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Indifferent Waters scarcely vary in chemical qualities from ordinary drinking water; but they are usually of higher temperature. Their therapeutic action, which is mainly exercised through baths, ​has been explained on the theory of peculiarities of their electric orthermal condition, about which we know nothing definite, and onthe presence in some of them of a large quantity of nitrogen. Ithas also been ascribed to the various organic substances in some ofthem, such as glairin, which when collected is sometimes usefulas a cataplasm. These waters are not often much drunk, but anyefficiency they may have in dyspepsia and perhaps in neuralgicdiarrhoeas must be attributed to the favourable action of hot wateron the digestion. The waters of this class, especially the hotterones in the form of baths, are extremely useful in resolving theeffects of inflammation, in thickenings of the joints and in chronicrheumatism and gout. They also are often effective, especially thecooler ones, in neuralgia and in some hysterical affections. Theyare sometimes prescribed in urinary affections, in which case theyprobably assist by dilution. The effects of many of these watersare aided by the baths often being situated at considerable elevationsand in out-of-the-way spots, whence the Germans called themWildbäder. They are very widely diffused, being found in allquarters of the globe, especially in volcanic districts. There aremany in New Zealand; in America the hottest are in the west andin California.

Earthy Waters.—These differ chiefly from the indifferent watersin containing an appreciable quantity of salts, among which sulphateor carbonate of lime or of magnesia predominates. The greatmajority of them are of high temperature. They produce the sameeffects as the indifferent waters, but are perhaps less efficaciousin neuralgic affections, while they are more employed in some ofthe chronic scaly eruptions. There was formerly a tendency toconsider these waters useful in urinary affections; but at thepresent day it is only the colder ones that have come into reputefor the expulsion of gravel and biliary calculi and in the treatmentof affections of the bladder generally. Some of them havealso of late years been considered to exercise a favourable influenceon scrofula, and to be useful in the early stages of pulmonaryphthisis. This has been attributed to the salts of lime present inthem, although it is known that most of its salts pass through thesystem unaltered. Many of these baths, such as Leuk and Bormio,enjoy the advantages of great elevation, but Bath, otherwise oneof the best of them, lies low.

Table III.—Earthy Waters.

Locality.			Height  in Ft.	Temp. ° Fahr.	Therapeutic Action.
C o l d	${\displaystyle \{\begin{array}{c}\\ \\ \\ \\ \end{array}}$	Contrexéville, Vosges	1050	—	Special action in calculous affections.
		Lippspringe, N. Germany	—	—	Supposed to be useful in phthisis.
		Wildungen, do.	—	—	Special use in urinary complaints; contains iron.
		Weissenberg, Switzerland	2600	—	Resorted to for pulmonary affections.
		Pougues, France	600	—	Dyspepsia, diabetes, hepatic and urinary concretions.
W a r m	${\displaystyle \{\begin{array}{c}\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \end{array}}$	Baden, Switzerland	1180	117–122	Rheumatism, gout, paralysis, scaly eruptions.
		Leuk,  do.	4400	93–123	Do., some female complaints.
		Bormio, North Italy	4400	86–104	Do. do.; old sprains.
		Lucca, Italy	—	108–122	Do. do.do.
		Bath, England	—	108–122	Do. do.do.
		Dax, south of France	1400	139	Do. do.
		B. de Bigorres, Pyrenees	1800	64–123	Do. chlorosis, neuralgia.

Salt Waters are so called from containing a predominant amountof chloride of sodium. They also generally contain chlorides ofmagnesia and of lime, and occasionally small amounts of lithium,bromine and iodine. They further often contain a little iron,which is an important addition. The great majority of the drinkingwells have a large supply of carbonic acid. There are cold and hotsalt springs. Sometimes they are used for drinking, sometimes forbathing; and the double use of them is often resorted to.

The normal quantity of common salt consumed daily by man isusually set down at about 300 grains. The maximum quantitylikely to be taken at any well may be 225 grains, but commonly notmore than half of that amount is taken. The increase to the usualdaily amount is therefore probably not much more than one-third.Still it may be presumed that the action of a solution of salt on anempty stomach is different from that of the same amount of salttaken with food. Salt introduced into the stomach excites thesecretion of gastric juice and favours the peristaltic actions, andwhen taken in considerable quantity is distinctly aperient. Wethus see how it is useful in dyspepsia, in atony of the stomach andintestines, and sometimes in chronic intestinal catarrh. Salt whenabsorbed by the stomach appears again in the urine, of which itincreases the amount both of fluid and of solid constituents, especiallyof the urea. It seems, therefore, to be pretty certain thatconsiderable quantities of salt taken into the circulation increasethe excretion of nitrogenous products through the urine, and onthe whole accelerate the transformation of tissue. Salt is thususeful in scrofula by stimulating the system, and also in anaemia,especially when iron is also present. In some German stations, asat Soden, carbonated salt waters are considered to be useful inchronic laryngitis or granular pharyngitis.

Baths of salt water, as usually given, rarely contain more than3% of chloride of sodium, some of the strongest perhaps from8 to 10%. Their primary action is as a stimulant to the skin, inwhich action it is probable that the other chlorides, especially thatof calcium, and still more the carbonic acid often present, co-operate.In this way, and when aided by various processes of what may betermed water poultices and packing, they are often useful in removingexudations, in chronic metritis and in some tumours of theuterus, and generally in scrofula and rachitis, and occasionally insome chronic skin affections.

The French accord high praise to some of their thermal saltwaters in paralysis, and some German ones are used in a similarway in spinal affections. The salt waters are sometimes so strongthat they must be diluted for bathing. In other cases concentratedsolutions of salt are added to make them sufficiently strong.These waters are widely diffused, but on the whole Germany isrichest in them, especially in such as are highly charged with salt.The Kissingen springs may be considered as typical of the drinkingwells, and sea-water of bathing waters. The air of salt-works andpulverization of the water are employed in German baths as remedialagents.

Table IV.—Salt Springs.

Locality.			Temp.  ° Fahr.	Therapeutic Action.
C o l d	${\displaystyle \{\begin{array}{c}\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \end{array}}$	Soden, near Frankfort	—	Dyspepsia, anaemia scrofula, special for throat and phthisis.
		Homburg,do.	—	Dyspepsia, slighter hepatic affections, chlorosis, gout.
		Kissingen, Bavaria	—	In all essentials the same.
		Pyrmont, North Germany	—	Better known for its iron; has a good salt drinking spring.
		Kreuznach, near Bingen	—	A salt well without carbonic acid; used in scrofula and  anaemia; bathing more important.
W a r m	${\displaystyle \{\begin{array}{c}\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \end{array}}$	Wiesbaden, Nassau	155	Used in dyspepsia and gout; the bathing is most important.
		Baden-Baden	156	Still milder water; uses similar; gout.
		Bourbonne, Haute-Marne	114–149	Rheumatism, neuralgia, effects of malaria,
		Balaruc, South France	116·6	Do.; special for treatment of paralysis
		Salins, Moutiers, Savoy (1480 ft.)	96	Scrofula, anaemia, loss of power, sexual disorders.
		Brides, Savoy (1700 ft.)	95	Act on liver and digestive canal used for obesity.
		Acqui, North Italy	169	Rheumatism; special treatment with the bath deposit.
		Abano,  do.	185	Chiefly as baths; mud of bath used for poultice.
		Caldas de Mombuy, near Barcelona	153–158	Rheumatism, sciatica, old injuries
		Cestona, Guipuzcoa, Spain	88–94	Rheumatism, indigestion, bronchitis,

Salt springs are found in many quarters of the world, but thechief carbonated groups for drinking purposes occur in Germany,and at Saratoga in America, Where very remarkable wells indeedare to be found. France and England have no springs of thisclass. The stronger wells, used chiefly for bathing, occur wherethere are salt-bearing strata, as in Germany, Galicia, Italy, Switzerland,France and England. Very powerful waters of this class arethose of St Catherines in Canada.

The presence of minute portions ofiodine orbromine in saltwaters is by no means infrequent, and they appear in considerablequantity in some few. It is, however, extremely doubtful whetherany known spring contains a sufficient quantity of iodine, still moreof bromine, to act specially on the system, even if that action werenot necessarily superseded by the presence of the large quantity of ​other salts with which they are associated. Some of the best-knownsprings of the kind are: Challes, Wildegg, Castrocaro, Hall,Adelheid’s Quelle, Krankenheil, Kreuznach, Woodhall Spa.

Iron or Chalybeate Waters.—Iron usually exists in waters in thestate of protoxide or its carbonate, less frequently as sulphate orcrenate, and very rarely, if at all, as chloride. The quantity presentis usually extremely small. It may be said to vary from 0·12 to 0·03in the 1000 parts of water. Some wells considered distinct chalybeatescontain less than 0·03. Many wells, especially in Germany,have a rich supply of carbonic acid, which is unfortunately wantingin French and English ones.

It has long been the prevalent idea that want of iron in the bloodis the main cause of chlorosis and of other anaemic conditions, andthat these conditions are best relieved by a supply of that metal.Since the detection of it in haemoglobuline this view has been stillmore popular. It is pretty certain that the blood contains 37 to47 grains and the whole system 70 to 74 grains of iron; and it hasbeen calculated that in normal conditions of the system somewhatmore than one grain of iron is taken daily in articles of food, andthat the same amount is passed in the faeces; for although thestomach takes the iron up it is excreted by the alimentary canalmainly, it being doubtful whether any is excreted in the urine. Itis possible by drinking several glasses to take in more than a grainof carbonate of iron in the day, equivalent to half that amount ofmetallic iron. It has further been ingeniously reckoned frompractice that 10 to 15 grains of metallic iron suffice to supply thedeficiency in the system in a case of chlorosis. It is thought probablethat a portion of the iron taken up in water is in certain pathologicalstates not excreted, but retained in the system, and goestowards making up the want of that metal. But whether this orany other explanation be satisfactory, there is no question as to theexcellent effects often produced by drinking chalybeate waters(especially when they are carbonated), and by bathing in thosewhich are rich in carbonic acid after they have been artificiallyheated. As regards the drinking cure we must not, however,forget that carbonate and chloride of sodium, and also the sulphate,are often present and must be ascribed a share in the cure. Thuschloride of sodium is a powerful adjuvant in the strong StahlQuelle of Homburg and in the Putnam Well at Saratoga. A wholecategory of female complaints is treated successfully with thesewaters. Indeed, anaemia from any source, as after fever or throughloss of blood, and enlargements of the spleen, are benefited by them.The stimulating action of the copious supply of carbonic acid insteel baths is a very important adjuvant; no one now believes indirect absorption of iron from the bath. Iron waters are scarcelyever thermal. They are extremely common in all countries—frequentlyalong with sulphuretted hydrogen in bogs and nearcoal-measures. But such springs and non-carbonated wells generallyare weak, and not now held in much esteem.

It may be added that some of the strongest known iron wells aresulphated oraluminated. They are styptic and astringent, and canonly be used diluted. They are sometimes useful as an applicationto ulcers and sores. Such springs have often been brought intonotice, but never retain their popularity. They are known in theIsle of Wight, in Wales, in Scotland, as well as in Elba, &c.; and oflate years the Bedford Alum and Oak Orchard Springs, U.S.,have been brought into notice, the latter containing 10 grains offree sulphuric acid in the pint. All such springs have been considereduseful in scrofula, anaemia and chronic diarrhoeas.

Sulphur Springs.—Waters having the odour of hydrosulphuricacid, however slightly, are usually called sulphur ones. They owetheir smell sometimes to the presence of the free acid, sometimesto sulphides of sodium, calcium or magnesia, and sometimes toboth. Sulphuretted hydrogen is absorbed more freely by cold thanby hot water and is therefore most abundant in cold springs. Thesulphides decompose and give off the gas. Most of these springsoccur near coal or shale measures, or strata containing fossils, or inmoors and in places generally where organic matter is present inthe soil or strata. Many of them contain so little mineral impregnationthat they might as well be classed among the indifferentor earthy waters. One group contains a considerable amount ofchloride of sodium, another of sulphate of lime, while a third haslittle mineral impregnation, but contains sulphides.

Sulphuretted hydrogen is a strong poison, and its action on thesystem; has been pretty well ascertained. It has been assumedthat the gas in mineral waters acts similarly, though in a modifieddegree; but there is next to nothing absolutely known of the actionof the small quantities of the gas that are present in mineral waters,and which certainly have no toxic effect. It has been assumedthat this gas has some special action on the portal system and soon liver has been founded the idea that sulphur waters are useful inmetallic intoxication. Drinking large quantities of these waters,especially of such as contain sulphates or chlorides of sodium ormagnesia, combined with hot baths and exercise, may help tobreak up albuminates, but there is no proof of the action of thesulphur.

For similar reasons, and primarily to counteract mercurial poisonsulphur waters have been considered useful in syphilis. But itmay be well to remember that at most baths mercury is used alongwith them. No doubt they are frequently, like other warm waters,useful in bringing out old eruptions, acting in this way as a testfor syphilitic poison, and in indicating the treatment that may berequired. Sulphur waters, both hot and cold, are used in gout andrheumatism, in dyspepsia, in hepatic and cutaneous affections;and of late years inhalation of them has been popular in phthisisand in laryngeal affections. They have long been popular remediesin cutaneous affections. While so much doubt has been cast onthe action of the sulphur of these waters, it may be admitted thatthe sulphides are probably decomposed in the stomach and sulphurettedhydrogen generated. That gas is probably a slight stimulant ​to the intestine. What sulphuretted hydrogen reaches the blood iseliminated by the lungs. There seems to be no doubt that the gasis absorbed in small quantities by the skin.

It is in sulphur waters chiefly that glairin and baregin occur.This peculiar organic substance has been found both in Americanand in European springs. Cold sulphur springs are very widelydiffused throughout the world. Thermal ones are not so common.Perhaps the largest though not the strongest group of the latter isto be found in the Pyrenees. We may remark again how very littlehydrosulphuric acid there is in many of the most favourite sulphursprings, including the very popular White Sulphur ones ofVirginia. There seems to be something peculiarly unsatisfactoryin the analysis of sulphur waters, and there has been difficulty inconstructing the following imperfect tables.

Some of the most powerful cold wells are those of Challes (withits very peculiar Water), Leuk and Harrogate. Uriage has a verylarge amount of chloride of sodium in its springs. Cold sulphurwaters are on the whole more used in liver and indigestion thanwarm ones. The general effects of warm sulphur Waters differ solittle at the various baths as to make it difficult to mention anythingspecial to particular localities. Schinznach has a reputation inskin complaints, Cauterets, Eaux Bonnes and Challes in laryngealaffections, the two Aix, Luchon and Archena in syphilis.

Alkaline Waters are such as contain carbonate (chiefly bicarbonate)of soda, along with an excess of carbonic acid. Of the actionof those carbonates it is known that when taken into the stomachthey are neutralized by the gastric juice, and converted into chlorideof sodium. On their introduction into the stomach, they producean increased flow of gastric juice. If given during or immediatelyafter meals in any quantity, they impede digestion. They slightlyincrease peristaltic action, but only feebly, unless assisted by othersalts. They act slightly as diuretics. Of the connexion betweenthe biliary system and alkalies, which undoubtedly exists, not muchis known with certainty. The alkalization of the blood by them isassumed by many, but not proved. It is very doubtful whetherthey reduce the quantity of fibrine in the blood, and thus induce alowered state of the system, or whether they have any direct tendencyto combine with fat and carry off a portion of superfluousadipose tissue. Their excess of carbonic acid, through its action onthe stomach, favours the operation of alkaline waters. They havebeen classed as follows: (1) simple alkalines, where carbonate ofsoda is the main agent; (2) waters containing in addition somechloride of sodium; (3) waters containing sulphates of soda orof magnesia. All these classes may be said to be used in gout,lithiasis, affections of the liver, catarrh and obstructions of the gallducts, in dyspepsia, chronic catarrh of the stomach and diarrhoea,in obesity and in diabetes. Some of the waters of the second classare supposed to influence bronchial catarrhs and incipient phthisis,while the more powerful sulphated waters of the third class areespecially useful in catarrh of the stomach, and in affections of thebiliary organs; of these only one of importance (Carlsbad) is thermal.The rival cold waters of Tarasp contain twice as much carbonateof soda. The cold ones are chiefly used internally, the thermalones both internally and externally. The latter, besides acting aswarm water, slightly stimulate the skin when the carbonic acidis abundant, and the carbonate of soda has some slight detergenteffect on the cutaneous surface like soap. These waters are unknownin England. They are most abundant in countries ofextinct volcanoes.

Classes I. and II. of alkaline waters may be said to have a sub-varietyinacidulated springs or carbonated waters, in which thequantity, of salts is very small, that of carbonic acid large. Thesetable waters are readily drunk at meals. They have of late yearsbeen so widely exported as to be within the reach almost of everyone. Their practical importance in aiding digestion is in realitymuch greater than one could expect from their scanty mineralization.They are drunk by the country people, and also largelyexported and imitated. They are very abundant on the Continent,and, although some of the best-known ones enumerated below areGerman and French, they are common in Italy and elsewhere:Heppingen, Roisdorf, Landskro, Apollinaris, Selters, Brückenau,Gieshübel, all German; St Galmier, Pougues, Chateldon, French.

Associated with Class III. is that of the stronglysulphated watersknown in Germany as bitter or purging waters, which have of latedeservedly come into use as purgative agents. They are almostwanting in France and in America, and there are no very good onesin England. The chief supply is from Bohemia and Hungary.

The numerous waters of Ofen are the best known, and some ofthem are stronger than the Hunyadi, of which an analysis has beengiven in Table I. They are easily imitated. Some of the best-knownare Ofen, Püllna, Saidschütz, Friedrichshall, Birmerstorff,Kissingen.

Two other classes of waters demand a few words of notice. TheFrench have much faith in the presence of minute quantities ofarsenic in some of their springs, and trace arsenical effects in thosewho drink them, and some French authors have established a classofarsenical waters. Bourboule in Auvergne is the strongest ofthem, and is said to contain⁠1/12⁠th of a grain of arseniate of sodain 7 oz. of water. Baden-Baden, according to Bunsen’s latestanalysis, has a right to be considered an arsenical water. It is,however, extremely doubtful whether the small amounts of arseniateof soda which have been detected, accompanied as they are bypreponderating amounts of other salts, have any actual operationon the system. The following are among the most noted springs: ​Bourboule, Mont Dore, Royat, Salies (Bigorres), Plombières, Baden-Baden.

Designation and Locality.			Therapeutic Application.
Indiff-  erent  (Ther-  mal).	${\displaystyle \{\begin{array}{c}\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \end{array}}$	Lebanon, Columbia co., N.Y. (73° F.)
		Healing, Bath co., Va. (88° F.)	${\displaystyle \{}$	Scrofulous ulcers and ophthalmia, ozoena, chronic diarrhoea and dysentery, secondary and tertiary syphilis.
		Warm, Bath co., Va. (98° F.)	${\displaystyle \{}$	Chronic and subacute rheumatism, gout, neuralgia, nephritic and calculus diseases.
		Hot, Bath co., Va. (110° F.)	${\displaystyle \{}$	Chronic rheumatism, gout, diseases of liver, neuralgia, contractions of joints.
		Paso Roble, San Luis Obispo co.,  Cal. 122° F.
		Hot, Garland co., Ark. (93–150°) F.)	${\displaystyle \{}$	Dartrous diseases of skin, functional diseases of uterus chronic mercurial and lead poisoning.
Calca-  reous and Earthy.	${\displaystyle \{\begin{array}{c}\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \end{array}}$	Gettysburg, Adams co., Penn.		Calculus gravel, catarrh of stomach or bladder, dyspepsia.
		Sweet, Monroe co., W. Va. (74° F.)		Gravel, dyspepsia (diuretic, diaphoretic).
		Berkeley, Morgan co., W. Va. (74° F.)		Neuralgia (restorative).
		Alleghany, Montgomery co., Va.		Purgative, diuretic.
		Bethesda, Waukesha co., Wis.	${\displaystyle \{}$	Diabetes mellitus, gravel, inflammation of bladder, dropsy, albuminuria (diuretic).
Sul- phur.	${\displaystyle \{\begin{array}{c}\\ \\ \\ \end{array}}$	Lower Blue Lick Nicholas co. Ky.		Aperient and alternative.
		Sharon, Schoharie co., N.Y.		Do.     do.
		White Sulphur, Greenbrier co., Va.,		Dartrous skin diseases, diseases of the bladder, jaundice, dyspepsia.
		Salt Sulphur, Monroe co., W. Va.		Do.; scrofula and syphilis.
Epsom Salt.	${\displaystyle \{\begin{array}{c}\\ \end{array}}$	Bedford, Bedford co., Penn.		Anaemia, gravel, calculus (strongly diuretic).
Common Salt.	${\displaystyle \{\begin{array}{c}\\ \\ \\ \end{array}}$	St Catharines, Ontario, Canada		Rheumatism, gout, scrofula, neuralgia.
		Caledonia, Ontario, Canada		Rheumatism, gout.
		Hathorne, Saratoga, N. Y.		Dyspepsia, jaundice, abdominal plethora.
		Ballston, Saratoga co., N. Y.,		Do.    do.    do.
Iron	${\displaystyle \{\begin{array}{c}\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \end{array}}$	Oak-Orchard Acid, Genesee co., N. Y.	${\displaystyle \{}$	Ulcers, diseases of the skin, passive haemorrhages, atonic diarrhoea (has 10 grains of free sulphuric acid in the pint).
		Rawley, Rockingham co., Va.		Chlorosis and anaemia generally; tonic.
		Sweet Chalybeate, Alleghany co., Va.		Do.    do.    do.
		Rockbridge Alum, Rockbridge co., Va.		Scrofula, chronic diarrhoea
		Cooper’s Well, Hinds co., Miss.		Anaemia, chlorosis, Chronic diarrhoea, dropsy.
Glauber Salt.	${\displaystyle \{\begin{array}{c}\\ \end{array}}$	Crab Orchard, Lincoln co., Ky. Midland, Midland co., Mich.
Alkaline.	${\displaystyle \{\begin{array}{c}\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \end{array}}$	Bladen, Choctaw co., Ala. (carbon-  ated alkaline)
		Congress, Santa Clara co., Cal.  (saline-alkaline)
		St Louis, Gratiot co., Mich. (simple  alkaline)		Dyspepsia, neuralgia, chronic and subacute rheumatism.

Of late yearslithium has been discovered in the waters of Baden-Baden;and various other places boast of the amount of that substancein their springs. Indeed a new bath has been established atAssmannshausen on the Rhine in consequence of the discovery ofa. weak alkaline spring containing some lithium. Not very muchis known of the action of lithium in ordinary medicine, and it undoubtedlydoes not exist in medicinal doses even in the strongestsprings. Among these springs are those of Baden-Baden, Assmannshausen,Elster, Royat, Ballston Spa, and Saratoga (U.S.).

American Mineral Waters.—The number of springs in theUnited States and Canada to which public attention has been calledon account of their supposed therapeutic virtues is very large,amounting in all to more than three hundred. Of this numbercomparatively few are in Canada, and of these not more than six(St Catharines, Caledonia, Plantagenet, Caxton, Charlottesville andSandwich) have attained general celebrity. The first three belongto the saline class, the Caxton is alkaline-saline, and the last twoare sulphur waters. The St Catharines is remarkable for the verylarge amounts of sodium, calcium and magnesium chlorides whichit contains, its total salts (450 grains in the pint) being more thanthree times the quantity contained in the brine-baths of Kreuznachin Prussia. The Charlottesville and Sandwich springs likewisesurpass the noted sulphur-waters of Europe in their excessive percentagesof sulphuretted hydrogen, the former containing morethan 3 and the latter 4·72 cub. in. of this gas in the pint.

The mineral springs in the United States are very unequally distributed,by far the larger number of those which are in high medicalrepute occurring along the Appalachian chain of mountains, andmore especially on or near this chain where it passes through theStates of Virginia, West Virginia and New York. The Devonianand Silurian formations which overlie the Eozoic rocks along thecourse of the Appalachian chain have been greatly fissured—thefaulting of the strata being in some places of enormous magnitude—bythe series of upheavals which gave rise to the many parallelmountain ridges of the Appalachians. In many places the springsoccur directly along the lines of fault. The various classes ofmineral waters are likewise very unequally represented, the alkalinesprings, and those containing Glauber and Epsom salts, being muchinferior to their European representatives. On the other hand,the very numerous and abundant springs of Saratoga compare veryfavourably with the Selters and similar saline waters, and amongthe many American chalybeate springs the subclass representedby the Rockbridge Alum is unequalled in regard to the very largepercentages of alumina and sulphuric acid which it contains.Besides its greater amount of mineral constituents (135 grains perpint), the Ballston spring surpasses the similar saline waters ofHomburg, Kissingen, Wiesbaden and Selters, in its percentage ofcarbonic acid (53 cub. in.). It is also remarkable for the verylarge proportion of carbonate of lithia, amounting to 0·701 grains.Thermal springs are specially numerous in the territories west ofthe Mississippi and in California. Those in the east mostly occurin Virginia along the southern portion of the Appalachian chain;in the middle and New England States Lebanon is the only importantthermal spring. Subjoined is a list of thirty American springs,the design being to represent as many of the more noted spas aspossible, while at the same time enumerating the best representativesof the classes and subclasses into which mineral waters aredivided according to the German method of classification.

Bibliography.—(1) German: E. Osann,Darstellung der HeilquellenEuropas (3 vols., Berlin, 1839–1843); J. Seegen,Handbuchder Heilquellenlehre (Vienna, 1862); B. M. Lersch,Hydrochemie(1870), and many other works; Helfft,Handbuch d. Balneotherapie(8th ed., Berlin, 1874); Valentiner,Handbuch d. Balneotherapie(Berlin, 1876); L. Lehmann,Bäder u. Brunnen Lehre (Bonn, 1877);J. Braun,System. Lehrbuch d. Balneotherapie, 4th ed., by Fromm(Berlin, 1880); O. Leichtenstern,Balneotherapie (Leipzig, 1880).(2) French:Dictionnaire des eaux minérales, &c., by MM. Durand-Fardel,&c. (2 vols., Paris, 1860); J. Lefort,Traité de chemie hydrologique(2nd ed., Paris, 1873); C. James,Guide pratique aux eauxminérales (Paris), many editions; Macé,Guide aux villes d’eaux,&c.(Paris, 1881); Joanne and Le Pileur,Les Bains d’Europe (Paris).(3) Swiss: Meyer Ahrens,Heilquellen der Schweitz (Zürich, 1867);Gsell Fels,Die Bäder und Kurorte der Schweitz (Zürich, 1880).(4) Italian: G. Jervis,Guida alle acque minerali d’Italia (Turin,1876, &c.); E. F. Harless,Die Heilquellen und Kurbäder Italiens(Berlin, 1848). (5) Spanish: Rubio,Tratado de las fuentes mineralesde España (Madrid, 1853); Don J. de Antelo y Sanchez hasrecently published a work on Spanish waters. (6) English:T. Short,History of the Mineral Waters (London, 1734); J. Rutty,Methodical Synopsis of Mineral Waters (London, 1757); Granville,Spas of England (1841); E. Lee,Mineral Springs of England (London,1841); J. Macpherson,Our Baths and Wells (1871); id.,Baths and Wellsof Europe (1873); and H. Weber’s Eng. ed. of Braun (London, 1875).A great portion of the literature is to be found in monographs onparticular places. (7) American: J. Bell,The Mineral and ThermalSprings of the United States and Canada (1855); J. J. Moorman,The Mineral Waters of the United States and Canada (1867);C. F. Chandler,Lecture on Water (1871); G. E. Walton,The MineralSprings of the United States and Canada (1875); I. Burney Yeo,The Therapeutics of Mineral Springs (1904).

1. ↑ In this and the following tables a selection is given of some of the best-known mineral waters in various European countries that possess establishments. Their chief peculiarities of elevation, of temperature and constituents are briefly noted. The curative effects, necessarily alluded to very generally, are those usually attributed to them.