, in gold and precious stones; its forests abound with valuabletimber, teak, ebony, &c.; all tropical crops and spices are cultivated;the population is Dyak, Malay, and Chinese; possessed in great part bythe Dutch, and in the north part by the British.

Bornholm (35), an island belonging to Denmark, in the Baltic; has nogood harbour; agriculture, cattle-breeding, and fishing the occupation ofthe inhabitants.

Bornu (5,000), a Mohammedan State in the Central Soudan, W. and S.of Lake Tehad; famed for a breed of horses; population mostly negroes;the ruling race of Arab descent, called Shuwas; climate hot and unhealthyin the low ground, but temperate in the high.

Boro Budor, the ruin of a magnificent Buddhist temple in Java,ornamented with figures of Buddha and scenes in his life, withrepresentations of battles, processions, chariot races, &c.

Borodino, a village 70 m. W. of Moscow; the scene of a bloody battlebetween Napoleon and the Russians, Sept. 7, 1812.

Bororo, a large Brazilian nation between Cuyaba and Goyaz.

Borough, in ScotlandBurgh, is in its modern sense primarily atown that sends a representative to Parliament; but it is further an areaof local government, exercising police, sanitary, and sometimeseducational, supervision, and deriving its income from rates levied onproperty within its bounds, and in Scotland sometimes from “common good”and petty customs. Its charter may be held from the Crown or granted byParliament.

Borough English, descent of lands to a youngest son.

Borowlaski, Count, a Polish dwarf, of perfect symmetry, though onlythree feet in height; attained the age of 98.

Borrome`an Islands, four islands in Lago Maggiore, of which threewere converted into gardens by Count Borromeo in 1671, on one of whichstands a palace of the Borromeos, enriched with fine paintings and otherworks of art.

Borrome`o, St. Carlo, cardinal and archbishop of Milan, a prominentmember of the Council of Trent, and contributed to the TridentineCatechism; conspicuous by his self-sacrificing offices during a plague inthe city of which he was the archbishop (1538-1584).

Borromeo, Frederigo, nephew and successor of the preceding, of equalstatus in the Church, and similar character (1584-1631).

Borrow, George Henry, traveller and philologist, born in Norfolk;showed early a passion for adventure and a facility in languages; wasappointed agent for the Bible Society in Russia and Spain; in hisfondness for open-air life, associated much with the gipsies; wrote anaccount of those in Spain, and a famous book, entitled “The Bible InSpain”; wrote “Lavengro,” his masterpiece (a gipsy designation applied tohim, meaning “word-master,” which he was), which is chieflyautobiography (1803-1831).

Borrowdale, a valley in the Lake District, W. Cumberland, celebratedfor its beautiful scenery.

Borthwick Castle, a ruined peel tower, 13 m. SE. of Edinburgh, whereQueen Mary and Bothwell spent four days together in June 1567.

Bory de Saint-Vincent, Jean Baptiste, a French traveller andnaturalist (1780-1846).

Boscawen, Edward, a British admiral, known from his fearlessness as“Old Dreadnought”; distinguished himself in engagements at Puerto Bello,Cathagena, Cape Finisterre, and the Bay of Lagos, where, after a “seahunt” of 24 hours, he wrecked and ruined a fine French fleet, eager toelude his grasp (1711-1761).

Boscovich, Roger Joseph, an Italian mathematician and astronomer,born at Ragusa; entered the Order of the Jesuits; was professor in Pavia,and afterwards at Milan; discovered the equator of the sun and the periodof its rotation; advocated the molecular theory of physics, with whichhis name is associated; died insane (1701-1787).

Bosio, Baron, a celebrated Italian sculptor; patronised in France(1769-1845).

Bosna-Serai (38), capital of Bosnia, and seat of authority.

Bosnia (1,200), a province in NW. of the Balkan Peninsula, underAustria-Hungary; the inhabitants of Servian nationality.

Bos`phorus (Ox-ford), a channel 17 m. long and from 3 to ½ m. broad,and about 30 fathoms deep, strongly defended by forts, extending from theSea of Marmora to the Black Sea; subject to Turkey. It derives its namefrom the channel which, according to the Greek myth, Zeus, in the form ofan ox, crossed into Europe with Europa on his back.

Bos`quet, Pierre François Joseph, a marshal of France, distinguishedin Algiers and the Crimea; was wounded at the storming of the Malakoff(1810-1861).

Bos`suet, Jacques Bénigne, bishop of Meaux, born at Dijon, surnamedthe “Eagle of Meaux,” of the see of which he became bishop; one of thegreatest of French pulpit orators, and one of the ablest defenders of thedoctrines of the Catholic Church; the great aim of his life theconversion of Protestants back to the Catholic faith; took a leading partin establishing the rights of the Gallican clergy, or rather of theCrown, as against the claims of the Pope; proved himself more atime-server than a bold, outspoken champion of the truth; conceived aviolent dislike to Madame Guyon, and to Fénélon for his defence of herand her Quietists; and he is not clear of the guilt of the Revocation ofthe Edict of Nantes; wrote largely; his “Discourse on Universal History”is on approved lines, and the first attempt at a philosophy of history;his Funeral Orations are monuments of the most sublime eloquence; whilehis “Politique founded on Holy Scripture” is a defence of the divineright of kings. “Bossuet,” says Professor Saintsbury, “was more of aspeaker than a writer. His excellence lies in his wonderful survey andgrasp of the subject, in the contagious enthusiasm and energy with whichhe attacks his point, and in his inexhaustible metaphors andcomparisons.... Though he is always aiming at the sublime, he scarcelyever oversteps it, or falls into the bombastic or ridiculous.... The mostunfortunate incident of his life was his controversy with Fénélon”(1627-1704).

Bossut, Charles, French mathematician, born near Lyons,confrèreof the Encyclopaedists; his chief work “L'Histoire Générale desMathématiques”; edited Pascal's works (1730-1814).

Boston (19), a Lincolnshire seaport, on the Witham, 30 m. SE. ofLincoln; exports coal, machinery, corn, and wool, and imports timber andgeneral goods. There is a large cattle and sheep market, also canvas andsail-cloth works. Fox, the martyrologist, was a native. It has a spaciouschurch, which is a conspicuous landmark and beacon at sea.

Boston (561), on Massachusetts Bay, is the capital of Massachusettsand the chief city of New England, one of the best-built andbest-appointed cities of the Union. With an excellent harbour and eightconverging railways it is an emporium of trade, and very wealthy. Sugar,wool, hides, and chemicals are imported; farm produce, cattle, cotton,and tobacco exported; boot and shoe making is one of many variedindustries. The many educational institutions and its interest inliterature and art have won for it the title of American Athens. Amongfamous natives were Franklin, Poe, and Emerson; while most American menof letters have been associated with it. The Boston riots of 1770 and1773 were the heralds of the revolution, and the first battle was foughtat Bunker Hill, not far off, now included in it.

Boston, Thomas, a Scottish divine, born at Duns, educated atEdinburgh, became minister of Ettrick; author of the “Fourfold State,” apopular exposition of Calvinism, and “The Crook in the Lot,” both at onetime much read and studied by the pious Presbyterian burghers andpeasantry of Scotland; the former an account of the state of man, firstin innocence, second as fallen, third as redeemed, and fourth as inglory. He was a shrewd man and a quaint writer; exercised a greatinfluence on the religious views of the most pious-minded of hiscountrymen (1676-1732).

Boston Tea-party, the insurgent American colonists who, disguised asIndians, boarded, on Dec. 16, 1773, three English ships laden with tea,and hurled several hundred chests of it into Boston harbour, “making itblack with unexpected tea.”

Boswell, James, the biographer of Johnson, born at Edinburgh, showedearly a penchant for writing and an admiration for literary men; fell inwith Johnson on a visit to London in 1763, and conceived for him the mostdevoted regard; made a tour with him to the Hebrides in 1773, the“Journal” of which he afterwards published; settled in London, and wascalled to the English bar; succeeded, in 1782, to his father's estate,Auchinleck, in Ayrshire, with an income of £1600 a year. Johnson dying in1784, Boswell's “Life” of him appeared five years after, a work unique inbiography, and such as no man could have written who was not ahero-worshipper to the backbone. He succumbed in the end to intemperatehabits, aggravated by the death of his wife (1740-1795).

Boswell, Sir Alexander, son and heir of the preceding, an antiquary;mortally wounded in a duel with James Stuart of Dunearn, who had impugnedhis character, for which the latter was tried, but acquitted (1775-1822).

Bosworth, a town in Leicestershire, near which Richard III. lostboth crown and life in 1485, an event which terminated the Wars of theRoses and led to the accession of the Tudor dynasty to the throne ofEngland in the person of Henry VII.

Bosworth, Joseph, an Anglo-Saxon scholar, born in Derbyshire; becameprofessor of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford; was the author of an Anglo-SaxonGrammar and Dictionary (1789-1876).

Botany Bay, an inlet in New South Wales, 5 m. S. of Sydney;discovered by Captain Cook in 1770; so called, by Sir Joseph Banks, fromthe variety and beauty of its flora; was once an English convictsettlement.

Both, John and Andrew, Flemish painters of the 17th century, theformer a landscape and the latter a figure painter; worked frequently onthe same canvas.

Bothnia, a prov. of Sweden, divided into E. and W. by a gulf of thename.

Bothwell, a village in Lanarkshire, on the Clyde, 8 m. SE. ofGlasgow; scene of a battle between Monmouth and the Covenanters in 1679.

Bothwell, James Hepburn, Earl of, one of the envoys sent in 1560 toconvey Mary, Queen of Scots, from France home; was made Privy Councillorthe year after; had to flee to France for an act of conspiracy; wasrecalled by Mary on her marriage with Darnley; was a great favourite withthe queen; was believed to have murdered Darnley, though when tried, wasacquitted; carried off Mary to Dunbar Castle; pardoned; was made Duke ofOrkney, and married to her at Holyrood; parted with her at Carberry Hill;fled to Norway, and was kept captive there at Malmöe; after ten years ofmisery he died, insane, as is believed (1525-1577).

Botocudos, a wandering wild tribe in the forests of Brazil, near thecoast; a very low type of men, and at a very low stage of civilisation;are demon-worshippers, and are said to have no numerals beyondone.

Bo-tree, a species of Ficus, sacred to the Buddhists as the treeunder which Buddha sat when the light of life first dawned on him. SeeBuddha.

Botta, Carlo Giuseppe, an Italian political historian, born inPiedmont; his most important work is his “History of Italy from 1789 to1814”; was the author of some poems (1766-1837).

Botta, Paul Émile, Assyriologist, born at Turin, son of thepreceding; when consul at Mosul, in 1843, discovered the ruins ofNineveh; made further explorations, published in the “Memoire del'Ecriture Cunéiform Assyrienne” and “Monuments de Ninive” (1802-1870).

Böttger, an alchemist who, in his experiments on porcelain, inventedthe celebrated Meissen porcelain (1682-1719).

Botticelli, Sandro, orAlessandro, a celebrated painter of theFlorentine school; began as a goldsmith's apprentice; a pupil of FraLippo Lippi; the best-known examples of his art are on religioussubjects, though he was no less fascinated with classical—mythologicalconceptions; is distinguished for his attention to details and fordelicacy, particularly in the drawing of flowers; and it is a rose on thepetticoat of one of his figures, the figure of Spring, which Ruskin hasreproduced on the title-page of his recent books, remarking that “no onehas ever yet drawn, or is likely to draw, roses as he has done;... heunderstood,” he adds, “the thoughts of heathens and Christians equally,and could in a measure paint both Aphrodité and the Madonna” (1447-1515).

Böttiger, Karl Auguste, German archæologist, was a voluminous writeron antiquities, especially classical (1760-1835).

Bottom, a weaver in the interlude in “Midsummer-Night's Dream,”whom, with his ass's head, Titania falls in love with under the influenceof a love-potion.

Botzaris, one of the heroes of the war of Greek independence(1789-1823).

Bouchardon, a celebrated French sculptor (1698-1762).

Boucher, a French painter, born at Paris (1703-1770).

Boucher de Perthes, French naturalist and anthropologist, born inArdennes (1783-1868).

Boucicault, Dion, a dramatic writer, author of popular Irish pieces,as “The Colleen Bawn” and “The Shaughraun” (1822-1890).

Boucicaut, Marshal de, one of the bravest and noblest of Frenchsoldiers, born at Tours; distinguished in several famous battles; wastaken captive by the English at Agincourt; died in England (1364-1421).

Boufflers, Chevalier de, field-marshal of France, courtier andauthor (1737-1815).

Boufflers, Marquis de, marshal of France, distinguished for hisdefence of Namur (1695) and of Lille (1708), and his masterly retreatfrom Malplaquet (1645-1711).

Bougainville, Louis Antoine de, a French navigator, born in Paris;voyaged round the world, which occupied him two years and a half; his“Travels” had a remarkably stimulating effect on the imaginations of the“philosophies,” as described by him in “Un Voyage autour du Monde”(1729-1811).

Bough, Sam, landscape painter, born at Carlisle, and settled inEdinburgh for 20 years (1822-1878).

Bouguer, Pierre, French physicist, born in Brittany; wrote on opticsand the figure of the earth (1698-1758).

Bouguereau, Adolphe, a distinguished French painter, born atRochelle in 1825; his subjects both classical and religious, as well asportraits.

Bouhour, le Père, French littérateur, born at Paris (1628-1702).

Bouillé, Marquis de, a French general, born in Auvergne,distinguished in the Seven Years' War, in the West Indies and during theRevolution; “last refuge of royalty in all straits”; favoured the flightof Louis XVI.; a “quick, choleric, sharp-discerning,stubbornly-endeavouring man, with suppressed-explosive resolution, withvalour, nay, headlong audacity; muzzled and fettered by diplomaticpack-threads,... an intrepid, adamantine man”; did his utmost forroyalty, failed, and quitted France; died in London, and left “Memoirs ofthe French Revolution” (1759-1800). See for the part he played in it,Carlyle's “French Revolution.”

Bouillon, district in Belgium, originally a German duchy; belongedto Godfrey, the crusader, who pledged it to raise funds for the crusade.

Bouilly, Jean Nicolas, a French dramatist, born near Tours,nicknamed, from his sentimentality “poète lacrymal” (1763-1842).

Boulainvilliers, a French historian, author of a “History ofMahomet” (1658-1722).

Boulak (20), the port of Cairo, on the Nile.

Boulan`ger, Jean Marie, a French general, born at Rennes; of notefor the political intrigues with which he was mixed up during the lastyears of his life, and the dangerous popular enthusiasm which he excited;accused of peculation; fled the country, and committed suicide atBrussels (1837-1891).

Boulay de la Meurthe, a French statesman, distinguished as anorator; took part in the redaction of the Civil Code; was a faithfuladherent of Napoleon (1761-1840). Henri, a son, vice-president of theRepublic from 1849 to 1851 (1797-1858).

Boulder, a large mass or block of rock found in localities often farremoved from the place of its formation, and transported thither on theice of the Glacial Age.

Boulevard, the rampart of a fortified city converted into apromenade flanked by rows of trees and a feature of Paris in particular,though the boulevard is not always on the line of a rampart.

Boulogne, Bois de, a promenade between Paris and St. Cloud, muchfrequented by people of fashion, and a favourite place of recreation; itrivals that of the Champs Elysées.

Boulogne-sur-Mer (46), a fortified seaport in France, on the EnglishChannel, in the dep. of Pas-de-Calais, 27 m. SW. of Calais, one of theprincipal ports for debarkation from England; where Napoleon collected in1803 a flotilla to invade England; is connected by steamer withFolkestone, and a favourite watering-place; the chief station of theNorth Sea fisheries; is the centre of an important coasting trade, andlikely to become a naval station.

Boulogne-sur-Seine (32), a town on the right bank of the Seine, 5 m.SW. of Paris, from which it is separated by the Bois-de-Boulogne.

Boulton, Matthew, an eminent engineer, born at Birmingham; enteredinto partnership with James Watt, and established with him a manufactoryof steam-engines at Soho, on a barren heath near his native place;contributed to the improvement of the coinage (1728-1809).

“Bounty,” Mutiny of the, a mutiny which took place on the shipBounty, on the 28th April 1789, bound from Otaheite to the West Indies,on the part of 25 of the crew, who returned to Otaheite after setting thecaptain (Bligh) adrift with others in an open boat. Bligh reached Englandafter a time, reported the crime, to the seizure at length of certain ofthe offenders and the execution of others. Those who escaped founded acolony on Pitcairn Island.

Bourbaki, Charles Denis Soter, a French general, born at Pau, servedin the Crimean War and in Italy, suffered disastrously in theFranco-German War, and attempted suicide; served for a time underGambetta, afterwards retired;b. 1816.

Bourbon, a family of French origin, hailing from Bourbonnais,members of which occupied for generations the thrones of France, Naples,and Spain, and who severally ruled their territories under a more or lessoverweening sense of their rights as born to reign. Two branches, both ofwhich trace back to Henry IV., held sway in France, one beginning withLouis XIV., eldest son of Louis XIII., and the other, called the Orleans,with Philip of Orleans, second son of Louis XIII., the former ending withCharles X. and his family, and the latter ending with Louis Philippe andhis line. The branches of the family ruling in Spain and Naples beganwith Philip VI., grandson of Louis XIV., the former branch still (1899)in power, the latter ending with Francis II. in 1860.

Bourbon, Charles de, styled the Constable de Bourbon, acquiredimmense wealth by the death of an elder brother and by his marriage, andlived in royal state; was for his daring in the field named Constable ofFrance by Francis I.; offended at some, perhaps imaginary, injusticeFrancis did him, he clandestinely entered the service of the EmperorCharles V., defeated the French at Pavia, and took Francis captive;parted from Charles, laid siege to Rome, and fell in the assault,mortally wounded, it is said, by Benvenuto Cellini (1489-1527).

Bourbonnais, ancient province in the centre of France, being theduchy of Bourbon; united to the crown in 1531; cap. Moulins.

Bourdaloue, Louis, a French Jesuit, born at Bourges, called the“king of preachers, and preacher of kings”; one of the most eloquentpulpit orators of France; did not suffer by comparison with Bossuet, hiscontemporary, though junior; one of the most earnest and powerful of hissermons, the one entitled “The Passion,” is deemed the greatest. Hissermons are ethical in their matter from a Christian standpoint,carefully reasoned, and free from ornament, but fearless anduncompromising (1632-1704).

Bourdon, Sebastian, a French painter, born at Montpellier; hischef-d'oeuvre “The Crucifixion of St. Peter,” executed for the churchof Notre Dame (1616-1671).

Bourdon de l'Oise, a French revolutionist, member of the Convention;banished to Guiana, where he died in 1791.

Bourgelat, a famous French veterinary surgeon, born at Lyons, andfounder of veterinary colleges at Lyons in 1762; was an authority onhorse management, and often consulted on the matter (1712-1779).

Bourgeois, Sir Francis, painter to George III.; left his collectionto Dulwich College, and £10,000 to build a gallery for them (1756-1811).

Bourgeoisie, the name given in France to the middle class,professional people, and merchants, as distinguished from the nobles andthe peasants, but applied by the Socialists to the capitalists asdistinct from the workers.

Bourges (43), a French town in the dep. of Cher; birthplace of LouisXI. and Bourdaloue.

Bourget, Paul, an eminent French novelist and essayist, born atAmiens; a subtle analyst of character, with a clear and elegant style, onwhich he bestows great pains; his novels are what he calls“psychological,” and distinct from the romantist and naturalistic;b.1852.

Bourignon, Antoinette, a Flemish visionary and fanatic; resolvedreligion into emotion; brought herself into trouble by the wild fanciesshe promulgated, to the derangement of others as well as herself(1615-1680).

Bourmont, Louis Auguste Victor, Comte de, a French marshal; at theRevolution joined the Bourbons on the frontiers; served the royal causein La Vendée; held high commands under Napoleon; commanded under Ney onNapoleon's return from Elba; deserted on the eve of Waterloo to LouisXVIII.; gave evidence against Ney to his execution; commanded theexpedition against Algiers; refused allegiance to Louis Philippe on hisaccession, and was dismissed the service (1773-1846).

Bourne, Hugh, founder of the Primitive Methodists, and a zealouspropagator of their principles; he was a carpenter by trade, and heappears to have wrought at his trade while prosecuting his mission, whichhe did extensively both in Britain and America (1772-1852).

Bournemouth (38), a town in Hants, on Poole Bay, 37 m. SW. ofSouthampton, with a fine sandy beach; a great health resort; is ofrecent, and has been of rapid, growth.

Bourrienne, Louis Antoine Fauvelet, secretary of Napoleon, and aschool friend, born at Sens; held the post for five years, but dismissedfor being implicated in disgraceful money transactions; joined theBourbons at the Restoration; the Revolution of 1830 and the loss of hisfortune affected his mind, and he died a lunatic at Caen; wrote “Memoirs”disparaging to Napoleon (1769-1834).

Boussa, a town in Central Africa, capital of a State of the samename, where Mungo Park lost his life as he was going up the Niger.

Boustrophe`don, an ancient mode of writing from right to left, andthen from left to right, as in ploughing a field.

Bouterwek, Friedrich, a German philosopher and professor ofPhilosophy at Göttingen; a disciple of Kant, then of Jacobi, andexpounder of their doctrines; wrote “History of Poetry and Eloquenceamong the Modern Races” (1766-1828).

Bowdich, Thomas Edward, an English traveller, born at Bristol; senton a mission to Guinea, and penetrated as far as Coomassie; wrote aninteresting account of it in his “Mission to Ashanti” (1791-1824).

Bowditch, Nathaniel, American mathematician, born at Salem,Massachusetts; a practical scientist; published “Practical Navigation,”translated the “Mécanique Céleste” of Laplace, accompanied with anelaborate commentary (1773-1838).

Bowdler, Thomas, an English physician; edited expurgated editions ofShakespeare and Gibbon in the interest of moral purity; added inconsequence a new term to the English language, Bowdlerism (1754-1825).

Bowdoin, James, an American statesman, born in Boston, of Frenchextraction; a zealous advocate of American independence; author of“Discourse on the Constitution of the United States” (1727-1790).

Bowen, Richard, a gallant British naval commander, distinguishedhimself in several engagements, and by his captures of the enemy's ships;killed by grape-shot at the storming of Santa Cruz, at the moment whenNelson was wounded (1761-1797).

Bower, Walter, abbot of Inchcolm, Scottish chronicler; continuedFordun's History down to the death of James I. in 1437 from 1153(1385-1449).

Bowles, William Lisle, a poet, born in Northamptonshire; hissonnets, by their “linking,” as Professor Saintsbury has it, “of nature'saspect to human feeling,” were much admired by Coleridge, and theirappearance is believed to have inaugurated a new era in English poetry,as developed in the Lake School (1762-1850).

Bowling, Tom, a typical British sailor in “Roderick Random.”

Bowling, Sir John, linguist and political writer, born at Exeter;friend and disciple of Bentham as well as editor of his works; firsteditor ofWestminster Review; at the instance of the English Governmentvisited the Continental States to report on their commercial relations;became governor of Hong-Kong; ordered the bombardment of Canton, whichcaused dissatisfaction at home (1792-1872).

Bowyer, William, printer and scholar, born in London; wrote on theorigin of printing, and published an edition of the Greek New Testamentwith notes (1699-1777).

“Box and Cox,” a farce by J. M. Morton, remarkable for a successfulrun such as is said to have brought the author £7000.

Boy Bishop, a boy chosen on 6th December, St. Nicholas' Day,generally out of the choir, to act as bishop and do all his episcopalduties, except celebrate mass. For the term of his office, which varied,he was treated as bishop, and if he died during his tenure of it wasburied with episcopal honours. The term of office was limited in 1279 to24 hours.

Boyars, the old nobility of Russia, whose undue influence in theState was broken by Peter the Great; also the landed aristocracy ofRoumania.

Boyce, William, composer, chiefly of church music, born in London;published a collection of the “Cathedral Music of the Old EnglishMasters”; composed “Hearts of Oak,” a naval song sung by ships' crews atone time before going into action (1710-1779).

Boycott, Captain, an Irish landlord's agent in Connemara, with whomthe population of the district in 1880 refused to have any dealings onaccount of disagreements with the tenantry.

Boyd, Andrew Kennedy Hutchison, a Scottish clergyman and writer;bred for the bar, but entered the Church; known to fame as A. K. H. B.;author of “Recreations of a Country Parson,” which was widely read, andof Reminiscences of his life; died at Bournemouth by mischance ofswallowing a lotion instead of a sleeping-draught (1825-1899).

Boyd, Zachary, a Scottish divine; regent of a Protestant college atSamur, in France; returned to Scotland in consequence of the persecutionof the Huguenots; became minister of Barony Parish, Glasgow, and rectorof the University; preached before Cromwell after the battle of Dunbar;author of the “Last Battell of the Soule in Death” and “Zion's Flowers,”being mainly metrical versions of Scripture, called “Boyd's Bible”(1585-1653).

Boydell, John, an English engraver and print-seller, famous for his“Shakespeare Gallery,” with 96 plates in illustration of Shakespeare, andthe encouragement he gave to native artists; he issued also Hume's“History of England,” with 196 plates in illustration (1719-1804).

Boyer, Baron, French anatomist and surgeon; attendant on Napoleon,afterwards professor in the University of Paris; wrote works on anatomyand surgical diseases, which continued for long text-books on thosesubjects; was a man of very conservative opinions (1757-1833).

Boyer, Jean Pierre, president of Hayti, born at Port-au-Prince of anegress and a Creole father; secured the independence of the country;held the presidency for 25 years from 1818, but suspected of consultinghis own advantage more than that of the country, was driven from power bya revolution in 1843; retired to Paris, where he spent the rest of hislife and died (1776-1850).

Boyle, Charles, fourth Earl of Orrery, distinguished for theconnection of his name with the Bentley controversy, and for itsconnection with an astronomical contrivance by one Graham to illustratethe planetary system (1676-1731).

Boyle, Richard, first and great Earl of Cork, distinguished amongIrish patriots and landlords for what he did to improve his estates anddevelop manufactures and the mechanical arts in Ireland, also for thehonours conferred upon him for his patriotism; when Cromwell saw how hisestates were managed he remarked, that had there been one like him inevery province in Ireland rebellion would have been impossible(1566-1643).

Boyle, The Hon. Robert, a distinguished natural philosopher, born atLismore, of the Orrery family; devoted his life and contributed greatlyto science, especially chemistry, as well as pneumatics; was one of theoriginators of the “Royal Society”; being a student of theology, foundedby his will an endowment for the “Boyle Lectures” in defence ofChristianity against its opponents and rivals; refused the presidentshipof the Royal Society, and declined a peerage (1626-1691).

Boyle Lectures, the lectureship founded by the Hon. Robert Boyle in1691, and held for a tenure of three years, the endowment being £50 perannum; the lecturer must deliver eight lectures in defence ofChristianity, and some of the most eminent men have held the post.

Boyle's Law, that the volume of a gas is inversely as the pressure.

Boyne, a river in Ireland, which flows through Meath into the IrishSea; gives name to the battle in which William III. defeated the forcesof James II. on 30th July 1690.

Boz, anom de plume under which Dickens wrote at first, being hisnickname when a boy for a little brother.

Bozzy, Johnson's familiar name for Boswell.

Brabant, in mediæval times was an important prov. of the LowCountries, inhabitants Dutch, cap. Breda; is now divided between Hollandand Belgium. It comprises three provs., the N. or Dutch Brabant; Antwerp,a Belgian prov., inhabitants Flemings, cap. Antwerp; and S. Brabant, alsoBelgian, inhabitants Walloons, cap. Brussels; the whole mostly a plain.

Bracton, Henry de, an English “justice itinerant,” a writer onEnglish law of the 13th century; author of “De Legibus et ConsuetudinibusAngliæ,” a “Treatise on the Laws and Customs of England,” and the firstattempt of the kind;d. 1268.

Bradamante, sister to Rinaldo, and one of the heroines in “OrlandoFurioso”; had a lance which unhorsed every one it touched.

Braddock, Edward, British general, born in Perthshire; entered theColdstream Guards, and became major-general in 1754; commanded a body oftroops against the French in America, fell in an attempt to invest FortDuquesue, and lost nearly all his men (1695-1755).

Braddon, Miss (Mrs. John Maxwell), a popular novelist, born inLondon; authoress of “Lady Audley's Secret,” “Aurora Floyd,” and some 50other novels; contributed largely to magazines;b. 1837.

Bradford (216), a Yorkshire manufacturing town, on a tributary ofthe Aire, 9 m. W. of Leeds; it is the chief seat of worsted spinning andweaving in England, and has an important wool market; coal and iron minesare at hand, and iron-works and machinery-making are its other industries.Also the name of a manufacturing town on the Avon, in Wilts.

Bradlaugh, Charles, a social reformer on secularist lines, born inLondon; had a chequered career; had for associate in the advocacy of hisviews Mrs. Annie Besant; elected M.P. for Northampton thrice over, butnot allowed to sit till he took the oath, which he did in 1886; diedrespected by all parties in the House of Commons; wrote the “Impeachmentof the House of Brunswick” (1833-1891).

Bradley, James, astronomer, born in Gloucestershire; professor ofAstronomy at Oxford, and astronomer-royal at Greenwich; discovered theaberration of light and the nutation of the earth's axis; made 60,000astronomical observations (1693-1762).

Bradshaw, George, an engraver of maps in Manchester; published mapsillustrative of certain canal systems, and did the same service forrailways, which developed into the well-known “Railway Guide”(1830-1863).

Bradshaw, John, president of the High Court of Justice for trial ofCharles I., born at Stockport; bred for the bar; a friend of Milton; athorough republican, and opposed to the Protectorate; became president ofthe Council on Cromwell's death; was buried in Westminster; his body wasexhumed and hung in chains at the Restoration (1586-1659).

Bradwardin, Thomas, archbishop of Canterbury, surnamed “DoctorProfundus” from his treatise “De Causa Dei” against Pelagianism; chaplainto Edward III.; was present at Crécy and at the taking of Calais; died ofthe black death shortly after his consecration (1290-1348).

Bradwardine, the name of a baron and his daughter, the heroine of“Waverley.”

Braemar`, a Scottish Highland district SW. of Aberdeenshire; muchfrequented by tourists, and resorted to for summer country quarters.

Brag, Jack, a pretender who ingratiates himself with people abovehim.

Braga (23), a city, 34 m. NE. of Oporto, Portugal; the residence ofthe Primate; the capital of Minho.

Braganza, capital of Traz-os-Montes, in Portugal; gives name to theruling dynasty of Portugal, called the House of Braganza, the eighth dukeof Braganza having ascended the throne in 1640, on the liberation ofPortugal from the yoke of Spain.

Bragi, the Norse god of poetry and eloquence, son of Odin andFrigga; represented as an old man with a long flowing beard andunwrinkled brow, with a mild expression of face; received in Valhalla theheroes who fell in battle.

Braham, John, a celebrated tenor singer, the most so in Europe ofhis day, and known all over Europe; was particularly effective inrendering the national songs; born in London, of Jewish parents; composedoperas, which, however, were only dramas interspersed with songs. Scottdescribed him as “a beast of an actor, but an angel of a singer”(1774-1856).

Brahé, Tycho, a Swedish astronomer, of noble birth; spent his lifein the study of the stars; discovered a new star in Cassiopeia; had anobservatory provided for him on an island in the Sound by the king, wherehe made observations for 20 years; he was, on the king's death, compelledto retire under persecution at the hand of the nobles; accepted aninvitation of the Kaiser Rudolf II. to Prague, where he continued hiswork and had Kepler for assistant and pupil (1546-1601).

Brahma, in the Hindu religion and philosophy at one time theformless spirit of the Universe, from which all beings issue and intowhich they all merge, and as such is not an object of worship, but asubject of meditation; and at another the creator of all things, of whichVishnu (q. v.) is the preserver andSiva (q. v.) thedestroyer, killing that he may make alive. SeeTrimurti.

Brahman, orBrahmin, one of the sacred caste of the Hindus thatboasts of direct descent from, or immediate relationship with, Brahma,the custodians and mediators of religion, and therefore of high-priestlyrank.

Brahmanas, treatises on the ceremonial system of Brahminism, withprescriptions bearing upon ritual, and abounding in legends andspeculations.

Brahmaputra (i. e. son of Brahma), a river which rises in Tibet,circles round the E. of the Himalayas, and, after a course of some 1800m., joins the Ganges, called the Sampo in Tibet, the Dihong in Assam, andthe Brahmaputra in British India; it has numerous tributaries, bringsdown twice as much mud as the Ganges, and in the lower part of its courseoverflows the land, particularly Assam, like an inland sea.

Brahminism, the creed and ritual of the Brahmans, or that social,political, and religious organisation which developed among the Aryans inthe valley of the Ganges under the influence of the Brahmans. Accordingto the religious conception of this class, Brahma, or the universalspirit, takes form or incarnates himself successively as Brahma, Vishnu,and Siva, which triple incarnation constitutes a trimurti or trinity. Inthis way Brahma, the first incarnation of the universal spirit, had foursons, from whom issued the four castes of India—Brahmans, Kshatriyas,Vaisyas, and Sudras—all the rest being outcasts or pariahs. SeeCaste.

Brahmo-Somaj (i. e. church of God), a secession from traditionalHinduism, originated in 1830 by Rammohun Roy, and developed by ChunderSen; founded on theistic, or rather monotheistic,i. e. unitarian,principles, and the rational ideas and philosophy of Europe, as well as aprofession of a sense of the brotherhood of man no less than the unity ofGod.

Brahms, Johannes, a distinguished composer, born at Hamburg; ofgreat promise from a boy; settled in Vienna; has no living rival; theappearance of compositions of his an event in the musical world;approaches Beethoven as no other does; distinguished as a performer aswell as a composer;b. 1833.

Braidwood, James, born in Edinburgh; director of the London firebrigade; distinguished for his heroism on the occasion of great firesboth in Edinburgh and London (1790-1861).

Braille, a blind Frenchman, invented printing in relief for theblind (1809-1852).

Brainerd, American missionary to the Red Indians, born inConnecticut; his Life was written by Jonathan Edwards, in whose house hedied (1718-1747).

Bramah, Joseph, an engineer, born in Barnsley, Yorkshire; author ofmany mechanical inventions, 18 of which were patented, among others thehydraulic press, named after him (1748-1814).

Bramante, Donato, architect; laid the foundation of St. Peter's atRome, which he did not live to complete (1444-1514).

Bramble, Matthew, a gouty humorist in “Humphrey Clinker”; of afretful temper, yet generous and kind, who has a sister,MissTabitha, an ungainly maiden at forty-five, and of anything but asweet temper.

Bramhall, John, archbishop of Armagh, born in Yorkshire, ahigh-handed Churchman and imitator of Laud; was foolhardy enough once toengage, nowise to his credit, in public debate with such a dialecticianas Thomas Hobbes on the questions of necessity and free-will (1594-1663).

Bramwell, Sir Frederick, civil engineer, president of the BritishAssociation in 1888, and previously of Association of Engineers;b.1818.

Bran, name given to Fingal's dog.

Brand, John, antiquary, born in Durham, wrote a “PopularAntiquities” (1744-1784).

Brandan, St., Island of, an island reported of by St. Brandan aslying W. of the Canary Islands, and that figured on charts as late as1755, in quest of which voyages of discovery were undertaken as recentlyas the beginning of the 18th century, up to which time it was believed toexist.

Brande, chemist, born in London; author of “Manual of Chemistry” andother works (1788-1866).

Brandenburg (2,542), in the great northern plain of Germany, is acentral Prussian province, and the nucleus of the Prussian kingdom; mostof it a sandy plain, with fertile districts and woodlands here and there.

Brandenburg, the House of, an illustrious German family dating fromthe 10th century, from which descended the kings of Prussia.

Brandes, George, a literary critic, born at Copenhagen, of Jewishparents; his views of the present tendency of literature in Europeprovoked at first much opposition in Denmark, though they were receivedwith more favour afterwards; the opposition to his views were such thathe was forced to leave Copenhagen, but, after a stay in Berlin, hereturned to it in 1862, with the support of a strong party in his favour.

Brandt, a Swedish chemist; chanced on the discovery in 1669 ofphosphorus while in quest of a solvent to transmute metals, such assilver, into gold;d. 1692.

Brandt, Sebastian, a satirical writer, born at Strassburg; author ofthe “Narrenschiff” or “Ship of Fools,” of which there have been manytranslations and not a few imitations (1458-1521).

Brandy Nan, a nickname for Queen Anne, from her fondness for brandy.

Brandywine Creek, a small river in Delaware; scene of a victory ofthe British over the Americans in 1777.

Brangtons, The, a vulgar, evil-spoken family in Miss Burney's“Evelina.”

Brant, Joseph, Indian chief who sided with the British in theAmerican war; a brave and good man;d. 1807.

Brantôme, Pierre de Bourdeilles, a French chronicler, contemporaryof Montaigne, born in Périgord; led the life of a knight-errant, andwrote Memoirs remarkable for the free-and-easy, faithful, and vividdelineations of the characters of the most celebrated of hiscontemporaries (1527-1614).

Brasidas, a Spartan general, distinguished in the Peloponnesian war;his most celebrated action, the defeat at the expense of his life, in 422B.C., of the flower of the Athenian army at Amphipolis, with a smallbody of helots and mercenaries.

Brass, Sampson, a knavish attorney in “Old Curiosity Shop”; affectedfeeling for his clients, whom he fleeced.

Brasses, sepulchral tablets of a mixed metal, called latten, inlaidin a slab of stone, and insculpt with figures and inscriptions of amonumental character; the oldest in England is at Stoke d'Abernon, inSurrey.

Brassey, Thomas, a great railway contractor, born in Cheshire;contracted for the construction of railways in all parts of the world(1805-1870).

Braun, Auguste Emil, German archæologist, born at Gotha; worksnumerous, and of value (1809-1856).

Bravest of the Brave, Marshal Ney, so called from his fearlessnessin battle; Napoleon had on one occasion said, “That man is a lion.”

Braxy, an inflammatory disease in sheep, due to a change in foodfrom succulent to dry; and the name given to the mutton of sheep affectedwith it.

Bray, a Berkshire village, famous for Simon Aleyn, its vicar from1540 to 1588, who, to retain his living, never scrupled to change hisprinciples; he lived in the reigns of Charles II., James II., WilliamIII., Queen Anne, and George I.

Brazen Age, in the Greek mythology the age of violence, thatsucceeded the weak Silver Age. SeeAges.

Brazil (14,000), the largest South American State, almost equal toEurope, occupies the eastern angle of the continent, and comprises theAmazon basin, the tablelands of Matto Grosso, the upper basin of theParaguay, and the maritime highlands, with the valleys of the Paraná andSan Francisco. Great stretches of the interior are uninhabitable swampand forest lands; forests tenanted by an endless variety ofbrilliant-plumed birds and insects; the coasts are often humid andunhealthy, but the upper levels have a fine climate. Almost all thecountry is within the tropics. The population at the seaports is mostlywhite; inland it is negro, mulatto, and Indian. Vegetable products areindescribably rich and varied; timber of all kinds, rubber, cotton, andfruit are exported; coffee and sugar are the chief crops. The vastmineral wealth includes diamonds, gold, mercury, and copper. Most of thetrade is with Britain and America. The language is Portuguese; thereligion, Roman Catholic; education is very backward, and governmentunsettled. Discovered in 1500, and annexed by Portugal; the Portugueseking, expelled by the French in 1808, fled to his colony, which was madea kingdom 1815, and an empire in 1822. The emperor, Pedro II., was drivenout in 1889, and a republic established on the federal system, which hasbeen harassed ever since by desultory civil war. The capital is RioJaneiro; Bahia and Pernambuco, the other seaports.

Brazil-wood, a wood found in Brazil, of great value for dyeing red,the colouring principle being named Brasilin.

Brazza (22), an island in the Adriatic, belonging to Austria; isrichly wooded; noted for its wines; yields marble.

Brazza, Pierre Savorgnan de, explorer, born in Rome; acquired landN. of the Congo for France, and obtained a governorship;b. 1852.

Breadfruit-tree, a South Sea island tree producing a fruit which,when roasted, is used as bread.

Bréal, Michel, a French philologist, born at Landau; translator intoFrench of Bopp's “Comparative Grammar”;b. 1832.

Brèche-de-Roland, a gorge in the dep. of the Haute-Pyrénées, which,according to tradition, Charlemagne's Paladin of the name of Roland cleftwith one stroke of his sword when he was beset by the Gascons.

Brechin, a town in Forfarshire, W. of Montrose, on the S. Esk, witha cathedral and an old round tower near it, 85 ft. high, the only one ofthe kind in Scotland besides being at Abernethy.

Breda (23), fortified town, the capital of N. Brabant; a place ofhistorical interest; Charles II. resided here for a time during hisexile, and issued hence his declaration prior to his restoration.

Breeches Bible, the Geneva Bible, so called from its rendering inGen. iii. 7, in which “aprons” is rendered “breeches.”

Breeches Review, theWestminster, so called at one time, from onePlace, an authority in it, who had been a leather-breeches maker atCharing Cross.

Brégnet, a French chronometer-maker, born at Neuchâtel; a famousinventor of astronomical instruments (1747-1823).

Brehm, Alfred Edmund, German naturalist; his chief work“Illustrirtes Thierleben” (1829-1884).

Brehon Laws, a body of judge-created laws that for long formed thecommon law of Ireland, existed from prehistoric times till Cromwell'sconquest. The origin of the code is unknown, and whether it was at firsttraditional; many manuscript redactions of portions exist still.

Bremen (126), the chief seaport of Germany, after Hamburg; is on theWeser, 50 m. from its mouth, and is a free city, with a territory lessthan Rutlandshire. Its export and import trade is very varied; half thetotal of emigrants sail from its docks; it is the head-quarters of theNorth German Lloyd Steamship Company. Textiles, tobacco, and paperindustries add to its prosperity; was one of the principal cities of theHanseatic League.

Bremer, Fredrika, a highly popular Swedish novelist, born inFinland; “The Neighbours,” “The President's Daughter,” and “Strife andPeace,” are perhaps her best stories; has been called the Jane Austen ofSweden.

Bremer, Sir James, rear-admiral; distinguished in the Burmese andChinese wars (1786-1850).

Bremerhaven, the port of Bremen, on the estuary of the Weser,founded for the accommodation of large vessels in 1830, with a largehospice for emigrants.

Brendan, St., an Irish saint, born at Tralee, celebrated for hisvoyages in quest of “a land beyond human ken” and his discovery of “aparadise amid the waves of the sea”; founded a monastery at Clonfert;died in 577, in his ninety-fourth year.

Brenner Pass, pass on the central Tyrolese Alps, 6853 ft. high,between Innsbruck and Botzen, crossed by a railway, which facilitatestrade between Venice, Germany, and Austria.

Brennus, a Gallic chief, who, 300 B.C., after taking and pillagingRome, invested the Capitol for so long that the Romans offered him athousand pounds' weight of gold to retire; as the gold was being weighedout he threw his sword and helmet into the opposite scale, addingVævictis, “Woe to the conquered,” an insolence which so roused Camillus,that he turned his back and offered battle to him and to his army, andtotally routed the whole host.

Brenta, an Italian river; rises in the Tyrol, waters Bassano, anddebouches near Venice.

Brentano, Clemens, poet of the romanticist school, born atFrankfort-on-the-Main, brother of Goethe's Bettina von Arnim; was aroving genius (1778-1849).

Brentford, market-town in Middlesex, on the Brent, 10 m. W. ofLondon, that figures in history and literature.

Brenz, Johann, the reformer of Würtemberg, and one of the authors ofthe Würtemberg Confession, as well as a catechism extensively used(1499-1570).

Brescia (43), a city of Lombardy, on the Mella and Garza, 50 m. E.of Milan; has two cathedrals, an art gallery and library, a Roman templeexcavated in 1822, and now a classical museum; its manufactures arewoollens, silks, leather, and wine.

Breslau (335), the capital of Silesia, second city in Prussia; animportant commercial and manufacturing centre, and has a first-classfortress; is on the Oder, 150 m. by rail SE. of Frankfort; it stands inthe centre of the Baltic, North Sea, and Danube trade, and has a largewoollen industry and grain market; there are a cathedral, university, andlibrary.

Bressay, one of the Shetland Isles, near Lerwick, with one of thebest natural harbours in the world.

Brest (76), a strongly-fortified naval station in the extreme NW. ofFrance; one of the chief naval stations in France, with a magnificentharbour, and one of the safest, first made a marine arsenal by Richelieu;has large shipbuilding yards and arsenal; its industries are chieflyrelated to naval equipment, with leather, waxcloth, and papermanufactures.

Bréton, Jules Adolphe, a Frenchgenre and landscape painter, bornat Courrières, in Pas-de-Calais, 1827.

Breton de los Herreros, Spanish poet and dramatist; wrote comediesand satires in an easy, flowing style (1800-1873).

Breteuil, Baron de, an ex-secretary of Louis XVI. (1733-1807).

Brethren of the Common Life, a Dutch branch of the “Friends of God,”founded at Deventer by Gerard Groote.

Bretschneider, Henry Gottfried von, a German satirical writer, bornat Gera; led a bohemian life; served in the army; held political posts;composed, besides satirical writings, “Almanach der Heiligen auf dasJahr, 1788,” “Wallers Leben und Sitten,” and the comic epic, “Graf Esau”(1739-1810).

Bretschneider, Karl Gottlieb, a German rationalistic theologian;much regarded for his sound judgment in critical matters; his theologicalwritings are of permanent value; his chief works, “Handbuch derDogmatik,” and an edition of Melanchthon's works.

Bretwalda, a title apparently of some kind of acknowledged supremacyamong the Anglo-Saxon kings, and the leader in war.

Breughel, a family of Butch painters, a father and two sons, thefather, Peter, called“Old” B. (1510-1570); a son, John,“Velvet”B., either from his dress or from the vivid freshness of his colours(1560-1625); and the other, Peter,“Hellish” B., from his fondnessfor horrible subjects (1559-1637).

Brevet`, a commission entitling an officer in the army to a nominalrank above his real rank.

Breviary, a book containing the daily services in the Roman CatholicChurch and corresponding to the English Prayer-Book; differs from the“Missal,” which gives the services connected with the celebration of theEucharist, and the “Pontifical,” which gives those for special occasions.

Brewer, John Sherren, historian, professor of English Literature inKing's College, London; author of “Calendar of Letters and Papers ofHenry VIII.'s Reign,” his work the sole authority on Henry's early reign(1810-1879).

Brewer of Ghent, Jacob Arteveld.

Brewster, Sir David, an eminent Scottish natural philosopher, bornat Jedburgh; edited the “Edinburgh Encyclopædia,” in the pages of whichCarlyle served his apprenticeship; specially distinguished for hisdiscoveries in light, his studies in optics, and for his opticalinventions, such as the kaleidoscope and the stereoscope; connected withmost scientific associations of his time; wrote largely on scientific andother subjects,e. g., a Life of Newton, as well as Lives of Euler,Kepler, and others of the class; Principal of the United Colleges of St.Andrews, and afterwards of Edinburgh, being succeeded at St. Andrews byJames David Forbes, who years before defeated him as candidate for theNatural Philosophy chair in Edinburgh; bred originally for the Church,and for a time a probationer (1781-1868).

Brewster, William, leader of the Pilgrim Fathers in theMayflower,who conveyed them to Plymouth, Massachusetts, in 1620; had been aclergyman of the Church of England.

Brian Boroihme, an Irish chief, who early in the 10th centuryestablished his rule over a great part of Ireland, and made great effortsfor the civilisation of the country; died defeating the Danes atClontarf, being, it is said, the twenty-fifth battle in which he defeatedthem.

Briançon, the highest town in France, 4300 ft. above sea-level, 42m. SE. from Grenoble, with a trade in cutlery.

Briareus, a Uranid with 50 heads and 100 arms, son of Ouranos andGaia,i. e. Heaven and Earth, whom Poseidon cast into the sea andburied under Etna, but whom Zeus delivered to aid him against the Titans;according to another account, one ofthe Giants (q. v.).

Brice, St., bishop of Tours in the beginning of the 5th century, anddisciple of St. Martin. Festival, Nov. 19.

Brice's, St., a day in 1002 on which a desperate attempt was made tomassacre all the Danes in England and stamp them wholly out, an attemptwhich was avenged by the Danish king, Sweyn.

Brick, Jefferson, an American politician in “Martin Chuzzlewit.”

Bride of the Sea, Venice, so called from a ceremony in which herespousals were celebrated by the Doge casting a ring into the Adriatic.

Bridewell, a house of correction in Blackfriars, London, so calledfrom St. Bridget's well, near it.

Bridge of Allan, a village on Allan water, 3 m. N. of Stirling, witha mild climate and mineral waters.

Bridge of Sighs, a covered way in Venice leading from the DucalPalace to the State prison, and over which culprits under capitalsentence were transported to their doom, whence the name.

Bridgenorth, Major Ralph, a Roundhead in “Peveril of the Peak.”

Bridgeport (48), a thriving manufacturing town and seaport ofConnecticut, U.S., 58 m. NE. from New York.

Bridget, Mrs., a character in “Tristram Shandy.”

Bridget, St., an Irish saint, born at Dundalk; entered a monasteryat 14; founded monasteries; takes rank in Ireland with St. Patrick andSt. Columba. Festival, Feb. 1 (453-523). Also the name of a Swedish saintin the 14th century; founded a new Order, and 72 monasteries of theOrder.

Bridgeton, a manufacturing town in New Jersey, 38 m. S. ofPhiladelphia.

Bridgetown (21), capital of Barbadoes, seat of the government, thebishop, a college, &c.; it has suffered frequently from hurricane andfever.

Bridgewater, Francis Egerton, 3rd Duke of, celebrated for hisself-sacrificing devotion to the improvement and extension of canalnavigation in England, embarking in it all his wealth, in which he wasaided by the skill of Brindley; he did not take part in politics, thoughhe was a supporter of Pitt; died unmarried (1736-1803).

Bridgewater, Francis Henry Egerton, 8th Earl of, educated for theChurch, bequeathed £8000 for the best work on natural theology, which histrustees expended in the production of eight works by different eminentmen, called “Bridgewater Treatises,” all to be found in Bohn's ScientificLibrary (1758-1829).

Bridgman, Laura, a deaf, dumb, and blind child, born in NewHampshire, U.S.; noted for the surprising development of intellectualfaculty notwithstanding these drawbacks; Dickens gives an account of herin his “American Notes” (1829-1889).

Bridgwater, a seaport town in Somersetshire, 29 m. SW. of Bristol.

Bridlegoose, Judge, a judge in Rabelais' “Pantagruel,” who decidedcases by the throw of dice.

Bridlington, a watering-place in Yorkshire, 6 m. SW. of FlamboroughHead, with a chalybeate spring.

Bridport, Viscount, a British admiral, distinguished in severalengagements (1797-1814).

Brieg (20), a thriving, third, commercially speaking, town inPrussian Silesia, 25 m. SE. of Breslau.

Brienne, Jean de, descendant of an old French family; elected kingof Jerusalem, then emperor of Constantinople;d. 1237.

Brienz, Lake of, lake in the Swiss canton of Bern, 8 m. long, 2 m.broad, over 800 ft. above sea-level, and of great depth in certain parts,abounding in fish. Town of, a favourite resort for tourists.

Brieuc, St., (19), a seaport and an episcopal city in the dep. ofCôtes-du-Nord, France.

Brigade, a body of troops under a general officer, called brigadier,consisting of a number of regiments, squadrons, or battalions.

Brigantes, a powerful British tribe that occupied the countrybetween the Humber and the Roman Wall.

Briggs, Henry, a distinguished English mathematician; first Savilianprofessor at Oxford; made an important improvement on the system oflogarithms, which was accepted by Napier, the inventor, and is the systemnow in use (1561-1631).

Brigham Young, the chief of the Mormons (1801-1877).

Bright, James Franck, historian, Master of University College,Oxford; author of “English History for the Use of Public Schools,” a bookof superior literary merit;b. 1832.

Bright, John, English statesman, son of a Lancashire cotton spinner,born near Rochdale; of Quaker birth and profession; engaged inmanufacture; took an early interest in political reform; he joined theAnti-Corn-Law League on its formation in 1839, and soon was associatedwith Cobden in its great agitation; entering Parliament in 1843, he was astrong opponent of protection, the game laws, and later of the Crimeanwar; he advocated financial reform and the reform of Indianadministration; and on the outbreak of the American Civil War supportedthe North, though his business interests suffered severely; he wasclosely associated with the 1867 Reform Act, Irish ChurchDisestablishment 1869, and the 1870 Irish Land Act; his Ministerialcareer began in 1868, but was interrupted by illness; in 1873, and againin 1881, he was Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster; he seceded fromGladstone's Government on the Egyptian policy in 1882, and strenuouslyopposed Home Rule in 1886; in 1880 he was Lord Rector of GlasgowUniversity; he was a man of lofty and unblemished character, an animatedand eloquent orator; at his death Mr. Gladstone pronounced one of thenoblest eulogiums one public man has ever paid to another (1811-1889).

Brighton (128), a much-frequented watering-place in Sussex, 50 m. S.of London, of which it is virtually a suburb; a place of fashionableresort ever since George IV. took a fancy to it; a fine parade extendsalong the whole length of the sea front; has many handsome edifices, asplendid aquarium, a museum, schools of science and art, public libraryand public gallery; the principal building is the Pavilion or MarinePalace, originally built for George IV. Also the name of a suburb ofMelbourne.

Blight's Disease, a disease in the kidneys, due to several diseasedconditions of the organ, so called from Dr. Richard Bright, who firstinvestigated its nature.

Bril Brothers, Matthew and Paul, landscape painters, born atAntwerp; employed in the 16th century by successive Popes to decorate theVatican at Rome; of whom Paul, the younger, was the greater artist; hisbest pictures are in Rome.

Brillat-Savarin, a French gastronomist, author of “Physiologie duGoût,” a book full of wit and learning, published posthumously; wasprofessionally a lawyer and some time a judge (1755-1825).

Brin`disi (15), a seaport of Southern Italy, on the Adriatic coast;has risen in importance since the opening of the Overland Route as apoint of departure for the East; it is 60 hours by rail from London, andthree days by steam from Alexandria; it was the port of embarkation forGreece in ancient times, and for Palestine in mediæval.

Brindley, James, a mechanician and engineer, born in Derbyshire;bred a millwright; devoted his skill and genius to the construction ofcanals, under the patronage of the Duke of Bridgewater, as the greatestservice he could render to his country; regarded rivers as mere “feedersto canals” (1716-1772).

Brink, Jan Ten, a Dutch writer, distinguished as a critic in thedepartment of belles-lettres;b. 1834.

Brinvilliers, Marquise de, notorious for her gallantries and forpoisoning her father, brother, and two sisters for the sake of theirproperty; was tortured and beheaded; the poison she used appears to havebeen the Tofana poison, an art which one of her paramours taught her(1630-1676). SeeAqua Tofana.

Brisbane (49), capital of Queensland, on the Brisbane River, 25 m.from the sea, 500 m. N. of Sydney, is the chief trading centre andseaport of the Colony; it has steam communication with Australian portsand London, and railway communication with Sydney, Melbourne, andAdelaide; prosperity began when the colony was opened to free settlementin 1842; it was dissociated from New South Wales and the cityincorporated in 1859.

Brisbane, Admiral Sir Charles, a naval officer of distinction underLords Hood and Nelson; captured in 1796 Dutch warships, three ships ofthe line among them, in Saldanha Bay, and in 1807 the island of Curaçoa;was made governor of St. Vincent (1769-1829).

Brisbane, Sir James, naval officer, brother of the preceding, servedunder Lord Howe and under Nelson at Copenhagen (1774-1829).

Brisbane, Sir Thomas Macdougall, British general, a man of scienceand an astronomer, born near Largs, Ayrshire; saw service as a soldier;was appointed governor of New South Wales to the profit of the colony;gave name to the capital of Queensland; catalogued over 7000 stars;succeeded Scott as president of the Royal Society (1773-1860).

Brise`is, a young virgin priestess, who fell to the lot of Achillesamong the spoil of a victory, but whom Agamemnon carried off from him,whereupon he retired to his tent and sullenly refused to take any furtherpart in the war, to its prolongation, in consequence, as Homer relates,for ten long years; the theme of the “Iliad” being the “wrath ofAchilles” on this account, and what it led to.

Brissac, the name of a noble family which supplied several marshalsto France.

Brisson, Henri, French publicist and journalist; after holdingpresidentships in the Chamber became premier in 1885, but resigned aftera few months; formed a Radical administration in 1898, which wasshort-lived;b. 1835.

Brissot de Warville, Jean Pierre, a French revolutionary, born atChartres, son of a pastry-cook; bred to the bar, took to letters; becamean outspoken disciple of Rousseau; spent some time in the Bastille;liberated, he went to America; returned on the outbreak of theRevolution, sat in the National Assembly, joined the Girondists; becameone of the leaders, or rather of a party of his own, named after himBrissotins, midway between the Jacobins and them; fell under suspicionlike the rest of the party, was arrested, tried and guillotined(1754-1793).

Bristol (286), on the Avon, 6 m. from its mouth, and 118 m. W. ofLondon, is the largest town in Gloucestershire, the seventh in England,and a great seaport, with Irish, W. Indian, and S. American trade; itmanufactures tobacco, boots and shoes; it has a cathedral, two colleges,a library and many educational institutions; by a charter of Edward III.it forms a county in itself.

Bristol Channel, an inlet in SW. of England, between S. Wales andDevon and Cornwall, 8 m. in length, from 5 to 43 in breadth, and with adepth of from 5 to 40 fathoms; is subject to very high tides, and as suchdangerous to shipping; numerous rivers flow into it.

Britannia, a name for Britain as old as the days of Cæsar, andinhabited by Celts, as Gaul also was.

Britannia Tubular Bridge, a railway bridge spanning the MenaiStrait, designed by Robert Stephenson, and completed in 1850; consists ofhollow tubes of wrought-iron plates riveted together, and took five yearsin erecting.

Britannicus, the son of Claudius and Messalina, poisoned by Nero.

British Aristides, name applied to Andrew Marvell from hiscorresponding incorruptible integrity in life and poverty at death.

British Association, an association, of Sir David Brewster'ssuggestion, of men of all departments of science for the encouragement ofscientific research and the diffusion of scientific knowledge, whichholds its meetings annually under the presidency of some distinguishedscientist, now in this, now in that selected central city of the country;it is divided into eight sections—mathematical, chemical, geological,biological, geographical, economic, mechanical, and anthropological.

British Columbia (98), a western fertile prov. of British America,extending between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific, and from theUnited States on the S. to Alaska on the N., being 800 m. long and fourtimes the size of Great Britain; rich in timber and minerals; rain isabundant, and cereals do well.

British Lion, the name given to John Bull when roused by opposition.

British Museum, a national institution in London for the collectionof MSS., books, prints and drawings, antiquities, and objects of naturalhistory, ethnology, &c.; founded as far back as 1700, though not opened,in Montagu House as it happened, for the public benefit till 1759.

Britomart, is a lady knight in the “Faërie Queene,” representingchastity with a resistless magic spear.

Brittany (3,162), an old French prov., land of the Bretons,comprising the peninsula opposite Devon and Cornwall, stretching westwardbetween the Bays of Cancale and Biscay, was in former times a duchy; athird of its inhabitants still retain their Breton language.

Britton, John, topographer and antiquary, born in Wiltshire inhumble position; author of “Beauties of Wiltshire,” instalment of a workembracing all the counties of England and Wales; his principal works, andworks of value, are “Antiquities of Great Britain” and “CathedralAntiquities of England”; his chief work is 14 volumes; the “Antiquitiesin Normandy” did much to create an interest in antiquarian subjects(1771-1857).

Brixton, a southern suburb of London, on the Surrey side, a districtof the city that has of late years extended immensely.

Broad Arrow, a stamp like an arrow-head to indicate governmentproperty.

Broad Bottom Ministry, a coalition of great weight under Mr. Pelham,from Nov. 1744 to Mar. 1755, so called from the powerful partiesrepresented in it.

Broad Church, that section of the Church which inclines to liberalopinions in theology, and is opposed to the narrowing of either spirit orform, perhaps to an undue degree and to the elimination of elementsdistinctive of the Christian system.

Broads, The Norfolk, are a series of inland lakes in the E. ofNorfolkshire, which look like expansions of the rivers; they arefavourite holiday resorts on account of the expanse of strange scenery,abundant vegetation, keen air, fishing and boating attractions.

Brob`dingnag, an imaginary country in “Gulliver's Travels,”inhabited by giants, each as tall “as an ordinary spire-steeple”;properly a native of the country, in comparison with whom Gulliver was apigmy “not half so big as a round little worm plucked from the lazyfinger of a maid.”

Broca, Paul, an eminent French surgeon, anthropologist, and one ofthe chief French evolutionists; held a succession of importantappointments, and was the author of a number of medical works(1824-1880).

Brochant de Villiers, a mineralogist and geologist, born in Paris;director of the St. Gobin manufactory (1773-1810).

Brochs, dry-stone circular towers, called also Picts' towers andDuns, with thick Cyclopean walls, a single doorway, and open to the sky,found on the edge of straths or lochs in the N. and W. of Scotland.

Brocken, orBlocksberg, the highest peak (3740 ft.) of the HarzMts., cultivated to the summit; famous for a “Spectre” so called,long an object of superstition, but which is only the beholder's shadowprojected through, and magnified by, the mists.

Brockhaus, Friedrich Arnold, a German publisher, born at Dortmund; aman of scholarly parts; began business in Amsterdam, but settled inLeipzig; publisher of the famous “Conversations Lexikon,” and a greatmany other important works (1772-1823).

Brocoliando, a forest in Brittany famous in Arthurian legend.

Brodie, Sir Benjamin, surgeon, born in Wiltshire; professor ofsurgery; for 30 years surgeon in St. George's Hospital; was medicaladviser to three sovereigns; president of the Royal Society (1783-1862).

Brodie, William, a Scottish sculptor, born in Banff; did numerousbusts and statues (1815-1881).

Broglie, Albert, son of the following, a Conservative politician andlittérateur, author of “The Church and the Roman Empire in the 4thcentury”;b. 1821

Broglie, Charles Victor, Duc de, a French statesman, born at Paris;a Liberal politician; was of the party of Guizot and Royer-Collard; heldoffice under Louis Philippe; negotiated a treaty with England for theabolition of slavery; was an Orleanist, and an enemy of the SecondEmpire; retired after thecoup d'état (1785-1870).

Broglie, Victor François, Duc de, marshal of France, distinguishedin the Seven Years' War, being “a firm disciplinarian”; was summoned byroyalty to the rescue as “war god” at the outbreak of the Revolution;could not persuade his troops to fire on the rioters; had to “mount andride”; took command of the Emigrants in 1792, and died at Münster(1718-1804).

Broke, Sir Philip Bowes Vere, rear-admiral, born at Ipswich,celebrated for the action between his shipShannon, 38 guns, and theAmerican shipChesapeake, 49 guns, in June 1813, in which he boardedthe latter and ran up the British flag; one of the most brilliant navalactions on record, and likely to be long remembered in the naval annalsof the country (1776-1841).

Bromberg (41), a busy town on the Brahe, in Prussian Posen; being afrontier town, it suffered much in times of war.

Brome, Alexander, a cavalier, writer of songs and lampoons instinctwith wit, whim, and spirit; and of his songs some are amatory, somefestive, and some political (1626-1666).

Brome, Richard, an English comic playwright, contemporary with BenJonson, and a rival; originally his servant; his plays are numerous, andwere characterised by his enemies as the sweepings of Jonson's study;d. 1652.

Bromine, an elementary fluid of a dark colour and a disagreeablesmell, extracted from bittern, a liquid which remains after theseparation of salt.

Bromley (21), a market-town in Kent, 10 m. SE. of London, where thebishops of Rochester had their palace, and where there is a home calledWarner's College for clergymen's widows.

Brompton, SW. district of London, in Kensington, now called S.Kensington; once a rustic locality, now a fashionable district, withseveral public buildings and the Oratory.

Bröndsted, Peter Olaf, a Danish archæologist; author of “Travels andResearches in Greece,” where by excavations he made importantdiscoveries; his great work “Travels and Archæological Researches inGreece” (1780-1842).

Brongniart, Adolphe, French botanist, son of the succeeding, thefirst to discover and explain the function of the pollen in plants(1801-1876).

Brongniart, Alexandre, a French chemist and zoologist, collaborateurwith Cuvier, born at Paris; director of the porcelain works at Sèvres;revived painting on glass; introduced a new classification of reptiles;author of treatises on mineralogy and the ceramic arts (1770-1847).

Bronte (16), a town in Sicily, on the western slope of Etna, whichgave title of duke to Nelson.

Brontë, the name of three ladies, Charlotte, Emily, and Anne,daughters of a Yorkshire clergyman of Irish extraction:Charlotte,born at Thornton, Yorkshire; removed with her father, at the age of four,to Haworth, a moorland parish, in the same county, where she lived mostof her days; spent two years at Brussels as a pupil-teacher; on herreturn, in conjunction with her sisters, prepared and published a volumeof poems under the pseudonyms respectively of “Currer, Ellis, and ActonBell,” which proved a failure. Nothing daunted, she set to novel writing,and her success was instant; first, “Jane Eyre,” then “Shirley,” and then“Villette,” appeared, and her fame was established. In 1854 she marriedher father's curate, Mr. Nicholls, but her constitution gave way, and shedied (1816-1855).Emily (Ellis), two years younger, poet rather thannovelist; wrote “Wuthering Heights,” a remarkable production, showingstill greater genius, which she did not live to develop.Anne(Acton), four years younger, also wrote two novels, but very ephemeralproductions.

Bronze Age, the age in the history of a race intermediate betweenthe Stone Age and the Iron, and in some cases overlapping these two, whenweapons and tools were made of bronze.

Bronzi`no, a Florentine painter, painted both in oil and fresco; agreat admirer of Michael Angelo; his famous picture, “Descent of Christinto Hell” (1502-1572).

Brook Farm, an abortive literary community organised on Fourier'sprinciples, 8 m. from Boston, U.S., by George Ripley in 1840; NathanielHawthorne was one of the community, and wrote an account of it.

Brooke, Henry, Irish dramatist and novelist, born in co. Cavan;author of the “Fool of Quality,” a book commended by John Wesley and muchlauded by Charles Kingsley, and the only one of his works that survives;wrote, among other things, a poem called “Universal Beauty,” and a playcalled “Gustavus Vasa” (1703-1783).

Brooke, Sir James, rajah of Sarawak, born at Benares, educated inEngland; entered the Indian army; was wounded in the Burmese war,returned in consequence to England; conceived the idea of suppressingpiracy and establishing civilisation in the Indian Archipelago; sailed ina well-manned and well-equipped yacht from the Thames with that object;arrived at Sarawak, in Borneo; assisted the governor in suppressing aninsurrection, and was made rajah, the former rajah being deposed in hisfavour; brought the province under good laws, swept the seas of pirates,for which he was rewarded by the English government; was appointedgovernor of Labuan; finally returned to England and died, being succeededin Sarawak by a nephew (1803-1868).

Brooke, Stopford, preacher and writer, born in Donegal; after otherclerical appointments became incumbent of Bedford Chapel, Bloomsbury, andQueen's chaplain; from conscientious motives seceded from the Church, butcontinued to preach in Bloomsbury; wrote the “Life of Robertson ofBrighton,” a “Primer of English Literature,” “History of English Poetry,”“Theology in the English Poets,” and “Life of Milton,” all works inevidence of critical ability of a high order;b. 1832.

Brooklyn (806), a suburb of New York, on Long Island, though rankingas a city, and the fourth in the Union; separated from New York by theEast River, a mile broad, and connected with it by a magnificentsuspension bridge, the largest in the world, as well as by some 12 linesof ferry boats plied by steam; it is now incorporated in Greater NewYork; has 10 m. of water front, extensive docks and warehouses, and doesan enormous shipping trade; manufactures include glass, clothing,chemicals, metallic wares, and tobacco; there is a naval yard, dock, andstorehouse; the city is really a part of New York; has many finebuildings, parks, and pleasure grounds.

Brooks, Charles William Shirley, novelist and journalist, born inLondon; was on the staff of theMorning Chronicle; sent to Russia toinquire into and report on the condition of the peasantry and labouringclasses there, as well as in Syria and Egypt; his report published in his“Russians of the South”; formed a connection withPunch in 1851,writing the “Essence of Parliament,” and succeeded Mark Lemon as editorin 1870; he was the author of several works (1816-1874).

Brosses, Charles de, a French archæologist, born at Dijon; wroteamong other subjects on the manners and customs of primitive andprehistoric man (1709-1777).

Brossette, a French littérateur, born at Lyons; friend of Boileau,and his editor and commentator (1671-1743).

Brothers, Richard, a fanatic, born in Newfoundland, who believed andpersuaded others to believe that the English people were the ten losttribes of Israel (1757-1824).

Brougham, Henry, Lord Brougham and Vaux, born in Edinburgh, andeducated at the High School and University of that city; was admitted tothe Scotch bar in 1800; excluded from promotion in Scotland by hisliberal principles, he joined the English bar in 1808, speedily acquireda reputation as a lawyer for the defence in Crown libel actions, and, byhis eloquence in the cause of Queen Caroline, 1820, won universal popularfavour; entering Parliament in 1810, he associated with the Whigopposition, threw himself into the agitation for the abolition ofslavery, the cause of education, and law reform; became Lord Chancellorin 1830, but four years afterwards his political career closed; he was asupporter of many popular institutions; a man of versatile ability anduntiring energy; along with Horner, Jeffrey, and Sidney Smith, one of thefounders of theEdinburgh Review, also of London University, and theSociety for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge; a writer on scientific,historical, political, and philosophical themes, but his violence andeccentricity hurt his influence; spent his last days at Cannes, where hedied (1778-1868).

Broughton, Lord. SeeHobhouse.

Broughton, Rhoda, novelist, her best work “Not Wisely but Too Well”;wrote also “Cometh Up as a Flower,” “Red as a Rose is She,” &c.;b.1840.

Broughton, William Robert, an English seaman, companion ofVancouver; discovered a portion of Oceania (1763-1822).

Broughty Ferry (9), a watering-place, with villas, near Dundee, anda favourite place of residence of Dundee merchants.

Broussa (37), a city in the extreme NW. of Asiatic Turkey, at thefoot of Mt. Olympus, 12 m. from the Sea of Marmora; the capital of theTurkish empire till the taking of Constantinople in 1453; abounds inmosques, and is celebrated for its baths.

Broussais, Joseph Victor, a French materialist, founder of the“physiological school” of medicine; resolved life into excitation, anddisease into too much or too little (1772-1838).

Broussel, a member of the Parlement of Paris, whose arrest, in 1648,was the cause of, or pretext for, the organisation of the Fronde.

Brousson, a French Huguenot who returned to France after theRevocation of the Edict of Nantes, and was broken on the wheel, 1698.

Brouwer, a Dutch painter, mostly of low, vulgar life, which, asfamiliar with it, he depicted with great spirit (1605-1638).

Brown, Amy, the first wife of the Duc de Berri, born in England,died in France; the Pope, in 1816, annulled her marriage, but declaredher two daughters legitimate (1783-1876).

Brown, Charles Brockden, an American novelist, born in Philadelphia,of Quaker connection; his best-known fictions are “Wieland,” “EdgarHuntly,” &c. (1771-1810).

Brown, Ford Madox, an English painter, born at Calais; his subjectsnearly all of a historical character, one of which is “Chaucer recitinghis Poetry at the Court of Edward III.”; anticipated Pre-Raphaelitism(1821-1893).

Brown, Sir George, British general, born near Elgin, distinguishedboth in the Peninsular and in the Crimean war, was severely wounded atInkerman, when in command of the Light Division (1790-1863).

Brown, Henry Kirke, an American sculptor, did a number of statues, acolossal one of Washington among them (1814-1886).

Brown, John, American slavery abolitionist; settled in Kansas, andresolutely opposed the project of making it a slave state; in theinterest of emancipation, with six others, seized on the State armoury atHarper's Ferry in hope of a rising, entrenched himself armed in it, wassurrounded, seized, tried, and hanged (1800-1859).

Brown, John, of Haddington, a self-educated Scotch divine, born atCarpow, near Abernethy, Perthshire, son of a poor weaver, left an orphanat 11, became a minister of a Dissenting church in Haddington; a man ofconsiderable learning, and deep piety; author of “Dictionary of theBible,” and “Self-interpreting Bible” (1722-1787).

Brown, John, M.D., great-grandson of the preceding, born at Biggar,educated in Edinburgh High School and at Edinburgh University, was apupil of James Syme, the eminent surgeon, and commenced quiet practice inEdinburgh; author of “Horæ Subsecivæ,” “Rab and his Friends,” “PetMarjorie,” “John Leech,” and other works; was a fine and finely-culturedman, much beloved by all who knew him, and by none more than by JohnRuskin, who says of him, he was “the best and truest friend of all mylife.... Nothing can tell the loss to me in his death, nor the grief tohow many greater souls than mine that had been possessed in patiencethrough his love” (1810-1882).

Brown, John, M.D., founder of the Brunonian system of medicine,born at Bunkle, Berwickshire; reduced diseases into two classes, thoseresulting from redundancy of excitation, and those due to deficiency ofexcitation; author of “Elements of Medicine” and “Observations on the Oldand New Systems of Physic” (1735-1788). SeeBroussais.

Brown, Jones, and Robinson, three middle-class Englishmen on theirtravels abroad, as figured in the pages ofPunch, and drawn by RichardDoyle.

Brown, Mount (16,000 ft.), the highest of the Rocky Mts., in N.America.

Brown, Oliver Madox, son of Ford Madox, a youth of great promiseboth as an artist and poet; died of blood-poisoning (1855-1874).

Brown, Rawdon, historical scholar, spent his life at Venice in thestudy of Italian history, especially in its relation to English history,which he prosecuted with unwearied industry; his great work, work of 20years' hard labour, “Calendar of State Papers and Manuscripts relating toEnglish Affairs existing in the Archives of Venice and Northern Italy,”left unfinished at his death; died at Venice, where he spent a great partof his life, where Ruskin found him and conceived a warm friendship forhim (1803-1883).

Brown, Robert, a distinguished botanist, born at Montrose, son of anEpiscopal clergyman; accompanied an expedition to survey the coast ofAustralia in 1801, returned after four years' exploration, with 4000plants mostly new to science, which he classified and described in his“Prodromus Floræ Novæ Hollandiæ”; became librarian to, and finallypresident of, the Linnean Society; styled by Humboldtbotanicorum facileprinceps; he was a man of most minute and accurate observation, and of awide range of knowledge, much of which died along with him, out of thefear of committing himself to mistakes (1773-1858).

Brown, Samuel, M.D., chemist, born in Haddington, grandson of JohnBrown of Haddington, whose life was devoted, with the zeal of a mediævalalchemist, to a reconstruction of the science of atomics, which he didnot live to see realised: a man of genius, a brilliant conversationistand an associate of the most intellectual men of his time, among thenumber De Quincey, Carlyle, and Emerson; wrote “Lay Sermons on the Theoryof Christianity,” “Lectures on the Atomic Theory,” and two volumes of“Essays, Scientific and Literary” (1817-1856).

Brown, Thomas, Scottish psychologist, born in Kirkcudbrightshire,bred to medicine; professor of Moral Philosophy in the University ofEdinburgh, colleague and successor to Dugald Stewart; his lectures, allimprovised on the spur of the moment, were published posthumously;“Lectures on the Philosophy of the Human Mind” established a sixth sense,which he called the “muscular.” He was a man of precocious talent, and adevoted student, to the injury of his health and the shortening of hislife; he was obliged from ill-health to resign his professorship after 10years (1778-1820).

Brown Willy, the highest peak (1368 ft.) in Cornwall.

Browne, Charles Farrar, a humorist and satirist, known by thepseudonym of “Artemus Ward,” born in Maine, U.S.; his first literaryeffort was as “showman” to an imaginary travelling menagerie; travelledover America lecturing, carrying with him a whimsical panorama asaffording texts for his numerous jokes, which he brought with him toLondon, and exhibited with the same accompaniment with unbounded success;he spent some time among the Mormons, and defined their religion assingular, but their wives plural (1834-1867).

Browne, Hablot Knight, artist, born in London; illustrated Dickens'sworks, “Pickwick” to begin with, under the pseudonym of “Phiz,” as wellas the works of Lever, Ainsworth, Fielding, and Smollett, and theAbbotsford edition of Scott; he was skilful as an etcher and anarchitectural draughtsman (1815-1882).

Browne, Robert, founder of the Brownists, born in Rutland; the firstseceder from the Church of England, and the first to found a Church ofhis own on Congregational principles, which he did at Norwich, though hisproject of secession proved a failure, and he returned to the EnglishChurch; died in jail at Northampton, where he was imprisoned forassaulting a constable; he may be accounted the father of theCongregational body in England (1540-1630).

Browne, Sir Thomas, physician and religious thinker, born in London;resided at Norwich for nearly half a century, and died there; wasknighted by Charles II.; “was,” Professor Saintsbury says, “the greatestprose writer perhaps, when all things are taken together, in the wholerange of English”; his principal works are “Religio Medici,” “Inquiriesinto Vulgar Errors,” and “Hydriotaphia, or Urn-Burial, a Discourse of theSepulchral Urns found in Norfolk”; “all of the very first importance inEnglish literature,...” adds the professor, “the 'Religio Medici' thegreatest favourite, and a sort of key to the others;” “a man,” saysColeridge, “rich in various knowledge, exuberant in conceptions andconceits, contemplative, imaginative, often truly great, and magnificentin his style and diction.... He is a quiet and sublime enthusiast, with astrong tinge of the fantastic. He meditated much on death and thehereafter, and on the former in its relation to, or leading on to, thelatter” (1605-1682).

Browne William, English pastoral poet, born at Tavistock; author of“Britannia's Pastorals” and “The Shepherd's Pipe,” a collection ofeclogues and “The Inner Temple and Masque,” on the story of Ulysses andCirce, with some opening exquisitely beautiful verses, “Steer hither,steer,” among them; was an imitator of Spenser, and a parallel has beeninstituted between him and Keats (1590-1645).

Brownie, a good-natured household elf, believed in Scotland torender obliging services to good housewives, and his presence an evidencethat the internal economies were approved of, as he favoured goodhusbandry, and was partial to houses where it was observed.

Browning, Elizabeth Barrett,néeBarrett, poetess, born atCarlton Hall, Durham; a woman of great natural abilities, which developedearly; suffered from injury to her spine; went to Torquay for her health;witnessed the death by drowning of a brother, that gave her a shock theeffect of which never left her; published in 1838 “The Seraphim,” and in1844 “The Cry of the Children”; fell in with and married Robert Browningin 1846, who immediately took her abroad, settling in Florence; wrote in1850 “Sonnets from the Portuguese,” in 1851 “Casa Guidi Windows,” and in1856 “Aurora Leigh,” “a novel in verse,” and in 1860 “Poems beforeCongress”; ranks high, if not highest, among the poetesses of England;she took an interest all through life in public affairs; her work ismarked by musical diction, sensibility, knowledge, and imagination, whichno poetess has rivalled (1806-1861).

Browning, Robert, poet, one of the two greatest in the Victorianera, born in Camberwell; early given to write verses; prepared himselffor his literary career by reading through Johnson's Dictionary; hisfirst poem “Pauline” (q. v.) published in 1833, which wasfollowed by “Paracelsus” in 1835, “Sordello” in 1840; after a time, inwhich he was not idle, appeared, with some of his “Dramatic Romances andLyrics,” in 1855 his “Men and Women,” and in 1868 “The Ring and the Book”(q. v.), his longest poem, and more analytic than poetic;this was succeeded by a succession of others, finishing up with“Asolando,” which appeared the day he died at Venice; was a poet of greatsubtlety, deep insight, creative power, and strong faith, of a genius andlearning which there are few able to compass the length and breadth of;lies buried in Westminster Abbey; of Browning it has been said byProfessor Saintsbury, “Timor mortis non conturbabat, 'the fear of deathdid not trouble him.' In the browner shades of age as well as in thespring of youth he sang, not like most poets, Love and Death, but Loveand Life.... 'James Lee,' 'Rabbi Ben Ezra,' and 'Prospice' are among thegreatest poems of the century.” His creed was an optimism of thebrightest, and his restful faith “it is all right with the world”(1812-1889).

Brown-Séquard, physiologist, born in Mauritius, of Americanparentage; studied in Paris; practised in New York, and became aprofessor in the Collège de France; made a special study of the nervoussystem and nervous diseases, and published works on the subject;b.1818.

Bruant, a French architect, born in Paris; architect of theInvalides and the Salpétrière;d. 1697.

Bruat, a French admiral, commanded the French fleet at the Crimea(1796-1885).

Bruce, a family illustrious in Scottish history, descended from aNorman knight, Robert de Bruis, who came over with the Conqueror, and whoacquired lands first in Northumberland and then in Annandale.

Bruce, James, traveller, called the “Abyssinian,” born at KinnairdHouse, Stirlingshire, set out from Cairo in 1768 in quest of the sourceof the Nile: believed he had discovered it; stayed two years inAbyssinia, and returned home by way of France, elated with his success;felt hurt that no honor was conferred on him, and for relief from thechagrin wrote an account of his travels in five quarto vols., the generalaccuracy of which, as far as it goes, has been attested by subsequentexplorers (1730-1794).

Bruce, Michael, a Scotch poet, born near Loch Leven, in poorcircumstances, in the parish of Portmoak; studied for the Church; died ofconsumption; his poems singularly plaintive and pathetic; his title tothe authorship of the “Ode to the Cuckoo” has been matter of contention(1746-1767).

Bruce, Robert, rival with John Baliol for the crown of Scotland onthe death of Margaret, the Maiden of Norway, against whose claim EdwardI. decided in favour of Baliol (1210-1295).

Bruce, Robert, son of the preceding, earl of Carrick, throughMarjory his wife; served under Edward at the battle of Dunbar for oneinstance; sued for the Scottish crown in vain (1269-1304).

Bruce, Robert, king of Scotland, son of the preceding, did homagefor a time to Edward, but joined the national party and became one of aregency of four, with Comyn for rival; stabbed Comyn in a quarrel atDumfries, 1306, and was that same year crowned king at Scone; wasdefeated by an army sent against him, and obliged to flee to Rathlin,Ireland; returned and landed in Carrick; cleared the English out of allthe fortresses except Stirling, and on 24th June 1314 defeated theEnglish under Edward II. at Bannockburn, after which, in 1328, theindependence of Scotland was acknowledged as well as Bruce's right to thecrown; suffering from leprosy, spent his last two years at CardrossCastle, on the Clyde, where he died in the thirty-third year of his reign(1274-1329).

Brucin, an alkaloid, allied in action to strychnine, though muchweaker, being only a twenty-fifth of the strength.

Brückenau, small town in Bavaria, 17 m. NW. of Kissingen, withmineral springs good for nervous and skin diseases.

Brucker, historian of philosophy, born at Augsburg, and a pastorthere; author of “Historia Critica Philosophiæ” (1696-1770).

Brueys, David Augustin de, French dramatist, born at Aix, an abbéconverted by Bossuet, and actively engaged in propagating the faith;managed to be joint editor with Palaprat in the production of plays(1650-1725).

Bruges (49), cap. of W. Flanders, in Belgium, intersected by canalscrossed by some 50 bridges, whence its name “Bridges”; one of thesecanals, of considerable depth, connecting it with Ostend; though many ofthem are now, as well as some of the streets, little disturbed bytraffic, in a decayed and a decaying place, having once had a populationof 200,000; has a number of fine churches, one specially noteworthy, thechurch of Notre Dame; it has several manufactures, textile and chemical,as well as distilleries, sugar-refineries, and shipbuilding yards.

Brugsch, Heinrich Karl, a German Egyptologist, born at Berlin; wasassociated with Mariette in his excavations at Memphis; became directorof the School of Egyptology at Cairo; his works on the subject arenumerous, and of great value;b. 1827.

Brühl, Heinrich, Count von, minister of Augustus III., king ofPoland, an unprincipled man, who encouraged his master, and indulgedhimself, in silly foppery and wasteful extravagance, so that when theSeven Years' War broke out he and his master had to flee from Dresden andseek refuge in Warsaw (1700-1763).

Bruin, the bear personified in the German epic of “Reynard the Fox.”

Brumaire, the 18th (i. e. the 9th November 1799, the foggy month),the day when Napoleon, on his return from Egypt, overthrew the Directoryand established himself in power.

Brummell, Beau, born in London, in his day the prince of dandies;patronised by the Prince of Wales, afterwards George IV.; quarrelled withthe prince; fled from his creditors to Calais, where, reduced todestitution, he lived some years in the same reckless fashion; settled atlength in Caen, where he died insane (1778-1805).

Brunck, an able French Hellenist, classical scholar, and critic,born at Strassburg; edited several classical works, played a perilouspart in the French Revolution; was imprisoned, and, on his release, hadto sell his library in order to live (1729-1803).

Brune, G. Marie, French marshal, saw service in the Vendéan war andin Italy, distinguished himself under Napoleon in Italy and Holland;submitted to Bourbons in 1814; joined Napoleon on his return from Elba;was appointed to a post of command in the S. of France, but had tosurrender after Waterloo, and was attacked by a mob of Royalists atAvignon as he was setting out for Paris, and brutally murdered and hisbody thrown into the Rhône (1763-1815).

Brunel, Sir Isambard, engineer, born in Rouen, entered the Frenchnavy, emigrated to the United States; was chief engineer of New York;settled in England, became block-maker to the Royal Navy; constructed theThames tunnel, begun in 1825 and finished in 1843 (1759-1849).

Brunel, Isambard Kingdom, son of the preceding, assisted his fatherin his engineering operations, in particular the Thames tunnel; wasengineer of the Great Western Railway; designed theGreat Westernsteamship, the first to cross the Atlantic; was the first to apply thescrew propeller to steam navigation; designed and constructed theGreatEastern; constructed bridges and naval docks (1806-1859).

Brunelleschi, Italian architect, born in Florence, bred a goldsmith,studied at Rome; returned to his native city, built the Duomo of theCathedral, the Pitti Palace, and the churches of San Lorenzo and SpiritoSanto (1377-1444).

Brunetière, French critic, connected with theRevue des DeuxMondes and now editor; a very sound and sensible critic; his chief work,begun in the form of lectures in 1890, entitled “L'Évolution des Genresde l'Histoire de la Littérature Française”; according to Prof.Saintsbury, promises to be one of the chief monuments that the really“higher” criticism has yet furnished;b. 1849.

Brunetto-Latini, an Italian writer, who played an important partamong the Guelfs, and was obliged to flee to Paris, where he had Dantefor a pupil (1220-1294).

Brunhilda, a masculine queen in the “Nibelungen Lied” who offered tomarry the man that could beat her in feats of strength, was deceived bySiegfried into marrying Gunther, and meditated the death of Siegfried,who had married her rival Chriemhilda, which she accomplished by the handof Hagen. Also a queen of Austrasia, who, about the 7th century, had alifelong quarrel with Fredegunde, queen of Neustria, the other divisionof the Frankish world, which at her death she seized possession of for atime, but was overthrown by Clothaire II., Fredegunde's son, and draggedto death at the heels of an infuriated wild horse.

Bruni, Leonardo, Italian humanist, born at Arezzo, hence calledAretino; was papal secretary; settled in Florence, and wrote a history ofit; did much by his translations of Greek authors to promote the study ofGreek (1369-1444).

Brünn (95), Austrian city, capital of Moravia, beautifully situated,93 m. N. of Vienna, with large manufactures; woollens the staple of thecountry; about one-half of the population Czechs.

Brunnow, Count von, a Russian diplomatist, born at Dresden;represented Russia in several conferences, and was twice ambassador atthe English Court (1797-1875).

Bruno, Giordano, a bold and fervid original thinker, born at Nola,in Italy; a Dominican monk, quitted his monastery, in fact, was forheterodoxy obliged to flee from it; attached himself to Calvin for atime, went for more freedom to Paris, attacked the scholastic philosophy,had to leave France as well; spent two years in England in friendshipwith Sir Philip Sidney, propagated his views in Germany and Italy, wasarrested by the Inquisition, and after seven years spent in prison wasburned as a heretic; he was a pantheist, and regarded God as the livingomnipresent soul of the universe, and Nature as the living garment ofGod, as the Earth-Spirit does in Goethe's “Faust”—a definition of Naturein relation to God which finds favour in the pages of “Sartor Resartus”;d. 1600.

Bruno, St., born at Cologne, retired to a lonely spot near Grenoblewith six others, where each lived in cells apart, and they met only onSundays; founder of the Carthusian Order of Monks, the first house ofwhich was established in the desert of Chartreuse (1030-1101). Festival,Oct. 6.

Bruno the Great, third son of Henry the Fowler; archbishop ofCologne, chancellor of the Empire, a great lover of learning, andpromoter of it among the clergy, who he thought should, before all,represent and encourage it (928-965).

Brunonian System, a system which regards and treats diseases as dueto defective or excessive excitation, as sthenic or asthenic. SeeBrown, John.

Brunswick (404), a N. German duchy, made up of eight detached parts,mostly in the upper basin of the Weser; is mountainous, and contains partof the Harz Mts.; climate and crops are those of N. Germany generally.Brunswick (101), the capital, a busy commercial town, once a memberof the Hanseatic League, and fell into comparative decay after the decayof the League, on the Oker, 140 m. SW. of Berlin; an irregularly builtcity, it has a cathedral, and manufactures textiles, leather, andsewing-machines.

Brunswick, Charles William, Duke of, Prussian general, commanded thePrussian and Austrian forces levied to put down the French Revolution;emitted a violent, blustering manifesto, but a Revolutionary army underDumouriez and Kellermann met him at Valmy, and compelled him to retreatin 1792; was beaten by Davout at Auerstädt, and mortally wounded(1735-1806).

Brunswick, Frederick William, Duke of, brother of Queen Caroline;raised troops against France, which, being embarked for England, tookpart in the Peninsular war; fell fighting at Ligny, two days before thebattle of Waterloo (1771-1815).

Brussels (477), on the Senne, 27 m. S. of Antwerp, is the capital ofBelgium, in the heart of the country. The old town is narrow and crooked,but picturesque; the town-hall a magnificent building. The new town iswell built, and one of the finest in Europe. There are many parks,boulevards, and squares; a cathedral, art-gallery, museum and library,university and art schools. It is Paris in miniature. The manufacturesinclude linen, ribbons, and paper; a ship-canal and numerous railwaysfoster commerce.

Brutus, Lucius Junius, the founder of Republican Rome, in the 6thcentury B.C.; affected idiocy (whence his name, meaning stupid); itsaved his life when Tarquin the Proud put his brother to death; but whenTarquin's son committed an outrage on Lucretia, he threw off hisdisguise, headed a revolt, and expelled the tyrant; was elected one ofthe two first Consuls of Rome; sentenced his two sons to death forconspiring to restore the monarchy; fell repelling an attempt to restorethe Tarquins in a hand-to-hand combat with Aruns, one of the sons of thebanished king.

Brutus, Marcus Junius, a descendant of the preceding, and son ofCato Uticensis's sister; much beloved by Cæsar and Cæsar's friend, butpersuaded by Cassius and others to believe that Cæsar aimed at theoverthrow of the republic; joined the conspirators, and was recognised byCæsar among the conspirators as party to his death; forced to flee fromRome after the event, was defeated at Philippi by Antony and Augustus,but escaped capture by falling on a sword held out to him by one of hisfriends, exclaiming as he did so, “O Virtue, thou art but a name!” (85-42B.C.).

Bruyère, a French writer, author of “Charactères de Théophraste,” asatire on various characters and manners of his time (1644-1696).

Bryan, William Jennings, American statesman, born in Salem,Illinois; bred to the bar and practised at it; entered Congress in 1890as an extreme Free Silver man; lost his seat from his uncompromisingviews on that question; was twice nominated for the Presidency inopposition to Mr McKinley, but defeated;b. 1860.

Bryant, William Cullen, American poet; his poems were popular inAmerica, the chief, “The Age,” published in 1821; was 50 years editor oftheNew York Evening Post; wrote short poems all through his life, someof the later his best (1794-1878).

Bryce, James, historian and politician, born at Belfast; Fellow ofOriel College, Oxford; bred to the bar; for a time professor of Civil Lawat Oxford; entered Parliament in 1880; was member of Mr. Gladstone's lastcabinet; his chief literary work, “The Holy Roman Empire,” a work of highliterary merit;b. 1838.

Brydges, Sir Samuel Egerton, English antiquary, born at WoottonHouse, in Kent; called to the bar, but devoted to literature; was M.P.for Maidstone for six years; lived afterwards and died at Geneva; wrotenovels and poems, and edited old English writings of interest(1762-1837).

Bubastis, an Egyptian goddess, the Egyptian Diana, the wife of Ptah;and a city in Lower Egypt, on the eastern branch of the Nile.

Buccaneers, an association, chiefly English and French, of piraticaladventurers in the 16th and 17th centuries, with their head-quarters inthe Caribbean Sea, organised to plunder the ships of the Spaniards inresentment of the exclusive right they claimed to the wealth of the S.American continent, which they were carrying home across the sea.

Buccleuch, a glen 18 m. SW. of Selkirk, with a stronghold of theScott family, giving the head the title of earl or duke.

Bucen`taur, the state galley, worked by oars and manned by 168rowers, in which the Doge of Venice used to sail on the occasion of theannual ceremony of wedding anew the Adriatic Sea by sinking a ring init.

Buceph`alus (i. e. ox-head), the horse which Alexander the Great,while yet a youth, broke in when no one else could, and on which he rodethrough all his campaigns; it died in India from a wound. The town,Bucephala, on the Hydaspes, was built near its grave.

Bucer Martin, a German Reformer, born at Strassburg; originally aDominican, adopted the Reformed faith, ministered as pastor and professorin his native place, differed in certain matters from both Luther andZwingli, while he tried to reconcile them; invited by Cranmer to England,he accepted the invitation, and became professor of Divinity atCambridge, where he died, but his bones were exhumed and burned a fewyears later (1491-1551).

Buch, Leopold von, a German geologist, a pupil of Werner andfellow-student of Alexander von Humboldt, who esteemed him highly;adopted the volcanic theory of the earth; wrote no end of scientificmemoirs (1774-1853).

Buchan, a district in the NE. of Aberdeenshire, between the riversDeveron and Ythan; abounds in magnificent rock scenery. The Comyns wereearls of it till they forfeited the title in 1309.

Buchanan, Claudius, born at Cambuslang, near Glasgow, chaplain inBarrackpur under the East India Company, vice-provost of the College atFort William, Calcutta; one of the first to awaken an interest in Indiaas a missionary field; wrote “Christian Researches in Asia” (1756-1815).

Buchanan, George, a most distinguished scholar and humanist, born atKillearn, Stirlingshire; educated at St. Andrews and Paris; professor forthree years in the College at St. Barbe; returned to Scotland, becametutor to James V.'s illegitimate sons; imprisoned by Cardinal Beaton forsatires against the monks, escaped to France; driven from one place toanother, imprisoned in a monastery in Portugal at the instance of theInquisition, where he commenced his celebrated Latin version of thePsalms; came back to Scotland, was appointed in 1562 tutor to Queen Mary,in 1566 principal of St. Leonard's College, in St. Andrews, in 1567moderator of the General Assembly in 1570 tutor to James VI., and hadseveral offices of State conferred on him; wrote a “History of Scotland,”and his book “De Jure Regni,” against the tyranny of peoples by kings;died in Edinburgh without enough to bury him; was buried at the publicexpense in Greyfriars' churchyard; when dying, it is said he asked hishousekeeper to examine his money-box and see if there was enough to buryhim, and when he found there was not, he ordered her to distribute whatthere was among his poor neighbours and left it to the city to bury himor not as they saw good (1506-1582).

Buchanan, James, statesman of the United States, was ambassador inLondon in 1853, made President in 1856, the fifteenth in order, at thetime when the troubles between the North and South came to a head,favoured the South, retired after his Presidentship into private life(1791-1868).

Buchanan, Robert, a writer in prose and verse, born in Warwickshire,educated at Glasgow University; his first work, “Undertones,” a volume ofverse published by him in 1863, and he has since written a goodly numberof poems, some of them of very high merit, the last “The Wandering Jew,”which attacks the Christian religion; besides novels, has writtenmagazine articles, and one in particular, which involved him in sometrouble;b.1841.

Buchanites, a fanatical sect who appeared in the W. of Scotland in1783, named after a Mrs. Buchan, who claimed to be the woman mentioned inRev. xii.

Bucharest (220), capital of Roumania, picturesquely situated on theDambovitza, a tributary of the Danube, in a fertile plain, 180 m. fromthe Black Sea; is a meanly built but well-fortified town, with thereputation of the most dissolute capital in Europe; there is a Catholiccathedral and a university; it is the emporium of trade between theBalkan and Austria; textiles, grain, hides, metal, and coal are the chiefarticles in its markets.

Buchez, Joseph, a French historian, politician, and Socialist;joined the St. Simonian Society, became a Christian Socialist, and acollaborateur in an important historical work, the “Parliamentary Historyof the French Revolution”; figured in political life after the Revolutionof 1848, but retired to private life after the establishment of theEmpire (1796-1865).

Büchner, Ludwig, physician and materialist, born at Darmstadt;lectured at Tübingen University; wrote a book entitled “Kraft und Stoff,”i. e. Force and Matter, and had to retire into private practice as aphysician on account of its materialistic philosophy, which he insistedon teaching (1824-1899).

Buchon, a learned Frenchman; wrote chronologies of French history(1791-1846).

Buckingham, George Villiers, Duke of, favourite of James I. andCharles I., born in Leicestershire; rose under favour of the former tothe highest offices and dignities of the State; provoked by his conductwars with Spain and France; fell into disfavour with the people; wasassassinated at Portsmouth by Lieutenant Felton, on the eve of hisembarking for Rochelle (1592-1628).

Buckingham, George Villiers, Duke of, son of the preceding; servedunder Charles I. in the Civil War, was at the battle of Worcester; becameminister of Charles II.; a profligate courtier and an unprincipled man(1627-1688).

Buckingham, James Silk, traveller and journalist, born in Falmouth;conducted a journal in Calcutta, and gave offence to the East IndiaCompany by his outspokenness; had to return to England, where his causewas warmly taken up; by his writings and speeches paved the way for theabolition of the Company's charter (1784-1855).

Buckinghamshire (185), English S. midland county, lying E. ofOxford, W. of Bedford and Hertford, is full of beautiful and variedscenery; hill, dale, wood, and water. The Thames forms the southernboundary, the Ouse flows through the N., and the Thame through thecentre. The Chiltern Hills cross the county. Agriculture is theprevailing industry; dairy produce, cattle and poultry feeding, and sheeprearing the sources of wealth. The county town isBuckingham (3), onthe Ouse, 60 m. NW. of London.

Buckland, Francis (Frank), naturalist, son of the succeeding, bredto medicine; devoted to the study of animal life; was inspector of salmonfisheries; wrote “Curiosities of Natural History,” “Familiar History ofBritish Fishes,” &c.; contributed largely to the journals, such as theField, and editedLand and Water, which he started in 1866(1826-1880).

Buckland, William, a distinguished geologist, born at Tiverton; hada predilection from boyhood for natural science; awoke in OxfordUniversity an interest in it by his lectures on mineralogy and geology;his pen was unceasingly occupied with geological subjects; exertedhimself to reconcile the teachings of science with the accounts inGenesis; was made Dean of Westminster by Sir Robert Peel; his intellectgave way in 1850, and he remained in mental weakness till his death(1784-1856).

Buckle, George Earle, editor of theTimes, born near Bath; studiedat Oxford, where he distinguished himself; is a Fellow of All Souls'College; became editor in 1884, having previously belonged to theeditorial staff;b. 1854.

Buckle, Henry Thomas, an advanced thinker, born in Lee, in Kent; indelicate health from his infancy, too ambitious for his powers, thoughthimself equal to write the “History of Civilisation in England,” inconnection with that of Europe, tried it, but failed; visited the Eastfor his health, and died at Damascus; his theory as regards thedevelopment of civilisation is, that national character depends onmaterial environment, and that progress depends upon the emancipation ofrationality, an extremely imperfect reading and rendering of the elementsat work, and indeed a total omission of nearly all the more vital ones;he was distinguished as a chess-player (1822-1862).

Buckstone, John Baldwin, an able comic actor and popular dramatist,born in London; for a long period the lessee of the Haymarket Theatre,London (1802-1870).

Buda-Pesth (506), a twin city, the capital of Hungary, on theDanube; Buda (Ger. Ofen) on the right bank and Pesth on the left, the twocities being connected by a suspension bridge, the former on a rockyelevation and the latter on level ground; a great commercial centre.

Budastis, an ancient town in Lower Egypt, where festivals in honourof Bacchus used to be held every year.

Buddha, Gautama, orSakya-muni, the founder of Buddhism aboutthe 5th century B.C., born a Hindu, of an intensely contemplativenature, the son of a king, who did everything in his power to tempt himfrom a religious life, from which, however, in his contemplation of thevanity of existence, nothing could detain him; retired into solitude atthe age of 30, as Sakyamuni,i. e. solitary of the Sakyas, his tribe;consulted religious books, could get no good out of them, till,by-and-by, he abstracted himself more and more from everything external,when at the end of ten years, as he sat brooding under the Bo-tree alonewith the universe, soul with soul, the light of truth rose full-orbedupon him, and he called himself henceforth and gave himself out asBuddha,i. e. the Enlightened; now he said to himself, “I know it all,”as Mahomet in his way did after him, and became a preacher to others ofwhat had proved salvation to himself, which he continued to do for 40years, leaving behind him disciples, who went forth without sword, likeChrist's, to preach what they, like Christ's, believed was a gospel toevery creature.

Buddhism, the religion of Buddha, a religion which, eschewing allspeculation about God and the universe, set itself solely to the work ofsalvation, the end of which was the merging of the individual in theunity of being, and the “way” to which was the mortification of allprivate passion and desire which mortification, when finished, was theBuddhist Nirvâna. This is the primary doctrine of the Buddhist faith,which erelong became a formality, as all faiths of the kind, or of thishigh order, ever tend to do. Buddha is not answerable for this, but hisfollowers, who in three successive councils resolved it into a system offormulæ, which Buddha, knowing belike how the letter killeth and only thespirit giveth life, never attempted to do. Buddha wrote none himself, butin some 300 years after his death his teachings assumed a canonical form,under the name of Tripitaka, or triple basket, as it is called. Buddhismfrom the first was a proselytising religion; it at one time overran thewhole of India, and though it is now in small favour there, it is, insuch form as it has assumed, often a highly beggarly one, understood tobe the religion of 340 millions of the human race.

Bude-light, a very brilliant light produced by introducing oxygeninto the centre of an Argand burner, so called from the place of theinventor's abode.

Budweis (28), a Bohemian trading town on the Moldau, 133 m. NW. ofVienna.

Buenos Ayres (543), capital of the Argentine Republic, stands on theright bank of the broad but shallow river Plate, 150 m. from theAtlantic; it is a progressing city, improving in appearance, with acathedral, several Protestant churches, a university and military school,libraries and hospitals; printing, cigar-making, cloth and bootmanufacture are the leading industries; it is the principal Argentineport, and the centre of export and import trade; the climate does notcorrespond with the name it bears; a great deal of the foreign trade isconducted through Monte Video, but it monopolises all the inland trade.

Buffalo (256), a city of New York State, at the E. end of Lake Erie,300 m. due NW. of New York; is a well-built, handsome, and healthy city;the railways and the Erie Canal are channels of extensive commerce ingrain, cattle, and coal; while immense iron-works, tanneries, breweries,and flour-mills represent the industries; electric power for lighting,traction, &c., is supplied from Niagara.

Buffon, George Louis Leclerc, Comte de, a great French naturalist,born at Montbard, in Burgundy; his father one of thenoblesse de robe;studied law at Dijon; spent some time in England, studying the Englishlanguage; devoted from early years to science, though more to the displayof it, and to natural science for life on being appointed intendant ofthe Jardin du Roi; assisted, and more than assisted, by Daubenton andothers, produced 15 vols. of his world-famous “Histoire Naturelle”between the years 1749 and 1767. The saying “Style is the man” isascribed to him, and he has been measured by some according to his ownstandard. Neither his style nor his science is rated of any high valuenow: “Buffon was as pompous and inflated as his style” (1707-1780).

Bugeaud, Thomas, marshal of France, born at Limoges; served underNapoleon; retired from service till 1830; served under Louis Philippe;contributed to the conquest of Algiers; was made governor, and createdduke for his victory over the forces of the emperor of Morocco at thebattle of Isly in 1844; his motto wasEnse et aratro, “By sword andplough” (1784-1849).

Bugenhagen, Johann, a German Reformer, a convert of Luther's andcoadjutor; helpful to the cause as an organiser of churches and schools(1485-1558).

Bugge, Norwegian philologist, professor at Christiania;b. 1833.

Buhl, ornamental work for furniture, which takes its name from theinventor (seeinfra), consisted in piercing or inlaying metal withtortoise-shell or enamel, or with metals of another colour; much infashion in Louis XIV.'s reign.

Buhl, Charles André, an Italian cabinet-maker, inventor of the workwhich bears his name (1642-1732).

Bukowina (640), a small prov. and duchy in the E. ofAustria-Hungary; rich in minerals, breeds cattle and horses.

Bulgaria, with Eastern Roumelia (3,154), constitutes a Balkanprincipality larger than Ireland, with hills and fertile plains in theN., mountains and forests in the S.; Turkey is the southern boundary,Servia the western, the Danube the northern, while the Black Sea washesthe eastern shores. The climate is mild, the people industrious; thechief export is cereals; manufactures of woollens, attar of roses, wineand tobacco, are staple industries; the chief import is live stock.Sofia (50), the capital, is the seat of a university.Varna(28), on the Black Sea, is the principal port. Bulgaria was cut out ofTurkey and made independent in 1878, and Eastern Roumelia incorporatedwith it in 1885.

Bull, an edict of the Pope, so called from a leaden seal attached toit.

Bull, George, bishop of St. Davids, born at Wells; a stanchChurchman; wrote “Harmonia Apostolica” in reconciliation of the teachingsof Paul and James on the matter of justification, and “Defensio FideiNicenæ,” in vindication of the Trinity as enunciated in theAthanasian Creed(q. v.), and denied or modified by Arians, Socinians, andSabellians (1634-1709).

Bull, John, a humorous impersonation of the collective Englishpeople, conceived of as well-fed, good-natured, honest-hearted,justice-loving, and plain-spoken; the designation is derived fromArbuthnot's satire, “The History of John Bull,” in which the Church ofEngland figures as his mother.

Bull, Ole Bornemann, a celebrated violinist, born in Bergen, Norway,pupil of Paganini; was a wise man at making money, but a fool in spendingit (1810-1880).

Bull Run, a stream in Virginia, U.S., 25 m. from Washington, wherethe Union army was twice defeated by the Confederate, July 1861 andAugust 1862.

Bullant, a French architect and sculptor; built the tombs ofMontmorency, Henry II., and Catherine de Medicis, as well as wrought atthe Tuileries and the Louvre (1510-1578).

Buller, Charles, a politician, born in Calcutta, pupil of ThomasCarlyle; entered Parliament at 24, a Liberal in politics; helddistinguished State appointments; died in his prime, universally belovedand respected (1806-1848).

Buller, General Sir Redvers Henry, served in China, Ashanti, SouthAfrica, Egypt, and the Soudan, with marked distinction in the 60th King'sRoyal Rifles; has held staff appointments, and was for a short timeUnder-Secretary for Ireland;b. 1839.

Bullinger, Heinrich, a Swiss Reformer, born in Aargau; friend andsuccessor of Zwingli; assisted in drawing up the Helvetic Confession; wasa correspondent of Lady Jane Grey (1504-1575).

Bulls and Bears, in the Stock Exchange, the bull being one who buysin the hope that the value may rise, and the bear one who sells in thehope that it may fall. SeeBear.

Bülow, Bernard von, Foreign Secretary of the German empire; earlyentered the Foreign Office, and has done important diplomatic work inconnection with it, having been secretary to several embassies and chargéd'affaires to Greece during the Russo-Turkish war;b. 1850.

Bülow, Friedrich Wilhelm, Baron von, a Prussian general; served hiscountry in the war with Revolutionary France; defeated the French underthe Empire in several engagements, and contributed to the victory atWaterloo, heading the column that first came to Wellington's aid at thedecisive moment (1755-1816).

Bülow, Guido von, a famous pianist, pupil of Liszt (1830-1894).

Buloz, a French littérateur, born near Geneva; originator of theRevue des Deux Mondes (1803-1877).

Bulwer, Henry Lytton, an experienced and successful diplomatist,served the Liberal interest; was party to the conclusion of severalimportant treaties; wrote several works, “An Autumn in Greece,” a “Lifeof Byron,” &c. (1801-1872).

Bumble, Mr., a beadle in “Oliver Twist.”

Bunau, a German historian, author of a “History of the Seven Years'War” (1697-1762).

Buncombe, a district in N. Carolina, for the ears of theconstituency of which a dull speech was some years ago delivered in theU.S. Congress, whence the phrase to “talk Buncombe,”i. e. to pleaseone's constituency.

Bundelkhand (2,000), a territory in NW. Provinces, India, betweenthe Chambal and the Jumna; has been extensively irrigated at great labourand expense.

Bunker Hill, an eminence 112 ft., now included in Boston, the sceneon 19th June 1775 of the first great battle in the American War ofIndependence.

Bunsby, Jack, commander of a ship in “Dombey & Son,” regarded as anoracle by Captain Cuttle.

Bunsen, Baron von, a diplomatist and man of letters, born atKorbach; in Waldeck; studied at Marburg and Göttingen; became acquaintedwith Niebuhr at Berlin; studied Oriental languages under Silvestre deSacy at Paris; became secretary, under Niebuhr, to the Prussian embassyat Rome; recommended himself to the king, and succeeded Niebuhr; becameambassador in Switzerland and then in England; was partial to Englishinstitutions, and much esteemed in England; wrote the “Church of theFuture,” “Hippolytus and his Age,” &c. (1791-1860).

Bunsen, Robert William, a distinguished German chemist, born atGöttingen, settled as professor of Chemistry at Heidelberg; invented thecharcoal pile, the magnesian light, and the burner called after him;discovered the antidote to arsenic, with hydrate of iron and theSpectrum Analysis (q. v.);b. 1811.

Bunsen Burner, a small gas-jet above which is screwed a brass tubewith holes at the bottom of it to let in air, which burns with the gas,and causes at the top a non-luminous flame; largely used in chemicaloperations.

Bunyan, John, author of the “Pilgrim's Progress,” born in Elstow,near Bedford, the son of a tinker, and bred himself to that humble craft;he was early visited with religious convictions, and brought, after atime of resistance to them, to an earnest faith in the gospel of Christ,his witness for which to his poor neighbours led to his imprisonment, animprisonment which extended first and last over twelve and a half years,and it was towards the close of it, and in the precincts of Bedford jail,in the spring of 1676, that he dreamed his world-famous dream; heretwo-thirds of it were written, the whole finished the year after, andpublished at the end of it; extended, it came out eventually in twoparts, but it is the first part that is the Pilgrim's Progress, andensures it the place it holds in the religious literature of the world;encouraged by the success of it—for it leapt into popularity at abound—Bunyan wrote some sixty other books, but except this, hismasterpiece, not more than two of these, “Grace Abounding” and the “HolyWar,” continue to be read (1628-1688).

Buontalenti, an Italian artist, born at Florence, one of thegreatest, being, like Michael Angelo, at once architect, painter, andsculptor (1536-1608).

Burbage, Richard, English tragedian, born in London, associate ofShakespeare, took the chief rôle in “Hamlet,” “King Lear,” “RichardIII.,” &c. (1562-1618).

Burchell, Mr., a character in the “Vicar of Wakefield,” noted forhis habit of applying “fudge” to everything his neighbours affected tobelieve.

Burckhardt, Swiss historian and archæologist, born at Bâle, authorof “Civilisation in Italy during the Renaissance”;b. 1818.

Burckhardt, John Ludvig, traveller, born at Lausanne, sent out fromEngland by the African Association to explore Africa; travelled by way ofSyria; acquired a proficiency in Arabic, and assumed Arabic customs;pushed on to Mecca as a Mussulman pilgrim—the first Christian to risksuch a venture; returned to Egypt, and died at Cairo just as he waspreparing for his African exploration; his travels were published afterhis death, and are distinguished for the veracious reports of things theycontain (1784-1817).

Burder, George, Congregational minister, became secretary to theLondon Missionary Society, author of “Village Sermons,” which were oncewidely popular (1752-1832).

Burdett, Sir Francis, a popular member of Parliament, marriedSophia, the youngest daughter of Thomas Coutts, a wealthy London banker,and acquired through her a large fortune; becoming M.P., he resolutelyopposed the government measures of the day, and got himself into serioustrouble; advocated radical measures of reform, many of which have sincebeen adopted; was prosecuted for a libel; fined £1000 for condemning thePeterloo massacre, and imprisoned three months; joined the Conservativeparty in 1835, and died a member of it (1770-1844).

Burdett-Coutts, The Right Honourable Angela Georgina, Baroness,daughter of Sir Francis, inherited the wealth of Thomas Coutts, hergrandfather, which she has devoted to all manner of philanthropic as wellas patriotic objects; was made a peeress in 1871; received the freedom ofthe city of London in 1874, and in 1881 married Mr. William LehmanAshmead-Bartlett, an American, who obtained the royal license to assumethe name of Burdett-Coutts;b. 1804.

Bureau, a name given to a department of public administration, hencebureaucracy, a name for government by bureaux.

Bürger, Gottfried August, a German lyric poet, author of the ballads“Lenore,” which was translated by Sir Walter Scott, and “The WildHuntsman,” as well as songs; led a wild life in youth, and a very unhappyone in later years; died in poverty (1747-1794).

Burgkmair, Hans, painter and engraver, born at Augsburg; celebratedfor his woodcuts, amounting to nearly 700 (1473-1531).

Burgos (34), ancient cap. of Old Castile, on the Arlanzon, 225 m. N.of Madrid by rail; boasts a magnificent cathedral of the Early Pointedperiod, and an old castle; was the birthplace of the Cid, and once auniversity seat; it has linen and woollen industries.

Burgoyne, John, English general, and distinguished as the last sentout to subdue the revolt in the American colonies, and, after a victoryor two, being obliged to capitulate to General Gates at Saratoga, fellinto disfavour; defended his conduct with ability and successfullyafterwards; devoted his leisure to poetry and the drama, the “Heiress” inthe latter his best (1723-1792).

Burgoyne, Sir John, field-marshal, joined the Royal Engineers,served under Abercromby in Egypt, and under Sir John Moore and Wellingtonin Spain; was present at the battles of Alma, Balaclava, and Inkerman inthe Crimea; was governor of the Tower (1782-1871).

Burgundy was, prior to the 16th century, a Teutonic duchy of varyingextent in the SE. and E. of France; annexed to France as a province inthe 6th century; the country is still noted for its wines.

Burhanpur (32), a town in the Central Provinces of India, in theNimar district, 280 m. NE. of Bombay; was at one time a centre of theMogul power in the Deccan, and a place of great extent; is now incomparative decay, but still famous, as formerly, for its muslins, silks,and brocades.

Buridan, Jean, a scholastic doctor of the 14th century, born inArtois, and famous as the reputed author, though there is no evidence ofit in his works, of the puzzle of the hungry and thirsty ass, calledafter him Buridan's Ass, between a bottle of hay and a pail of water, afavourite illustration of his in discussing the freedom of the will.

Burke, Edmund, orator and philosophic writer, born at Dublin, andeducated at Dublin University; entered Parliament in 1765; distinguishedhimself by his eloquence on the Liberal side, in particular by hisspeeches on the American war, Catholic emancipation, and economicalreform; his greatest oratorical efforts were his orations in support ofthe impeachment of Warren Hastings; he was a resolute enemy of the FrenchRevolution, and eloquently denounced it in his “Reflections,” a weightyappeal; wrote in early life two small but notable treatises, “AVindication of Natural Society,” and another on our ideas of the “Sublimeand Beautiful,” which brought him into contact with the philosophicintellects of the time, and sometime after planned the “Annual Register,”to which he was to the last chief contributor. “He was,” says ProfessorSaintsbury, “a rhetorician (i. e. an expert in applying the art ofprose literature to the purpose of suasion), and probably the greatestthat modern times has ever produced” (1730-1797).

Burke, Sir John Bernard, genealogist, born in London, of Irishdescent, author of the “Peerage and Baronetage of the United Kingdom”;produced, besides editing successive editions of it, a number of works onaristocratic genealogies (1815-1892).

Burke, Robert O'Hara, Australian explorer, born in Galway; conductedan expedition across Australia, but on the way back both he and hiscompanion Wells perished, after terrible sufferings from privation anddrought (1820-1861).

Burke, William, a notorious murderer, native of Ireland; executed in1828 for wholesale murders of people in Edinburgh by suffocation, afterintoxicating them with drink, whose bodies he sold for dissection to anEdinburgh anatomist of the name of Knox, whom the citizens mobbed; he hadan accomplice as bad as himself, who, becoming informer, got off.

Burkitt, William, Biblical expositor, born in Suffolk; author of“Expository Notes on the New Testament,” once held in high esteem(1650-1703).

Burleigh, William Cecil, Lord, a great statesman, born inLincolnshire; bred to the legal profession, and patronised and promotedby the Protector Somerset; managed to escape the Marian persecution;Queen Elizabeth recognised his statesman-like qualities, and appointedhim chief-secretary of state, an office which, to the glory of the queenand the good of the country, he held for forty years, till his death. Hisadministration was conducted in the interest of the commonweal withoutrespect of persons, and nearly all his subordinates were men of honour aswell as himself (1520-1598).

Burlingame, Anson, American diplomatist; sent ambassador to China,and returned as Chinese envoy to the American and European courts;concluded treaties between them and China (1820-1870).

Burma (9,606), a vast province of British India, lying E. of the Bayof Bengal, and bounded landward by Bengal, Tibet, China, and Siam; thecountry is mountainous, drained by the Irawadi, Salween, and SittangRivers, whose deltas are flat fertile plains; the heights on the Chinesefrontier reach 15,000 ft; the climate varies with the elevation, but ismostly hot and trying; rice is the chief crop; the forests yield teak,gum, and bamboo; the mines, iron, copper, lead, silver, and rubies. LowerBurma is the coast-land from Bengal to Siam, cap. Rangoon, and was seizedby Britain in 1826 and 1854. Upper Burma, cap. Mandalay, an empire nearlyas large as Spain, was annexed in 1886.

Burn, Richard, English vicar, born in Westmoreland; compiled severallaw digests, the best known his “Justice of the Peace” and“Ecclesiastical Law” (1709-1785).

Burnaby, Colonel, a traveller of daring adventure, born at Bedford,a tall, powerful man; Colonel of the Horse Guards Blue; travelled inSouth and Central America, and with Gordon in the Soudan; was chieflydistinguished for his ride to Khiva in 1875 across the steppes ofTartary, of which he published a spirited account, and for his travelsnext year in Asia Minor and Persia, and his account of them in “OnHorseback through Asia Minor”; killed, pierced by an Arab spear, at AbuKlea as he was rallying a broken column to the charge; he was a daringaëronaut, having in 1882 crossed the Channel to Normandy in a balloon(1842-1885).

Burnand, Francis Cowley, editor ofPunch; studied for the Church,and became a Roman Catholic; an expert at the burlesque, and author of aseries of papers, entitled “Happy Thoughts,” which give evidence of amost keen, observant wit:b. 1836.

Burne-Jones, Sir Edward, artist, born at Birmingham, of Welshdescent; came early under the influence of the Pre-Raphaelite movement,and all along produced works imbued with the spirit of it, which is atonce mystical in conception and realistic in execution; he was one of theforemost, if not the foremost, of the artists of his day; imbued withideas that were specially capable of art-treatment; William Morris and hewere bosom friends from early college days at Oxford, and used to spendtheir Sunday mornings together (1831-1898).

Burnes, Sir Alexander, born at Montrose, his father a cousin ofRobert Burns; was an officer in the Indian army; distinguished for theservices he rendered to the Indian Government through his knowledge ofthe native languages; appointed Resident at Cabul; was murdered, alongwith his brother and others, by an Afghan mob during an Insurrection(1805-1841).

Burnet, Gilbert, bishop of Salisbury, born at Edinburgh, of an oldAberdeen family; professor of Divinity in Glasgow; afterwards preacher atthe Rolls Chapel, London; took an active part in supporting the claims ofthe Prince of Orange to the English throne; was rewarded with abishopric, that of Salisbury; wrote the “History of the Reformation,” an“Exposition of the Thirty-nine Articles,” the “History of His Own Times”;he was a Whig in politics, a broad Churchman in creed, and a man ofstrict moral principle as well as Christian charity; the most famous ofhis works is his “History of His Own Times,” a work which Pope, Swift,and others made the butt of their satire (1643-1715).

Burnet, John, engraver and author, born at Fisherrow; engravedWilkie's works, and wrote on art (1784-1868).

Burnet, Thomas, master of the Charterhouse, born in Yorkshire,author of the “Sacred Theory of the Earth,” eloquent in descriptiveparts, but written wholly in ignorance of the facts (1635-1715).

Burnett, Frances Hodgson, novelist, born in Manchester, resident fora time in America; wrote “That Lass o' Lowrie's,” and other stories ofLancashire manufacturing life, characterised by shrewd observation,pathos, and descriptive power;b. 1849.

Burney, Charles, musical composer and organist, born at Shrewsbury;a friend of Johnson's; author of “The History of Music,” and the fatherof Madame d'Arblay; settled in London as a teacher of music (1726-1814).

Burney, Charles, son of preceding, a great classical scholar; left afine library, purchased by the British Museum for £13,500 (1757-1817).

Burney, James, brother of preceding, rear-admiral, accompanied Cookin his last two voyages; wrote “History of Voyages of Discovery”(1750-1821).

Burnley (87), a manufacturing town in Lancashire, 27 m. N. ofManchester; with cotton mills, foundries, breweries, &c.

Burnouf, Eugene, an illustrious Orientalist, born in Paris;professor of Sanskrit in the College of France; an authority on Zend orZoroastrian literature; edited the text of and translated the “BhâgavataPurána,” a book embodying Hindu mythology; made a special study ofBuddhism; wrote an introduction to the history of the system (1801-1852).

Burns, John, politician and Socialist, born at Vauxhall, of humbleparentage; bred to be an engineer; imbibed socialistic ideas from afellow-workman, a Frenchman, a refugee of the Commune from Paris; becamea platform orator in the interest of Socialism, and popular among theworking class; got into trouble in consequence; was four times electedmember of the London County Council for Battersea; and has been twiceover chosen to represent that constituency in Parliament;b. 1858.

Burns, Robert, celebrated Scottish poet, born at Alloway, near Ayr,in 1759, son of an honest, intelligent peasant, who tried farming in asmall way, but did not prosper; tried farming himself on his father'sdecease in 1784, but took to rhyming by preference; driven desperate inhis circumstances, meditated emigrating to Jamaica, and published a fewpoems he had composed to raise money for that end; realised a few poundsthereby, and was about to set sail, when friends and admirers ralliedround him and persuaded him to stay; he was invited to Edinburgh; hispoems were reprinted, and money came in; soon after he married, and tooka farm, but failing, accepted the post of exciseman in Dumfries; fellinto bad health, and died in 1796, aged 37. “His sun shone as through atropical tornado, and the pale shadow of death eclipsed it at noon.... Tothe ill-starred Burns was given the power of making man's life morevenerable, but that of wisely guiding his own life was not given.... Andthat spirit, which might have soared could it but have walked, soon sankto the dust, its glorious faculties trodden under foot in the blossom;and died, we may almost say, without ever having lived.” SeeCarlyle's“Miscellanies” for by far the justest and wisest estimate of both the manand the poet that has yet by any one been said or sung. He is at his bestin his “Songs,” he says, which he thinks “by far the best that Britainhas yet produced.... In them,” he adds, “he has found a tune and wordsfor every mood of man's heart; in hut and hall, as the heart unfoldsitself in many-coloured joy and woe of existence, thename, thevoiceof that joy and that woe, is the name and voice which Burns has giventhem.”

Burra-Burra, a copper-mine in S. Australia, about 103 m. NE. ofAdelaide.

Burrard Inlet, an inlet of river Fraser, in British Columbia,forming one of the best harbours on the Pacific coast.

Burritt, Elihu, a blacksmith, born in Connecticut; devoted to thestudy of languages, of which he knew many, both ancient and modern; bestknown as the unwearied Advocate of Peace all over America and a greatpart of Europe, on behalf of which he ruined his voice (1810-1879).

Burroughs, John, popular author, born in New York; a farmer, acultured man, with a great liking for country life and natural objects,on which he has written largely andcon amore;b. 1837.

Burrus, a Roman general, who with Seneca had the conduct of Nero'seducation, and opposed his tyrannical acts, till Nero, weary of hisexpostulations, got rid of him by poison.

Burschenschaft, an association of students in the interest of Germanliberation and unity; formed in 1813, and broken up by the Government in1819.

Burslem (31), a pottery-manufacturing town in Staffordshire, and the“mother of the potteries”; manufactures porcelain and glass.

Burton, John Hill, historian and miscellaneous writer, born atAberdeen; an able man, bred for the bar; wrote articles for the leadingreviews and journals, “Life of Hume,” “History of Scotland,” “TheBook-Hunter,” “The Scot Abroad,” &c.; characterised by Lord Rosebery as a“dispassionate historian”; was Historiographer-Royal for Scotland(1809-1881).

Burton, Sir Richard Francis, traveller, born in Hertfordshire;served first as a soldier in Scind under Sir C. Napier; visited Mecca andMedina as an Afghan pilgrim; wrote an account of his visit in his“Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage, &c.”; penetrated Central Africaalong with Captain Speke, and discovered Lake Tanganyika; visited Utah,and wrote “The City of the Saints”; travelled in Brazil, Palestine, andWestern Africa, accompanied through many a hardship by his devoted wife;translated the “Arabian Nights”; his works on his travels numerous, andshow him to have been of daring adventure (1821-1890).

Burton, Robert, an English clergyman, born in Leicestershire;Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford; lived chiefly in Oxford, spending histime in it for some 50 years in study; author of “The Anatomy ofMelancholy,” which he wrote to alleviate his own depression of mind, abook which is a perfect mosaic of quotations on every conceivable topic,familiar and unfamiliar, from every manner of source (1576-1640). SeeAnatomy of Melancholy.

Burton-on-Trent (46), a town in Staffordshire; brews and exportslarge quantities of ale, the water of the place being peculiarly suitablefor brewing purposes.

Bury (56), a manufacturing town in Lancashire, 10 m. NW. ofManchester; originally but a small place engaged in woollen manufacture,but cotton is now the staple manufacture in addition to paper-works,dye-works, &c.

Bury St. Edmunds, orSt. Edmundsbury (16), a market-town inSuffolk, 26 m. NW. of Ipswich, named from Edmund, king of East Anglia,martyred by the Danes in 870, in whose honour it was built; famous forits abbey, of the interior life of which in the 12th century there is amatchlessly graphic account inCarlyle's “Past and Present.”

Busa`co, a mountain ridge in the prov. of Beira, Portugal, whereWellington with 40,000 troops beat Masséna with 65,000.

Busby, Richard, distinguished English schoolmaster, born at Lutton,Lincolnshire; was head-master of Winchester School; had a number ofeminent men for his pupils, among others Dryden, Locke, and South(1606-1695).

Büsching, Anton Friedrich, a celebrated German geographer; his“Erdbeschreibung,” the first geographical work of any scientific merit;gives only the geography of Europe (1724-1793).

Bushire (27), the chief port of Persia on the Persian Gulf, and agreat trading centre.

Bushmen, orBosjesmans, aborigines of South-west Africa; arude, nomadic race, at one time numerous, but now fast becoming extinct.

Bushrangers, in Australia a gang made up of convicts who escaped tothe “bush,” and there associated with other desperadoes; at one timecaused a great deal of trouble in the colony by their maraudings.

Busiris, a king of Egypt who used to offer human beings insacrifice; seized Hercules and bound him to the altar, but Herculessnapped the bonds he was bound with, and sacrificed him.

Busk, Hans, one of the originators of the Volunteer movement, bornin Wales; author of “The Rifle, and How to Use it” (1815-1882).

Buskin, a kind of half-boot worn after the custom of hunters as partof the costume of actors in tragedy on the ancient Roman stage, and asynonym for tragedy.

Bute, an island in the Firth of Clyde, about 16 m. long and from 3to 5 broad, N. of Arran, nearly all the Marquis of Bute's property, withhis seat at Mount Stuart, and separated from the mainland on the N. by awinding romantic arm of the sea called the “Kyles of Bute.”

Bute, John Stuart, third Earl of, statesman, born of an old Scotchfamily; Secretary of State, and from May 1762 to April 1763 PrimeMinister under George III., over whom he had a great influence; was veryunpopular as a statesman, his leading idea being the supremacy of theking; spent the last 24 years of his life in retirement, devoting himselfto literature and science (1712-1792).

Bute, Marquis of, son of the second marquis, born in Bute; admittedto the Roman Catholic Church in 1868; devoted to archæological studies,and interested in university education;b. 1849.

Butler, Alban, hagiographer, born in Northampton; head of thecollege at St. Omer; wrote “Lives of the Saints” (1710-1773).

Butler, Charles, an English barrister, born in London; wrote“Historical Account of the Laws against the Catholics” (1750-1832).

Butler, Joseph, an eminent English divine, born at Wantage, inBerks; born a Dissenter; conformed to the Church of England; becamepreacher at the Rolls, where he delivered his celebrated “Sermons,” thefirst three of which contributed so much to the stability of moralscience; was raised, in virtue of his merits alone, to the see ofBristol; made dean of St. Paul's, and finally bishop of Durham; his greatwork, “The Analogy of Religion, Natural and Revealed, to the Constitutionand Course of Nature,” the aim of which is twofold—first, to show thatthe objections to revealed religion are equally valid against theconstitution of nature; and second, to establish a conformity between thedivine order in revelation and the order of nature; his style is far frominteresting, and is often obscure (1692-1752).

Butler, Samuel, a master of burlesque, born at Strensham, inWorcestershire, the son of a small farmer; the author of “Hudibras,” apoem of about 10,000 octosyllabic lines, in which he subjects to ridiculethe ideas and manners of the English Puritans of the Civil War and theCommonwealth; it appeared in three parts, the first in 1663, the secondsoon after, and the third in 1678; it is sparkling with wit, yet is hardreading, and few who take it up read it through; was an especialfavourite with Charles II., who was never weary of quoting from it. “Itrepresents,” says Stopford Brooke, “the fierce reaction that (at theRestoration) had set in against Puritanism. It is justly famed,” he adds,“for wit, learning, good sense, and ingenious drollery, and, inaccordance with the new criticism, is absolutely without obscurity. It isoften as terse as Pope's best work; but it is too long; its wit weariesus at last, and it undoes the force of its attacks on the Puritans by itsexaggeration” (1612-1680).

Butler, William Archer, a philosophical writer, born near Clonmel,Ireland; professor of Moral Philosophy at Dublin; author of “Lectures onthe History of Ancient Philosophy” (1814-1848).

Butt, Clara, operatic singer, born in Sussex; made herdébut inLondon at the Albert Hall in the “Golden Legend,” and in “Orfeo” at theLyceum, ever since which appearances she has been much in demand as asinger;b. 1872.

Butt, Isaac, Irish patriot, distinguished for his scholarship atDublin University; became editor of theDublin University Magazine;entered Parliament, and at length took the lead of the “Home Rule” party,but could not control it, and retired (1813-1879).

Buttmann, Philipp, a German philologist, born atFrankfort-on-the-Main; professor of Philology in Berlin; best known byhis “Greek Grammar” (1764-1829).

Buxton, a high-lying town in Derbyshire, noted for its calcareousand chalybeate springs, and a resort for invalids; is also famous for itsrock crystals, stalactite cavern, and fine scenery.

Buxton, Sir Thomas Fowell, a philanthropist, born in Essex, a tallman of energetic character; entered life as a brewer, and made hisfortune; was conspicuous for his interest in benevolent movements, suchas the amelioration of criminal law and the abolition of slavery;represented Weymouth in Parliament from 1818 to 1837; was made a baronetin 1840; he was Wilberforce's successor (1786-1845).

Buxton, Sir Thomas Fowell, once governor of S. Australia, grandsonof the preceding; educated at Harrow and Cambridge; a Liberal inpolitics, and member for King's Lynn from 1865 to 1868; a philanthropistand Evangelical Churchman;b. 1837.

Buxtorf, a celebrated Hebraist, born in Westphalia, member of afamily of Orientalists; professor of Hebrew for 39 years at Basle; wasknown by the title, “Master of the Rabbis” (1564-1629).

Byblis, in the Greek mythology a daughter of Miletus, in love withher brother Caunus, whom she pursued into far lands, till, worn out withsorrow, she was changed into a fountain.

Byng, George, Viscount Torrington, admiral, favoured the Prince ofOrange, and won the navy over to his interest; commanded the squadronthat took Gibraltar in 1704: conquered the Spaniards off Cape Passaro;was made First Lord of the Admiralty in 1727, an office he held till hisdeath (1663-1733).

Byng, John, admiral, fourth son of the preceding; having failed tocompel the French to raise the blockade of Minorca, was recalled, indeference to popular clamour, and being tried and condemned as guilty oftreason, was shot at Portsmouth, a fate it is now believed he did notdeserve, and which he bore like a man and a Christian (1704-1757).

Byrom, John, poet and stenographer, born near Manchester; invented asystem of shorthand, now superseded, and which he had the sole right ofteaching for 21 years; contributed as “John Shadow” to theSpectator;author of the pastoral, “My Time, O ye Muses, was Happily Spent”; hispoetry satirical and genial (1692-1763).

Byron, George Gordon, sixth Lord, an English poet, born in London,son of Captain Byron of the Guards, and Catherine Gordon of Gight,Aberdeenshire; spent his boyhood at Aberdeen under his mother, now awidow, and was educated at Harrow and Cambridge, spending, when at thelatter, his vacations in London, where his mother had taken a house;wrote “Hours of Idleness,” a poor first attempt, which called forth asevere criticism in theEdinburgh Review, and which he satirised in“English Bards and Scotch Reviewers,” and soon afterwards left Englandand spent two years in foreign travel; wrote first part of “ChildeHarold,” “awoke one morning and found himself famous”; produced the“Giaour,” “Bride of Abydos,” “Hebrew Melodies,” and other work. In hisschool days he had fallen in love with Mary Chaworth, but she had notreturned his affection, and in 1815 he married Miss Millbank, an heiress,who in a year left him never to return, when a storm raised against himon account of his private life drove him from England, and he never cameback; on the Continent, moved from place to place, finished “ChildeHarold,” completed several short poems, and wrote “Don Juan”; threwhimself into revolutionary movements in Italy and Greece, risked his allin the emancipation of the latter, and embarking in it, died atMissolonghi in a fit, at the age of 36. His poems, from the character ofthe passion that breathed in them, made a great impression on his age,but the like interest in them is happily now passing away, if not alreadypast; the earth is looking green again once more, under the breath, it isbelieved, of a new spring-time, or anyhow, the promise of such. See“Organic Filaments” in “Sartor Resartus” (1788-1824).

Byron, Henry James, dramatist, born in Manchester, wrote “Our Boys”(1834-1884).

Byron, John, naval officer, grandfather of the poet, nicknamed fromhis misfortunes “Foul-weather Jack”; accompanied Anson in his voyageround the world, but was wrecked in his ship theWager; suffered almostunexampled hardships, of which he wrote a classical account on his safereturn home; he rose to the rank of admiral, and commanded the squadronin the West Indies during the American war; died in England (1723-1786).

Byrsa, a celebrated citadel of Carthage.

Byzantine Art, a decorative style of art patronised by the Romansafter the seat of empire was removed to the East; it has been describedby Mr. Fairholt as “an engraftment of Oriental elaboration of detail uponclassic forms, ending in their debasement.”

Byzantine Empire, called also the Eastern, the Lower, or the GreekEmpire; dates from 395 A.D., when, by the death of Theodosius, the Romanempire was divided between his two sons, Arcadius and Honorius, theEastern section falling to the share of the former, who established theseat of his government at Byzantium; the empire included Syria, AsiaMinor, Pontus, Egypt in Africa, and Ancient Greece, and it lasted withvaried fortune for ten centuries after the accession of Arcadius, tillConstantinople was taken by the Turks in 1453.

Byzantium, the ancient name of Constantinople; founded by Greekcolonists in 667 B.C.

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