ABYSSINIA

The name Abyssinia, or more properly Habessinia, is derived from theArabic wordHabesch, which signifies mixture or confusion, and was applied to this country by theArabs on account of the mixed character of the people. This was subsequentlyLatinised by thePortuguese intoAbassia andAbassinos, and hence the present name. The Abyssinians call themselvesItiopyaean, and their countryItiopia, orManghesta Itiopia, the kingdom ofEthiopia.

The country of Abyssinia rises rather abruptly from the low arid district on the borders of theRed Sea in lofty ranges ofmountains, and slopes away more gradually to the westward, where the tributaries of theNile have formed numerous deepvalleys. It consists for the most part of extensive and elevatedtable-lands, with mountain ranges extending indifferent directions, and intersected by numerous valleys. The table-lands are generally from 6000 to9000 feet above the level of the sea, but in the south there are some of considerable extent, which attain a height of more than10,000 feet. The mountains in various parts of the country rise to 12,000 and13,000 feet above the sea, and some of the peaks of Samen are said to reach to 15,000 feet, and to be always covered with snow. The average height of the range which divides the streams flowing to the east from those that flow westward is about8000 feet, rising to 10,000 or 11,000 in the south, and sinking in the north. The whole country presents the appearance of having been broken up and tossed about in a remarkable manner, the mountains assuming wild and fantastic forms, with sides frequently abrupt and precipitous, and only accessible by very difficult passes. The Samen range of mountains are the highest in Abyssinia, and together with the Lamalmon and Lasta mountains form a long but not continuous chain, running from north to south.

The principal rivers of Abyssinia are tributaries of theNile. The western portion of the country may be divided into three regions, drained respectively by theMareb, theAtbara, and theAbai. The most northern of these rivers is theMareb, which rises in the mountains of Taranta, flows first south, then west, and afterwards turns to the north, where it is at length, after a course of upwards of500 miles, lost in the sand, but in the rainy season it falls into the Atbara. TheAtbara, or Takazza, rises in the mountains of Lasta, and flowing first north, then west, and again turning to the north, at length falls into theNile, after a course of about800 miles. TheAbai, Bahr-el-Azrek or Blue River, the eastern branch of theNile, and considered byBruce to be the main stream of that river, rises from two mountains nearGeesh, inlat. 10° 59′ 25″ N.,long. 36° 55′ 30″ E., about10,000 feet above the level of the sea. It flows first north to the Lake of Dembea or Tzana, then takes a long semicircular sweep round the province ofGodjam, and afterwards flows northward to about the 15th degree of N.lat., where it unites with the Bahr-el-Abiad, which has now been ascertained to be the trueNile. TheHawash, the principal river of eastern Abyssinia, rises aboutlat. 9° 30′ N.,long. 38° E., and, flowing in a north-easterly direction towards theRed Sea , is lost in Lake Aussa,lat. 11° 25′ N.,long. 41° 40′ E. The principallake of Abyssinia is the Dembea, which lies between 11° 30′ and 12° 30′ N.lat., and 37° and 37° 35′ E.long., being about60 miles in length by 40 in width, and containing a number of smallislands. It is fed by numerous small streams. The lake of Ashangi, inlat. 12° 35′ N.,long. 39° 40′ E., is about4 miles long by 3 broad, and upwards of8000 feet above the sea.

The fundamentalrocks ofTigré, and probably of all Abyssinia, aremetamorphic. They compose the mass of thetable-land, and while they occupy no inconsiderable portion of its surface, they are exposed, inTigré at least, in every deep valley. The metamorphics vary greatly in mineral character,“ every intermediate grade being found between the most coarselycrystallinegranite and aslaty rock so little altered that the lines of the original bedding are still apparent. Perhaps the most prevalent form of rock is a rather finelycrystallinegneiss.Hornblende-schist andmica-schist are met with, but neither of theminerals from which they are named appears to be so abundant as in some metamorphic tracts. On the other hand, a compactfelspathic rock, approachingfelsite in composition, is prevalent in places, as in the Surudefile, betweenKomayli andSenafé.” There are a few exceptions, but as a general rule it may be asserted that in the neighbourhood ofthe route followed by the British army, so much of the country as is more than8000 feet above the sea consists of beddedtraps, and this is probably the case in general over Abyssinia.“ Between the traps and the metamorphics a series ofsandstones andlimestones intervene, one group of the former underlying the latter. The limestone alone isfossiliferous, and is ofJurassicage.”“ On the route toMagdalavolcanic rocks were first met with atSenafé, where severalhills consist oftrachyte, passing intoclaystone andbasalt.Traphills, chiefly oftrachyte, are dotted over the country to the southward as far asFokada, a distance of nearly30 miles. Here a great range of bedded traps commences, and extends for about25 miles to the south, passing to the west ofAdigerat.” AtMeshek, two marches south ofAntalo,“ the route entered high ranges entirely composed oftrap, and thence no other rocks were seen as far asMagdala.”“ The trappean rocks belong to two distinct and unconformable groups. The lower of these is much inclined, while the higher rests on its upturned and denudededges.” Denudation has evidently been going on to a great extent in this country. One of its most striking features are the deep ravines which have been worked out by the action of the streams, sometimes to the depth of 3000 or4000 feet.“ How much of the Abyssinian high lands has been removed by these great torrents, and spread as an alluvial deposit over the basin of theNile !"“ Probably over the whole of northern Abyssinia there existed at least4000 feet of beddedtraps, of which now only a few vestigesremain.”—W. T. Blanford.

Abyssinia is said to enjoy“ probably as salubrious aclimate as any country on the face of theglobe.”—Parkyns. The heat is by no means oppressive, a fine light air counteracting the power of thesun ; and during therainy season, the sky beingcloudy, theweather is always agreeable and cool, while therain itself is not very severe. In certain of the low valleys, however,malarious influences prevail before and after the rainy season, and bring on dangerousfevers. On the higher parts the cold is sometimes intense, particularly at night. The natural division of the seasons is into a cold, a hot, and a rainy season. The cold season may be said to extend fromOctober toFebruary, the hot from the beginning ofMarch to the middle ofJune, and the wet ormonsoon period from this time to the end ofSeptember. The rainy season is of importance, not only in equalising the temperature, increasing the fertility, and keeping up thewater supply of the country, but, asSir S. Baker has shown, it plays a most important part in the annual overflow of theNile.

On the summits and slopes of the highest mountains the vegetation is of a thoroughly temperate and evenEnglishcharacter ; theplateaux have a flora of the samecharacter ; while on the lower slopes of the hills and in theravines occur manytrees andshrubs of warmer climes.“ The general appearance of theplateaux andplains is that of a comparatively bare country, with trees andbushes thinly scattered over it, and clumps and groves only occur ring roundvillages andchurches. But theglens and ravines in the plateau sides, each with its little bright spring, are often thickly wooded, and offer a delicious contrast to the opencountry.”—Markham. This refers more particularly to the northern portion of the country, that drained by theMareb ; the central and southern parts are much more fertile and productive. Here the fertility is so great that in some parts three crops are raised annually.Agriculture receives considerable attention, and large quantities ofmaize,wheat,barley,peas,beans, &c., are grown. Very extensively cultivated isteff (Poa abyssinica), a herbaceous plant withgrains not larger than the head of apin, of which is made thebread in general use throughout the country. The low grounds produce also a kind ofcorn calledtocussa, of which a black bread is made, which constitutes the food of the lower classes.Coffee grows wild on the western mountains, and thevine andsugar-cane are cultivated in favourable localities.Cotton is also grown to a considerable extent. Among thefruit-trees are thedate,orange,lemon,pomegranate, andbanana.Myrrh,balsam, and various kinds of valuablemedicinal plants are common.

Most of the domestic animals ofEurope are found here. Thecattle are in general small, arid theoxen belong to the humped race. The famousGalla oxen have horns sometimes four feet long. Thesheep belong to the short and fat-tailed race, and are covered withwool.Goats are very common, and have sometimes horns two feet in length. Thehorses are strong and active. Of wild animals the spottedhyaena is among the most numerous, as well as the fiercest and most destructive, not only roaming in immense numbers over the country, but frequently entering thetowns, and even the houses of theinhabitants. Theelephant andrhinoceros are numerous in the low grounds. The Abyssinianrhinoceros has twohorns ; itsskin, which has no folds, is used forshields, and for lining drinking vessels, being regarded as anantidote topoison.Crocodiles andhippopotami are plentiful in therivers ;lions,panthers, andleopards are seen occasionally, andbuffaloes frequently. Among other animals may be mentioned as common various species ofantelopes, wildswine,monkeys,hares,squirrels, several species ofhyrax,jackals, &c.

Thebirds of Abyssinia are very numerous, and many of them remarkable for the beauty of their plumage. Great numbers ofeagles,vultures,hawks, and other birds of prey are metwith ; andpartridges,snipes,pigeons,parrots,thrushes, andswallows are very plentiful. Amonginsects the most numerous and useful is thebee,honey everywhere constituting an important part of the food of theinhabitants, and several of theprovinces paying a large proportion of their tribute in this article. Of an opposite class is thelocust, the ravages of which here, as in other parts ofNorthern Africa, are terrible.Serpents are not numerous, but several species arepoisonous.

The inhabitants of Abyssinia form a number of differenttribes, and evidently belong to several distinctraces. The majority are of theCaucasian race, and are in general well-formed and handsome, with straight and regular features, livelyeyes,hair long and straight or somewhat curled, andcolour darkolive, approaching toblack. Rüppell regards them as identical in features with theBedouinArabs. The tribes inhabitingTigré,Amhara,Agow, &c., belong to this race. TheGalla race, who came originally from the south, have now overrun the greater part of the country, constituting a large portion of the soldiery, and, indeed, there are few of thechiefs who have not an intermixture of Galla blood in their veins. They are fierce and turbulent in character, and addicted to cruelty. Many of them are stillidolaters, but most of them have now adopted theMohammedanfaith, and not a few of them theChristianity of the Abyssinians. They are generally large and well-built, of a browncomplexion, with regular features, small deeply-sunk but very brighteyes, and long blackhair. A race ofJews, known by the name ofFalashas, inhabit the district ofSamen. They affirm that their forefathers came into the country in the days ofRehoboam, but it seems more probable that they arrived about the time of the destruction ofJerusalem. From the 10th century they enjoyed their own constitutional rights, and were subject to their ownkings, who, they pretend, were descended from KingDavid, until the year 1800, when the royal race became extinct, and they then became subject toTigré.

The prevailing religion of Abyssinia is a very corrupted form ofChristianity. This is professed by the majority of the people, as well as by the reigning princes of the different states. There are also scattered over the country manyMohammedans, and someFalashas orJews. Christianity was introduced into this country about the year 330, but since that time it has been so corrupted byerrors of various kinds as to have become little more than a dead formality mixed up with muchsuperstition andJudaism.Feasts andfast-days are very frequent, andbaptism and theLord's supper are dispensed after the manner of theGreek Church. The children arecircumcised, and theMosaiccommandments with respect to food and purification are observed. The eating of animals which do not chew thecud and which have not clovenhoofs is prohibited. The ecclesiastical body is very numerous, consisting ofpriests of various kinds, withmonks andnuns, and is looked upon with great awe and reverence. If a priest be married previous to his ordination, he is allowed to remainso ; but no one can marry after having entered the priesthood. Theprimate or chiefbishop is calledAbuna (i.e., our father), and is nominated by thepatriarch ofCairo, whom they acknowledge as their spiritual father. Thechurches are rude edifices, chiefly of a circular form, with thatched roofs, the interior being divided into three compartments, an outer one for thelaity, one within for thepriests, and in the centre the Holy of Holies, exactly after the manner of a Jewishtemple. The worship consists merely in reading passages ofScripture and dispensing theLord's supper, without anypreaching. Like the Greek Church, they have noimages of any kind in their places of worship, butpaintings of thesaints are very common—their faces always in full, whatever may be the position of their bodies. They have innumerablesaints, but above all is theVirgin, whom they regard asqueen ofheaven andearth, and the great intercessor for thesins ofmankind. Their reverence for a saint is often greater than for theAlmighty, and a man who would not hesitate to invoke the name of hisMaker in witness to a falsehood may decline so to use the name ofSt Michael orSt George. Legends of saints and works of religious controversy form almost their entireliterature.“ Atpresent,” says Bishop Gobat,“ theChristians of Abyssinia are divided into three parties, so inimical to each other that they curse one another, and will no longer par take of thesacrament together. It is one single point oftheology that disunites them—the unceasing dispute concerning theunction ofJesus Christ.”

In manners the Abyssinians are rude and barbarous. Engaged as they are in continualwars, and accustomed to bloodshed, human life is little regarded among them.Murders andexecutions are frequent, and yet cruelty is said not to be a marked feature of theircharacter ; and in war they seldom kill theirprisoners. When one is convicted of murder, he is handed over to the relatives of the deceased, who may either put him to death or accept aransom. When the murdered person has no relatives, thepriests take upon themselves the office of avengers. The Abyssinians are irritable, but easilyappeased ; and are a gay people, fond of festive indulgences. On every festive occasion, as a saint's day,birth,marriage, &c., it is customary for a rich man to collect his friends and neighbours, and kill acow and one or twosheep. The principal parts of the cow are eaten raw while yet warm and quivering, the remainder being cut into small pieces, and cooked with the favourite sauce ofbutter and redpepper paste. The raw meat in this way is considered to be very superior in taste and much tenderer than when cold.“ I can readilybelieve,” says Mr Parkyns,“ that raw meat would be preferred to cooked meat by a man who from childhood had been accustomed toit.” The statement byBruce respecting the cutting of steaks from a live cow has frequently been called in question, but there can be no doubt thatBruce actually saw what he narrates, though it would appear to have been a very exceptional case. Mr Parkyns was told by a soldier,“ that such a practice was not uncommon among theGallas, and even occasionally occurred among themselves, when, as in the caseBruce relates, a cow had been stolen or taken inforay.” The principal drinks aremese, a kind ofmead, andbousa, a sort ofbeer made from fermentedcakes. Theirdress consists of a large foldingmantle and close-fittingdrawers ; and theirhouses are very rude structures of a conical form, covered withthatch.Marriage is a very slight connection among them, dissolvable at any time by either of theparties ; andpolygamy is by no means uncommon. Hence there is littlefamily affection, and what exists is only among children of the same father and mother. Children of the same father, but of different mothers, are said to be“ always enemies to eachother.”—Gobat.

Abyssinia is one of the most ancientmonarchies in the world, and has been governed from time immemorial by anemperor. For many years, however, until the accession of the late EmperorTheodore, he had been a mere puppet in the hands of one or other of his chiefs. Each chief is entire master of all sources of revenue within histerritory, and has practically full power of life and death. His subjection consists in an obligation to send from time to time presents to his superior, and to follow him towar with as large a force as he can muster. For several generations the emperor had been little better than a prisoner in his palace atGondar, his sole revenue consisting of a small stipend and the tolls of the weeklymarkets of that city, the real power being in the hands of the ras orvizier of the empire, who was always the most powerful chief for the time. If at any time a chief“ has found himself strong enough to march upon the capital, he has done so, placed upon the throne another puppet emperor, and been by him appointed ras orvizier, till a rival stronger than himself could turn him out and take hisplace.”—Dr Beke.

The three principal provinces of Abyssinia areTigré in the north,Amhara (in whichGondar the capital is situated) in the centre, andShoa in the south. The governors of these have all at different times assumed the title of Ras. Three other provinces of some importance areLasta and Waag, whose capital isSokota ;Godjam, to the south ofLake Dembea ; andKivara, to the west of that lake, the birth-place of the Emperor Theodore. The two provinces ofTigré andShoa have generally been in a state of rebellion from or acknowledged independence of the central power atGondar. The geographical position ofTigré enhances its political importance, as it lies betweenGondar and the sea atMassowah, and thus holds as it were the gate of the capital. The province ofShoa is almost separated from that ofAmhara by the WollaGallas, aMohammedan tribe, and for a long time the former had been virtually independent, and governed by a hereditary line ofprinces, to one of whom theIndian government sent a special embassy under Major Harris in 1841.

The principaltowns areGondar inAmhara, the former capital of the kingdom, and containing about 7000 inhabitants, andDebra Tabor inAmhara, formerly a smallvillage, but which rose to be a place of considerable size in consequence of the Emperor Theodore having fixed upon it as his residence, and near it wasGaffat, where theEuropean workmen resided. It was burned by the emperor when he set out on his fatal march toMagdala.Adowa is the capital ofTigré, and the second city in the empire, having about 6000 inhabitants.Antalo is also one of the principal towns ofTigré, and the capital ofEnderta. Near Antalo isChelicut.Sokota, the capital ofLasta Waag, is a town of considerable size. The capital ofShoa isAnkobar, and near it isAngolala, also a place of considerable size. The capital ofAgamé isAdigerat.

The language of thereligion andliterature of the country is theGeez, which belongs to theEthiopic class of languages, and is the ancient language ofTigré; of this the modernTigré is a dialect. TheAmharic, the language ofAmhara, is that of thecourt, the army, and themerchants, and is that too which travellers who penetrate beyondTigré have ordinarily occasion to use. But theAgow in its various dialects is the language of the people in some provinces almost exclusively, and in others, where it has been superseded by the language of the dominant race, it still exists among the lowest classes. This last is believed to be the original language of the people; and from the affinity of theGeez,Amharic, and cognate dialects, to theArabic, it seems probable that they were introduced by conquerors or settlers from the opposite shores of theRed Sea. TheGallas, who have overrun a great part of Abyssinia, have introduced their own language into various parts of the country, but in many cases they have adopted the language of the people among whom they have come. Theliterature of Abyssinia is very poor, and contains nothing of much value. During the late war thelibraries in connection with thereligious communities were found to contain only modern works of little interest. On the capture ofMagdala, a large number of MSS. were found there, which had been brought by Theodore fromGondar and other parts. Of these 359 were brought home for examination, and are now deposited in theBritish Museum. The oldest among them belong to the 15th and 16th centuries, but the great bulk of them are of the 17th and 18th, and some are of the present century. They are mostly copies of theHoly Scriptures,canonical andapocryphal, including theBook of Enoch,prayer andhymn books,missals,lives of saints, and translations of various of theGreek fathers.

Thetrade andmanufactures of Abyssinia are insignificant, the people being chiefly engaged inagriculture andpastoral pursuits.Cotton cloths, the universaldress of the country, are made in large quantities. The preparation ofleather andparchment is also carried on to some extent, and manufactures ofiron andbrass.“ The Abyssinians are, Ithink,” says Mr Markham,“ capable of civilisation. Their agriculture is good, their manufactures are not to be despised; but the combined effects of isolation,Galla inroads, and internal anarchy, have thrown them back forcenturies.” The foreign trade of Abyssinia is carried on entirely throughMassowah. Its principal imports arelead,tin,copper,silk,gunpowder,glass wares,Persiancarpets, and coloured cloths. The chief exports aregold,ivory,slaves,coffee,butter,honey, andwax.

Abyssinia, or at least the northern portion of it, was included in the ancient kingdom ofEthiopia. The connection betweenEgypt andEthiopia was in early times very intimate, and occasionally the two countries were under the same ruler, so that the arts andcivilisation of the one naturally found their way into the other. In early times, too, theHebrews had commercial intercourse with theEthiopians ; and according to the Abyssinians, the Queen ofSheba, who visitedSolomon, was a monarch of their country, and from her sonMenilek the kings of Abyssinia are descended. During the captivity many of theJews settled here, and brought with them a knowledge of theJewish religion. Under thePtolemies, the arts as well as the enterprise of theGreeks enteredEthiopia, and led to the establishment of Greekcolonies. A Greek inscription atAdulis, no longer extant, but copied byCosmos, and preserved in hisTopographia Christiana, records thatPtolemy Euergetes, the third of the Greek dynasty inEgypt, invaded the countries on both sides of theRed Sea , and, having reduced most of the provinces ofTigré to subjection, returned to the port ofAdulis, and there offered sacrifices toJupiter,Mars, andNeptune. Another inscription, not so ancient, found atAxum, and copied by Salt and others, states that Aeizanas, king of the Axomites, theHomerites, &c., conquered the nation of theBogos, and returned thanks to his father, the godMars, for his victory. The ancient kingdom ofAuxume nourished in the first or second century of our era, and was at one time nearly coextensive with the modern Abyssinia. The capitalAuxume and the seaport Adulis were then the chief centres of the trade with the interior ofAfrica ingold dust,ivory,leather,aromatics, &c. At Axum, the site of the ancient capital, many vestiges of its former greatness stillexist ; and the ruins of Adulis, which was once a seaport on theBay of Annesley, are now about4 miles from the shore.Christianity was introduced into the country byFrumentius, who was consecrated first bishop of Abyssinia bySt Athanasius ofAlexandria abouta.d. 330. Subsequently themonastic system was introduced, and between 470 and 480 a great company of monks appear to have entered and established themselves in the country. Since that time Monachism has been a power among the people, and not without its influence on the course of events. In 522 the king of theHomerites, on the opposite coast of theRed Sea , having persecuted the Christians, theEmperorJustinian requested the king of Abyssinia, Caleb or Elesbaan, to avenge their cause. He accordingly collected an army, crossed over intoArabia, and conqueredYemen, which remained subject to Abyssinia for 67 years. This was the most flourishing period in the annals of the country. TheEthiopians possessed the richest part of Arabia, carried on a large trade, which extended as far asIndia andCeylon, and were in constant communication with theGreek empire. Their expulsion from Arabia, followed by the conquest ofEgypt by theMohammedans in the middle of the 7th century, changed this state of affairs, and the continued advances of the followers ofthe Prophet at length cut them off from almost every means of communication with the civilisedworld ; so that, asGibbon says,“ encompassed by the enemies of their religion, theEthiopians slept for near a thousand years, forgetful of the world by whom they wereforgotten.” Abouta.d. 960, a Jewish princess, Judith, conceived the bloody design of murdering all the members of the royal family, and of establishing herself in their stead. During the execution of this project, the infant king was carried off by some faithful adherents, and conveyed toShoa, where his authority was acknowledged, while Judith reigned for40 years over the rest of the kingdom, and transmitted the crown to her descendants. In 1268 the kingdom was restored to the royal house in the person of Icon Imlac.

Towards the close of the15th century thePortuguese missions into Abyssinia commenced. A belief had long prevailed in Europe of the existence of a Christian kingdom in the far east, whose monarch was known asPrester John, and various expeditions had been sent in quest of it. Among others who had engaged in this search wasPedro de Covilham, who arrived in Abyssinia in 1490, and, believing that he had at length reached the far-famed kingdom, presented to the Negus, oremperor of the country, a letter from his master the king ofPortugal, addressed to Prester John. Covilham remained in the country, but in 1507 anArmenian named Matthew was sent by the Negus to the king ofPortugal to request his aid against theTurks. In 1520 a Portuguese fleet, with Matthew on board, entered theRed Sea in compliance with this request, and an embassy from the fleet visited the country of the Negus, and remained there for about six years. One of this embassy was Father Alvarez, from whom we have the earliest and not the least interesting account of the country. Between 1528 and 1540 armies ofMohammedans, under the renowned generalMohammed Gragn, entered Abyssinia from the low country, and overran the kingdom, obliging the emperor to take refuge in the mountain fastnesses. In this extremity recourse was again had to the Portuguese, and Bermudez, who had remained in the country after the departure of the embassy, was ordained successor to theAbuna, and sent on this mission. In consequence a Portuguese fleet, under the command ofStephen de Gama, was sent fromIndia and arrived atMassowah. A force of 450musqueteers, under the command ofChristopher de Gama, younger brother of theadmiral, marched into the interior, and being joined by native troops were at first successful against theTurks, but were subsequently defeated, and their commander taken prisoner and put to death. Soon afterwards, however,Mohammed Gragn was shot in an engagement, and his forces totally routed. After this, quarrels arose between the Negus and theCatholicprimate Bermudez, who wished the former publicly to profess himself a convert toRome. This the Negus refused to do, and at length Bermudez was obliged to make his way out of the country. TheJesuits who had accompanied or followed Bermudez into Abyssinia, and fixed their head-quarters atFremona, were oppressed and neglected, but not actually expelled. In the beginning of the following century Father Paez arrived at Fremona, a man of great tact and judgment, who soon rose into high favour at court, and gained over the emperor to his faith. He directed the erection ofchurches,palaces, andbridges in different parts of the country, and carried out many useful works. His successor Mendez was a man of much less conciliatory manners, and the feelings of the people became more strongly excited against the intruders, till at length, on the death of the Negus, and the accession of his son Facilidas in 1633, they were all sent out of the country, after having had a footing there for nearly a century and a half. TheFrench physician Poncet, who went there in 1698, was the only European that afterwards visited the country beforeBruce in 1769.

It was about the middle of the 16th century that theGalla tribes first entered Abyssinia from thesouth ; and notwithstanding frequent efforts to dislodge them, they gradually extended and strengthened their positions till they had overrun the greater part of the country. The power of the emperor was thus weakened, independent chiefs set themselves up in different parts, until at length he became little better than a puppet in the hands of the most powerful of his chiefs. In 1805 the country was visited by Lord Valentia and Mr Salt, and again by Salt in 1810. In 1829 Messrs Gobat and Kugler were sent out asmissionaries by theChurch Missionary Society, and were well received by the Ras ofTigré. Mr Kugler died soon after his arrival, and his place was subsequently supplied by Mr Isenberg, who was followed by Messrs Blumhardt and Krapf. In 1830 Mr Gobat proceeded toGondar, where he also met with a favourable reception. In 1833 he returned toEurope, and published a journal of his residence here. In the following year he went back toTigré, but in 1836 he was compelled to leave from ill health. In 1838 othermissionaries were obliged to leave the country, owing to the opposition of thenative priests.Messrs Isenberg and Krapf went south, and established themselves atShoa. The former soon after returned toEngland, and Mr Krapf remained inShoa till March 1842. Dr Rüppel, theGerman naturalist, visited the country in 1831, and remained nearly two years.MM. Combes and Tamisier arrived atMassowah in 1835, and visited districts which had not been traversed byEuropeans since the time of the Portuguese. In 1839 theFrench Government sent out a scientific commission underM. Lefebvre. Its labours extended over five years, and have thrown great light on the condition and productions of the country. In 1841 a political mission was sent by the Governor-General ofIndia toShoa, under the direction of Major Harris, who subsequently published an account of his travels. One who has done much to extend our geographical knowledge of this country isDr Beke, who was there from 1840 to 1843. Mr Mansfield Parkyns was there from 1843 to 1846, and has written the most interesting book on the country since the time ofBruce. Bishop Gobat having conceived the idea of sending lay missionaries into the country, who would engage in secular occupations as well as carry on missionary work,Dr Krapf and Mr Flad arrived in 1855 as pioneers of that mission. Six came out at first, and they were subsequently joined by others. Their work, however, was more valuable to Theodore than their preaching, so that he employed them as work men to himself, and established them atGaffat, near his capital. Mr Stern arrived in Abyssinia in 1860, but returned toEurope, and came back in 1863, accompanied by Mr and Mrs Rosenthal.

(See Travels ofBruce, 1768–73; Lord Valentia, Salt, 1809–10; Combes et Tamisier, 1835–37; Ferret et Galinier, 1839–43; Rüppell, 1831–33; MM. Th. Lefebvre, A. Petit, et Quartin-Dillon, 1839–43; Major Harris; Gobat; Dr C. Beke; Isenberg and Krapf, 1839–42;Mansfield Parkyns; Von Heuglin, 1861–62;H. A. Stem, 1860 and 1868; Dr Blanc, 1868; A. Rassam, 1869;C. R. Markham, 1869;W. T. Blanford, 1870;Record of the Expedition to Abyssinia, compiled by order of the Secretary of State for War, by MajorT. J. Holland and Captain H. Hozier, 2 vols. 4to, and plates, 1870; variousParliamentary Papers, 1867–68.)