The climate is nowhere severe, although, owing to the range inelevation within the State, there is a considerable range intemperature. The mean annual temperature ranges from 54° to 55° F.,being highest in the neighbourhood of the Ohio, in the westernpart of the State, and lowest upon the high mountains in theeastern and north-eastern portion. The maximum is rarely above95° in any portion of the State, while the minimum occasionallyreaches 10° in the more mountainous section. The rainfall maybe given broadly at between 40 and 50 inches annually. It alsovaries with the elevation, being less in the lower portions andgreatest upon the high mountains.

The fauna of the State is that common to the whole southernAppalachian region. Much of the area being as yet in a state ofnature, deer of the white-tailed species are still abundant, andblack bear are not unfrequently met with in the more rugged andremote portions. Wild turkeys are still found in some localities,and the mountains have long been a popular resort for hunters,while the streams, abounding in trout, afford an equally attractivefield for the angler.

The timber resources of the State are enormous, and a smallproportion of its area, amounting to only about 25 per cent., has beencleared. The remainder is covered with virgin forest. Thisconsists mainly of broad-leafed trees of the most valuable sorts forlumber, such as chestnut, black walnut, cherry, ash, poplar,hickory, locust, maple, oak, &c. Considerable areas of white pineare found in the highest portions of the plateau, being practicallythe only original forests of this wood left in the United States.Besides these there are considerable quantities of yellow pine,hemlock, spruce, and cedar scattered through the State.

Viewed broadly, the geological structure of Vest Virginia isextremely simple. Practically the entire State is overlaid by nearlyhorizontal beds of the Carboniferous formation. The coal of WestVirginia forms its principal mineral wealth. It is estimated thatof its entire area not less than 16,000 square miles are underlaidby workable beds of coal. TheReport of the United StatesGeological Survey upon mineral resources defines the general boundariesof the coal fields of the State as follows:—“The eastern boundarybegins at the south on the mountain range just east of the BluestoneRiver, and proceeds east to Little Sewell Mountain; . . . . .thence with the common boundary of Nicholas and Greenbrier and of

Webster and Pocahontas counties to Rich Mountain in Randolphcounty; following this last-named ridge to Laurel Mountain, thedividing line between Upshur county on the west and Randolphand Barbour counties on the east, and thence with the BrieryMountain into Preston county, and soon to the Pennsylvania Stateline.” All the area to the west of this line is underlain by coal. Tothe east of it there are small outlying patches, as in Greenbrier,Meadow Mountain, and possibly in Pocahontas, Tucker, Grant, andMineral counties, but these are unimportant as compared with thevast areas in the west. In the gorge of every large stream flowingthrough this area are seen outcropping beds of coal, easily accessibleto the miner, and requiring only facilities of transportationto render the mineral of commercial value. In the matter of coalproduction the State is rapidly acquiring prominence. From aproduction in 1873 of 600,000 tons, it reached in 1886 a productionof over 4,000,000 tons, being exceeded by only four of the States,viz., Pennsylvania, Illinois, Ohio, and Iowa. The production islimited only by the demand, as the supply is almost inexhaustible.The coals of the State are of every variety except anthracite, andare noted for their purity for coking, steam, and gas purposes andfor domestic fuel.

Iron ore is abundant in various portions of the State, but isworked only to a comparatively limited extent.

Salt springs are found in the valley of the Kanawha and in thatof the Ohio, and there are extensive evaporating works in both theselocalities. The production, however, has been retarded by thecompetition of those in Michigan, owing to the greater cheapnessof fuel and better facilities for transportation in the latter locality.The production of salt in West Virginia in 1886 amounted to250,000 barrels. West Virginia contains numerous valuable mineralsprings, among the best known of which are the Greenbrier WhiteSulphur springs in Greenbrier county, Capon springs in Hampshirecounty, Irondale springs in Preston county, and Red Sulphursprings and Salt Sulphur springs both in Monroe county. Theseare well-known and popular summer resorts in the mountains, andthe waters from them are shipped to all parts of the UnitedStates.

While the entire State may be said to be either mountainous orhilly, it contains a large extent of arable land. Nearly all of thelower hill country can be cultivated, while in the mountainousregion there are numerous broad valleys of excellent soil, andeverywhere the hill and mountain sides can be cultivated if theslope is not excessively steep. The tenth census (1880) reportedan area of 10,193,779 acres of land in farms, of which 3,792,327acres, or about one-fourth the area of the State, was improved land,this being mainly in the lower and less mountainous portion. Theaverage size of farms was 163 acres, showing as compared with theaverage 10 years earlier, viz., 214 acres, a decided decrease. Thevalue of farms and farming implements was very nearly $136,000,000.The numbers of live stock upon farms, as distinguished fromanimals owned for business purposes in cities, consisted in January1888 of 138,231 horses, 6475 mules, 474,933 sheep, 432,778 hogs,171,273 milch cows, and 780,892 other cattle,—showing that thelive-stock interests of the State are very large. The estimated valueof all farm products sold, consumed, or on hand, as returned in 1880,was $19,360,049. The principal agricultural products are wheat,Indian corn, hay, tobacco, oats, and garden vegetables. The cerealproducts for 1887 consisted of 12,516,000 bushels of corn, 2,840,000of wheat, and 2,531,000 of oats.

The manufactures, which are not extensive, are concentratedmainly at Wheeling, the largest city, on the Ohio, in the northernpart of the State; they consist mainly of manufactures of iron andsteel, glass, flouring and grist mill products, lumber, and leather.There were in 1880 2375 manufacturing establishments, employinga capital of $13,883,390 and 14,351 persons. The value ofmanufactured products was $22,867,126.

There are 1200 miles of completed railroads, with severalbranches and one trunk line in process of construction. TheBaltimore and Ohio Railroad traverses the State from Parkersburgand Bellaire on the Ohio, the two branches meeting at Grafton,and running thence eastward to Washington, Baltimore, and NewYork. The Newport News and Mississippi Valley Railroad runsacross the State from the mouth of the Big Sandy on the westto the Alleghanies near White Sulphur springs, and thence extendsto Richmond and Newport News. The Ohio River line runsfrom Wheeling to Huntington on the Ohio. The West VirginiaCentral extends from Piedmont on the Baltimore and Ohio lineto a point in Randolph county, and is now in process of constructionsouth-westward to intersect the Newport News and MississippiValley line. The Clarksburg and Weston, intersecting the Baltimoreand Ohio at Clarksburg, extends to Weston in Lewis county,and this has two branches, one to Glenville in Gilmer county,and the other to Buckhannon in Upshur county. The Grafton andGreenbrier Railroad, intersecting the Baltimore and Ohio at Grafton,extends up the Valley river to Belington in Barbour county. TheNorfolk and Western Railroad, one of the main trunk lines of theAtlantic States, has a part of its lines in the southern portion of

West Virginia. Railway construction is exceedingly active in allparts of the State, several new lines and numerous branches ofexisting lines being under construction and in contemplation.

Education.The State early in its history (December 1863) adopted a liberalsystem of free schools. The plan is known as the township ordistrict system,—the magisterial district or subdivison of eachcounty being taken as the unit for taxation, and the general controlof all the school interests of the district being placed in the handsof a district board of education elected by the people, and authorizedamong other duties to levy taxes, to determine the number ofmonths of school and the number of sub-districts, to plant andbuild schoolhouses, and to manage the financial and other schoolinterests of the districts. There is likewise in each county asuperintendent, and in the State a general superintendent. Thissystem has since been maintained and strengthened by legislativeenactment till from 133 schoolhouses and 431 public schools of allgrades in 1865 there were in 1887 4587 schoolhouses in the State.In 1865 the amount expended in support of free schools was $7722;this gradually increased till in 1887 the amount was $1,087,674.The number of teachers employed by public appropriation was 387in 1865; in 1887 it was 5106. The estimated value ofschoolhouses in the State, 140,000 in 1865, was 2,000,000 in 1887.The average attendance in 1865 was 44 days; in 1887 it was108. The school system of the State is made permanent by theconstitutional enactment referred to, which requires that thelegislature shall provide by general law for a thorough and efficientsystem of free schools. The general school system involves theeducation of teachers, and with this object from 1867 to 1872 thelegislature provided for the establishment of six normal schools,which are in successful operation. In these schools tuition isfree to all who desire to prepare themselves for teaching. Theyare popular among the people, and have done much to elevate thegeneral standard of education. They prescribe courses of threeyears; nearly all of them have preparatory courses; four of themgive collegiate training, and in all of them the study of ancient andmodern languages is optional. The school system involves alsowhat is known as the irreducible school fund. The principal,which now amounts to $600,000, is permanently invested. Thisfund is constantly augmented from sources provided by law andby voluntary contributions.

The United States Government has erected public buildings forits judicial, postal, and revenue departments within the State atWheeling, Clarksburg, Parkersburg, and Charleston, the capitalof the State. WhileWheeling (q.v.) was temporarily the capital,a building was erected by its citizens for the uses of the State, whichis now used for city purposes. The six normal schools alreadyreferred to have suitable buildings at Fairmont, Glenville,Huntington, Concord, Shepherdstown, and West Liberty. The hospitalfor the insane at Weston in Lewis county and a branch asylumin course of construction at Spencer in Roane county, a deaf-muteand blind asylum at Romney in Hampshire county, a penitentiaryat Moundsville in Marshall county, and a university supported bythe State at Morgantown in Monongalia county may be mentionedamong the other public institutions of West Virginia.

The assessed valuation of real estate in 1887 amounted to$118,753,342, and that of personal property to $43,710,175; that ofrailroad property in 1880 was $4,497,030, and in 1887 $22,797,984.The State tax is 30 cents on each hundred dollars of valuation.

An amendment to the constitution is now pending, by which itis proposed to prohibit the sale or manufacture of intoxicatingliquors. At present the laws of the State—and they have beenenforced with more or less of modification almost since its foundation—involvethe high licence system. The granting of the licence isbased in all cases on good character, and is subject to the discretionof the county commissioners. Under the operation of these laws,and by virtue of local sentiment in its enforcement, no licence hasbeen granted (and hence in effect the traffic has been prohibited)in as many as 38 of the 54 counties. The licence is subject to atax fixed by the State law, and where sales are to be made inincorporated villages it is subject to an additional tax, which isfixed by the authorities of the incorporation.

In 1880 the population of the State was 618,457. That of theprincipal cities was—Wheeling, 30,737; Parkersburg, 6582;Martinsburg, 6335; Charleston (the State capital), 4192; Grafton,3030; and Charlestown, 2016. The coloured population numbered25,886, the foreign-born population 18,265. The increase inpopulation from 1870 to 1880 was 39.9 per cent. The proportionof native whites was 93 per cent. of the whole number of whites,which is larger than that of any other State in the Union. Thepopular vote at late elections indicates a population of 800,000, andthat of Wheeling, Charleston, and Parkersburg is shown by localinvestigation to have very largely increased.

The executive power is vested in a governor elected by the peoplefor a term of four years, and ineligible under the constitution forre-election. There are also an auditor, a treasurer, an attorney-general,a secretary of state and State superintendent of freeschools, who with the governor constitute a board of public works,

and are likewise elected by the people for terms of four years, exceptthe secretary of state and a librarian (who isex officio adjutant-general),who are appointed by the governor. The legislativepower is vested in a senate and house of delegates. The senateembraces 26 members, half of whom are elected every alternatetwo years, for a term of four years. The house of delegates consistsof 66 members, who are elected every two years. The legislaturemeets biennially, and may be convened in extraordinary session bythe governor, or by the concurrence of three-fifths of its members.The veto power is vested in the governor, but a majorityconcurring in each house of the legislature overrides it. The judiciaryconsists of a supreme court of appeals, with four judges, who in caseof their equal division affirm the judgment of the lower court, andof circuit courts, with one judge each, exercising general originalpower and appellate jurisdiction over magistrates or justices ofthe peace, and of magistrates and justices of the peace, whosejurisdiction in civil cases is limited to $300, and who exercisecriminal jurisdiction in petty offences, and may issue warrants ofarrest and make preliminary examination and commit for trial inthe circuit court in cases of crime. The fiscal regulations of thecounties are confided to a board, consisting of three countycommissioners. The county organization consists of these commissioners,a sheriff, deputy sheriffs, a circuit court clerk, a county clerk, whois recorder of deeds, wills, &c., board of education, school trustees,overseers of roads, a commissioner of school lands, an overseer of thepoor, and a commissioner of accounts. All these except the deputysheriffs, commissioner of accounts, commissioner of school lands,and overseer of the poor are elected by the people.

The establishment of West Virginia as a State wasconsummated on 20th June 1863. Its creation and admission weredue to conditions which existed prior to the civil war of 1861-65,to popular sentiment which those conditions developed when thewar was precipitated, and to the exigencies of the war itself. TheAlleghany Mountains had divided the State of Virginia politicallyand commercially, and in the sentiment relating to her systems oftaxation, revenue, and public expenditure into a Virginia and a“Western” Virginia, long before the civil conflict gave permanentresult and fixed an official definition to the line ofdemarcation between them. Even after the war and the formation ofthe new State the title to two counties, Jefferson and Berkeley,“lying east of the mountains,” was the subject of legislation andcontention before the courts. They were in 1870 judiciallydeclared by the supreme court of the United States to be a part ofthe State of West Virginia. The western part of Virginia wassparsely peopled, its great forests undeveloped, its vast mineralresources only partially realized, and its slave interestscomparatively small. The eastern section contained the larger population,owned the great bulk of slave property, and exercised controllingpower over State affairs. The Alleghanies, dividing the twosections, in the absence of transverse railroad facilities naturally sentthe citizens of one side with the flow of their navigable waters towestern and southern markets, while those of the other, moved bysimilar natural causes, turned to the seaboard for their commercialand business intercourse. The basis of taxation, the basis ofrepresentation, and the relation of the slave interests to these, withthe measure and distribution of public funds for works of internalimprovement and other questions of local concern, constitutedelements of continual controversy, and served to detract largelyfrom the homogeneity of the population. Early in January 1861the legislature of Virginia, in extra session, passed a bill calling aconvention of the people to meet in the following month. At thesame election the people were to vote on the question whether theseparation of Virginia from the Union should be determined by theconvention or be submitted by the convention to the people forratification or rejection. The majority at the election in favour ofsubmitting the question of secession to the people was overwhelming,and was construed as indicating the loyal sentiment of the peopleof north-western Virginia. On the 17th of April, after thebombardment of Fort Sumter, the convention passed an ordinance ofsecession, and on the 24th a schedule submitting it to the people.The ordinance of secession was adopted by the people of Virginia,but the majority against it in the north-western part of the Statewas very large. A convention of the unionist counties, which metat Wheeling in June, adopted an ordinance for the reorganization ofthe State government, and in August adopted an ordinanceproviding for the formation of a new State, to be named “Kanawha,”comprising thirty-nine specified counties, and to include othercounties also named, provided their vote should indicate suchdesire. Under this provision a number of counties were afterwardsadded to the original thirty-nine. At the time of the vote upon theproposition to form a new State war was raging throughout itsproposed borders, and many of its counties had been the scene ofviolence and blooodshed. Many citizens were in the field as soldierson the respective sides, and this fact, coupled with the generalconditions, caused a small vote to be polled. Of this comparativelysmall vote, however, a large majority was for the new State, andmembers were elected to a constitutional convention. This

convention met at Wheeling in November, and formed a constitution for theproposed new State, and designated it the State of West Virginia.This constitution was submitted to the people, and adopted by anoverwhelming majority in April 1862. In May the legislature ofthe “reorganized Government” of Virginia passed a bill to authorizethe formation of the new State out of the territory of the oldState of Virginia, as indicated by the recently ratified constitution,and in the same month this Act of the Legislature, accompanied byits memorial and a certified copy of the constitution and proceedingsby which it had been adopted, was presented to Congress.The subject led to grave discussion in that body, but ultimatelythe proposed constitution was carried, with but one modificationaffecting the freedom of children of slaves thereafter to be bornwithin the limits of the new State. A new constitution wasadopted in 1872. The State of West Virginia being the resultof a double revolution that of the State of Virginia againstthe Federal Union and that of her north-western counties againstthe seceding State of Virginia its people are conservative andstrikingly homogeneous. Even in the throes of revolutiondeclaring separation from the mother State provision was madefor the assumption of a just share of the old State debt, thoughits adjustment has never yet been reached. West Virginia has noother debt. Falling naturally, as did most of the border States,immediately after the war, into violent proscriptions of thereturning Confederate element, West Virginia was one of the firstof the States to modify and repeal these enactments. By theelection of 1870 they were abrogated for ever, and since that timethe issues and consequences of war have so far disappeared as toleave no perceptible trace behind. (J. E. K.)