EUROPE,Peoples of. All Europeans belongto the White or Caucasian and the Yellow orMongoloid varieties of man. Throughout historictime Europe has been a meeting-ground of races,differing from each other in complexion, stature,physical features, temperament, language,occupation, social organization, government, opinion,and religion. In studying the ethnology of thisportion of the Eastern Hemisphere it is imperativeto hold these several categories apart in themind, especially those of race or blood kinship,the result of cross-breeding; speech or linguisticaffinities, the result of acculturation; arts, theresult of commerce or contact; and social life ornationality, the result of conquest. It is truethat these concepts are related, and each is ofvalue in the whole account of any people. When,however, one attempts to argue that people whospeak the same language or practice the samearts are necessarily akin, confusion is certain toarise.

HELLENIC FAMILY - A GREEK	SLAVIC FAMILY - A RUSSIAN
TEUTONIC FAMILY - A GERMAN	HEBREW FAMILY
CELTIC FAMILY - AN IRISHMAN	LATIN FAMILY - AN ITALIAN
COPYRIGHT 1902, BY DODD, MEAD & COMPANY	JULIUS BIEN & CO.LITH.N.Y.

Beginning with the first account of ancient manin Europe, paleo-ethnology may be divided intothree parts: (1) Tertiary man, or the origin ofhumanity; (2) Quaternary man, or the developmentof humanity; (3) present types of man. Itis to he distinctly understood that this classificationis intended only as a guide to study. Newdiscoveries are constantly demanding new adjustmentswith reference to the earliest races of menin Europe.

The existence of Tertiary man is yet in doubt,for our sole information concerning him restsupon the finding of extremely rude stone implementsin geological layers which are thoughtto be Tertiary. These supposed primitive implementsmay be, however, only the refuse of latermanufactures of more delicate objects. Such isthe case in America, where, at first, materials ofthis character were regarded as showing theexistence of man on this continent manythousands of years ago. They are now known to bethe quarry refuse of historic tribes.

Still keeping in mind geological epochs, Europeanarchæologists divide human culture intoPrehistoric, Protohistoric, and Historic. Again,it is thought possible to separate the life of manin Europe into ages according to the materialswhich characterize the several periods, as theStone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age. It musthe remembered at this point, however, that theword “age” does not refer to definite chronologicaldates, but that in the progress of human developmentman lived first in the stone grade, next inthe bronze grade, and lastly in the iron grade ofculture.

Leaving out of view, then, the question as tothe existence of man in the Tertiary period,substantial exploration begins with the Quaternaryepoch. In his investigations there the inquireris everywhere confronted by problems concerningcosmic changes in climate, the plants andanimals which were contemporaneous with manduring these changes, the species or varieties of manbased on the human crania actually discovered,as well as on the progress in arts, especially thosein stone. Notwithstanding the speculativecharacter of much that is affirmed about Quaternaryman in Europe, an examination of the accumulatedevidences leaves the impression of a longperspective of history, in which the life of thespecies, at first almost as naturistic as that ofthe beasts, was gradually transformed by humaningenuity into' the higher culture, the life whereinnearly every conscious action is performedartificially. On the assumption that the forwardmovement of this artificial life is an unquestionablefact, the relics of human industry discoveredin the caves and other archæological stationsthroughout all the countries of Europe may bemapped out in a series. Attempts have been madeto mark epochs in this progress, and names havebeen given to them from locations where typicalspecimens of that particular grade of art wereto be found, beginning with the Chellean, andending with the Tourassian for the Paleolithicperiod.

As for man himself, out of less than fiftyskulls to which the title Quaternary has beenapplied, not more than a dozen can be vouched foras beyond question. All of them arelong-headed or dolichocephalic in form. That is, theratio of the length to the width of the skull isless than 80-82. With our present knowledgeit is possible to divide the oldest crania into thefollowing types: the Neanderthal or spy man,referable to theMousterian Epoch (q.v.); andthe Laugerie Basse and Chancelade (Dordogne)type, to be referred to the Magdalenian Epoch.(SeeMadeleine, La.) The Neanderthal-spytype had the cephalic or length-width index ofthe skull, 70-75.3, together with a low, retreatingforehead, prominent brow-ridges, and probablylow stature, about 1.59 m., or 62½ inches. Thisrace did not fully disappear from Europe inearly times. Neanderthaloid skulls have beenfound in the later prehistoric and historicgraves and dolmens, and individuals of the sametype exist in Europe and America at the presenttime. The Laugerie-Chancelade type was alsolong-headed like the other, but the forehead washigher and the skull more capacious. Theprojecting brow-ridges were absent, the orbits werehigher, the face with its prominent cheek boneswas elevated and broad, but the stature was low.After these two types, short of stature, came theso-called Cro-Magnon race, who were extremelylong headed, the ratio of the head length to thewidth being from 63 to 75; the face and the orbitswere low, but the stature was lofty, approaching68 inches.

After these vague epochs came the Neolithic orPolished Stone Period, followed by the Bronze orTsiganian Period, and this by the Age of Iron.These changes did not come by sudden breakingdown of the stone and bronze ages, but by transitionalsteps with a separate history in each ofthe countries of Europe. For instance, the Polished Stone Period was not developedsimultaneously over the Continent. Scandinavia, in itsnorthern parts, was covered with glaciers, andonly in the refuse-piles in Denmark are polishedstone hatchets found contemporaneously withNeolithic tools of the rest of Europe. There wereeven, until quite recently, tribes in Russia whowere still in this grade of progress.

These ancient Neolithic peoples were sedentaryand industrial. Their fund was not obtainedwholly by natural processes, hut artificialism inthe cultivation of the soil and the domesticationnf animals progressed. Their homes were nolonger movable tents, but substantial buildings.They constructed the pile dwellings of Switzerland,France, Italy, and perhaps of Ireland.They buried their dead under dolmens, and itwas they who set up huge megalithic monumentsin England, Brittany, and Spain.

The Neolithic peoples of the British Isles, aswell as of other parts of western Europe, werequite long-headed, the ratio of the length to thewidth of the skull being as low as 65-75. Theseearliest of European industrial peoples had alsolong faces like some existing populations ofEurope. It must be carefully noted at thispoint that in Sweden, France, Switzerland,Germany, Austria, Spain, and Portugal crania ofshort-headed peoples are found mixed withdolichocephalic skulls. This tells an importantstory, for it clearly shows that with progressrace-mixture had begun to take place, the borrowingof blood being associated with the communityof arts. Another fact worthy of notice is thatthe erection of huge stone and earth monuments,called barrows by ethnologists, indicates theconsolidation of society, implying an increasingnumber of persons who could be brought togetherin the same enterprise, and the consequent raisingof an artificial food-supply so that these massesmight coöperate for longer periods of time.

The so-called Ages of Metal in Europe, thatis, of Copper, Bronze, and Iron, comprise theremaining epochs in the popular scheme ofEuropean archæology. In America the earliestimplements in copper were cold-hammered andground into shape, the material being treatedtechnically precisely as if it were stone. It isnot surprising, therefore, to find the samecondition of things in Europe. The parallelism isalmost perfect in every respect. Copper toolsand weapons do not mark a separate epoch, meaningthat the stone implements ceased to be usedat once, nor must it be inferred that there wasa Copper Age as distinguished from a BronzeAge, for copper tools and weapons are foundassociated with bronze relics. And here arises oneof the most interesting inquiries of all, how farthe exquisite products in bronze, found all overEurope, are results of indigenous development,and how far they indicate commerce or instructionfrom without. There is no doubt that bothof these factors coöperated, the result of whichwas the art as it existed in each region.

It is a well-known law of progress that suggestionis one of the strongest incentives to the useof materials and processes. There existed incentral and western Europe a Bronze Age, whichin some characteristics of its products resemblesthe Orient and in others is entirely original. Theart of bronze smelting and working could notarise originally and develop completely andindependently in any land; and secondly, such anart could not be imposed bodily upon a peoplewho were not far enough advanced to add to itmany thoughts and technical processes of theirown. Progress and complexity in artificialactivities are produced by the mutual influence ofraces and peoples. In proof of this, the BronzeAge witnessed the coming of a great variety ofphysical types. In England the people becamemore brachycephalic, the ratio of head-length tohead-width being 81. In Sweden and Denmarklong-headed people, tall and fair-haired, coëxistedwith those of much larger index. In the Valleyof the Rhine, as well as in southern Germanyand Switzerland, the dolichocephaly was morepronounced. Knowledge of the use of fire amongthe peoples of the Bronze Age wascontemporaneous also with the cremation of the dead.

The earliest relics of the Iron Age are foundin the hamlet of Hallstatt, in Upper Austria,in thousands of graves, revealing implementsof industry, weapons, and personal ornaments,but no pottery. At first it seemed to havehad no affiliation with any other national art,but later researches put the earliest Iron Age asa medium between the more advanced art ofsouthern Europe and the West. Iron graduallyreplaced bronze, which had then passed into itsæsthetic stage, and revealed the existence ofOriental influence in Europe. The long heads alsobecame mingled with short, heads, and in the LaTene, also called Marnean, epoch, skulls varyalmost as much as at the present day.

The types of races mentioned extend far beyondthe boundaries of Europe into Asia and Africa.The lines between the continents are entirelyartificial.

Ripley finds three separate biological races ofmen in Europe:

1. TEUTONIC RACE. Dolicho-leptorhine of Kohlmann;Reihengräber of German writers; Germanicof English; Kymric of French; Nordic or Deniker;and Homo Europæus of Lapouge.

2. ALPINE RACE (or Celtic). Celto-Slavic of Frenchwriters; Sarmatian of Von Hölder; Disentis ofGerman writers; Arvernian of Beddoe; Occidental ofDeniker; Homo Alpinus of Lapouge; and Lappanoldof Pruner-Bey.

3. MEDITERRANEAN RACE. Iberian of English writers;Ligurian of Italian writers; Ibero-Insular andAtlanta-Mediterranean of Deniker.

Inquiry into the causes of difference in stature,head-form, and color, leads to the profoundest ofbiological studies. To say that inheritance andvariation is sufficient to account for them is toexplain nothing. Even stature is not always amatter of nutrition. Much controversy hasarisen over the origin of blondness in northernEurope. No doubt, albinism is more pronouncedin Europe. Its marked appearance elsewhere isamong the kindred peoples in northern Africaand southeastern Asia. The popular notion thatexposure to the action of the sun's rays is thecause of brunetteness is altogether at fault. Nosingle known cause produces either albinism orbrunetteness. It is quite probable that long agothe subspecies to which Europeans belong wereyellow or Mongoloid in color, and that by thecoöperation of environment and obscurephysiological processes these characteristics becamefixed and persistent through heredity.

Having fixed these three biological types inmind, the difficulty is in finding their representativesin modern Europe. Race is a matter ofblood kinship, requiring isolation under favorableconditions for bringing about newcharacteristics that become distinguishing and hereditary.These combined marks define race, andare not to be confounded with the term ‘people.’

A people is a collection of human beings livingtogether under a definite nationality and occupyinga specific region. It is an expansible term,applying, it may be, to a small community, as thepeople of a certain valley or plain, but can alsoinclude all who are under the sway of a greatnationality. In Europe there are the people ofFrance, Belgium, Scandinavia, and Germany; ofItaly, Spain, and Portugal; of Switzerland,Tyrol, and the Netherlands; of the British Isles,Russia, Turkey, and Greece; and each one ofthese peoples becomes a problem to be solved withreference to race. No people are of one race, norace is confined to a single people. The entirepopulation of Europe is 360,000,000, and besidesthe three races already mentioned, which includenearly all of this number, there are a few stragglingpeoples belonging to other races, such asthe Basques, Lapps, Magyars, Semites, andGypsies.

In the classification just described the racesare only ideal types; but one of the latestauthors on this subject. Deniker, publishes a schemeof the races of men more after the manner ofthe naturalists. Passing by the assumption thatthere may have been formerly a certain smallnumber of typical races out of which all thepeoples of Europe have grown, he takes the totalpopulation as he would a number of animals,and divides them up on biological characteristicsas he finds them, without inquiring into theircauses. The nations and peoples now existingin Europe have arisen from mixture in varyingproportions of ancient varieties of our species.By abstracting from these millions of individualscertain ones having groups of definitecharacteristics relating to stature, the form of the head,pigmentation, and other somatic data, Denikerdetermines the status of each race, giving rise tosix principal and four secondary races, leavingout Lapps, Ugrians, Mongolians, and othersbelonging to Asia.

Deniker's Scheme of European Peoples
I.	Wavy brown or black hair, dark eyes.
	1. Littoral European race — tall stature; elongated, oval face; straight fine nose; mesocephalic. ${\displaystyle \begin{array}{c}\\ \\ \\ \\ \end{array}\}}$ Tawny white skin, black hair. 2. Ibero-Insular race — short stature, dolichocephalic. 3. Western European race — short stature, round face, strongly brachycephalic. ${\displaystyle \begin{array}{c}\\ \\ \\ \end{array}\}}$ Dull white skin, brown hair. 4. Adriatic race — tall stature, elongated face, brachycephalic.
II.	Fair, wavy, or straight hair, light eyes.
	5. Northern European race — somewhat wavy hair and reddish; tall stature; dolichocephalic. ${\displaystyle \begin{array}{c}\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \end{array}\}}$ Reddish white skin. 6. Eastern European race — somewhat straight flaxen hair; short stature; sub-brachycephalic.

Sergi pushes the study of classifying Europeansstill further into the domain of naturalhistory. In his work on the Mediterranean Race,he emphasizes the obligations which modernEurope owes to ancient peoples, like the Hamitesof Egypt and northern Africa, the Semites ofsouthwestern Asia, the early Greeks, Italians,and Iberians, for the foundation of their culture.

Laying aside the biological divisions of Europeanpeoples or countries, the concept of speechmay be invoked to show what languages theyuse. At the outset it is affirmed that no peoplebelong to one language, no language is confined toone people. The following general scheme showsthe relationship between nationality andlanguages in Europe:

Bibliography. Sources of information on theethnology of Europe are abundant. Ripleycompiled, as a supplement to hisRaces of Europe, abibliography of two thousand titles arranged byauthors and by topics. The official publicationsof anthropological societies pay great attention toliterature on all branches of this subject. Theprincipal serials are theAmerican Anthropologist(Washington);Annales de Démographie(Paris);Anthropologie (Paris);Archiv fürAnthropologie (Brunswick);Archivio perl'Antropologia (Florence);Beiträge zurAnthropologie und Urgeschichte Bayerns (Munich);Bulletins de la Société d'Anthropologie de Paris(Paris);Centralblatt für Anthropologie,Ethnologie und Urgeschichte (Munich);Correspondenz-Blatt der deutschen Gesellschaft fürAnthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte(Brunswick);Journal of the AnthropologicalInstitute of Great Britain and Ireland (London);Mémoires de la Société d'Anthropologie de Paris(Paris);Memoirs Read Before the AnthropologicalSociety of London (London);Mittheilungender anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien(Vienna);Petermanns Mittheilungen aus JustusPerthes geographischer Anstalt (Gotha);Revued'Anthropologie (Paris);Revue Mensuelle deL'Ecole d'Anthropologie de Paris (Paris);Revue d'Ethnographie (Paris);Verhandlungen derBerliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, its organbeing theZeitschrift für Ethnologie (Berlin).

At the close of the nineteenth century appearedthe following comprehensive works, more or lessdevoted to European ethnology: Keane,Ethnology(Cambridge, 1896); id.,Man, Past andPresent (Cambridge, 1899); Ripley,The Races ofEurope (New York, 1899); Deniker,The Racesof Man (London, 1900); Macnamara,Origin andCharacter of the British People (London, 1900);Mortillet, G. and A.,La préhistorique origine etantiquité de l'homme (Paris, 1900); GiuseppeSergi,The Mediterranean Race (London, 1901).

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