​CRETE (Gr.Κρήτη; Turk.Kirid, Ital.Candia), after Sicily, Sardiniaand Cyprus the largest island in the Mediterranean, situatedbetween 34° 50′ and 35° 40′ N. lat. and between 23° 30′ and 26° 20′ E.long. Its north-eastern extremity, Cape Sidero, is distant about110 m. from Cape Krio in Asia Minor, the interval being partlyfilled by the islands of Carpathos and Rhodes; its north-western,Cape Grabusa, is within 60 m. of Cape Malea in the Morea.Crete thus forms the natural limit between the Mediterraneanand the Archipelago.

The island is of elongated form; its lengthfrom E. to W. is 160 m., its breadth from N. to S. varies from35 to 7⁠1/2⁠ m., its area is 3330 sq. m. The northern coast-line ismuch indented. On the W. two narrow mountainous promontories,the western terminating in Cape Grabusa or Busa(ancient Corycus), the eastern in Cape Spada, shut in the Bayof Kisamos; beyond the Bay of Canea, to the E., the rockypeninsula of Akrotiri shelters the magnificent natural harbourof Suda (8⁠1/2⁠ sq. m.), the only completely protected anchoragefor large vessels which the island affords. Farther E. are the baysof Candia and Malea, the deep Mirabello Bay and the Bay ofSitia. The south coast is less broken, and possesses no naturalharbours, the mountains in many parts rising almost like a wallfrom the sea; in the centre is Cape Lithinos, the southernmostpoint of the island, partly sheltering the Bay of Messará on theW. Immediately to the E. of Cape Lithinos is the small bay ofKali Liménes or Fair Havens, where the ship conveying St Paultook refuge (Acts xxvii. 8). Of the islands in the neighbourhoodof the Cretan coast the largest is Gavdo (ancient Clauda, Acts ​xxvii. 16), about 25 m. from the south coast at Sphakia, in themiddle ages the see of a bishop. On the N. side the small islandof Dia, or Standia, about 8 m. from Candia, offers a convenientshelter against northerly gales. Three small islands on thenorthern coast—Grabusa at the N.W. extremity, Suda, at theentrance to Suda harbour, and Spinalonga, in Mirabello Bay—remainedfor some time in the possession of Venice after theconquest of Crete by the Turks. Grabusa, long regarded as animpregnable fortress, was surrendered in 1692, Suda (where theflags of Turkey and the four protecting powers are now hoisted)and Spinalonga in 1715.

Natural Features.—The greater part of the island is occupiedby ranges of mountains which form four principal groups. Inthe western portion rises the massive range of the WhiteMountains (Aspra Vouna), directly overhanging the southerncoast with spurs projecting towards the W. and N.W. (highestsummit, Hagios Theodoros, 7882 ft.). In the centre is the smaller,almost detached mass of Psiloriti (Ὑψιλορειτίον, ancient Ida),culminating in Stavros (8193 ft.), the highest summit in theisland. To the E. are the Lassithi mountains with Aphenti Christos(7165 ft.), and farther E. the mountains of Sitia with AphentiKavousi (4850 ft.). The Kophino mountains (3888 ft.) separatethe central plain of Messará from the southern coast. Theisolated peak of Iuktas (about 2700 ft.), nearly due S. of Candia,was regarded with veneration in antiquity as the burial-place ofZeus. The principal groups are for the greater part of the yearcovered with snow, which remains in the deeper clefts throughoutthe summer; the intervals between them are filled by connectingchains which sometimes reach the height of 3000 ft. The largestplain is that of Monofatsi and Messará, a fertile tract extendingbetween Mt. Psiloriti and the Kophino range, about 37 m. inlength and 10 m. in breadth. The smaller plain, or rather slope,adjoining Canea and the valley of Alikianú, through which thePlatanos (ancient Iardanos) flows, are of great beauty andfertility. A peculiar feature is presented by the level uplandbasins which furnish abundant pasturage during the summermonths; the more remarkable are the Omalo in the WhiteMountains (about 4000 ft.) drained by subterranean outlets(κατάβοθρα), Nida (εἰς τὴν Ἴδαν) in Psiloriti (between 5000 and6000 ft.), and the Lassithi plain (about 3000 ft.), a more extensivearea, on which are several villages. Another remarkablecharacteristic is found in the deep narrow ravines (φαράγγια),bordered by precipitous cliffs, which traverse the mountainousdistricts; into some of these the daylight scarcely penetrates.Numerous large caves exist in the mountains; among the mostremarkable are the famous Idaean cave in Psiloriti, the caves ofMelidoni, in Mylopotamo, and Sarchu, in Malevisi, which shelteredhundreds of refugees after the insurrection of 1866, and theDictaean cave in Lassithi, the birth-place of Zeus. The so-calledLabyrinth, near the ruins of Gortyna, was a subterranean quarryfrom which the city was built. The principal rivers are theMetropoli Potamos and the Anapothiari, which drain the plain ofMonofatsi and enter the southern sea E. and W. respectivelyof the Kophino range; the Platanos, which flows northwardsfrom the White Mountains into the Bay of Canea; and theMylopotamo (ancient Oaxes) flowing northwards from Psiloritito the sea E. of Retimo.

Vegetation.—The forests which once covered the mountainshave for the most part disappeared and the slopes are nowdesolate wastes. The cypress still grows wild in the higherregions; the lower hills and the valleys, which are extremelyfertile, are covered with olive woods. Oranges and lemons alsoabound, and are of excellent quality, furnishing almost the wholesupply of continental Greece and Constantinople. Chestnutwoods are found in the Selino district, and forests of the valoniaoak in that of Retimo; in some parts the carob tree is abundantand supplies an important article of consumption. Pears, apples,quinces, mulberries and other fruit-trees flourish, as well as vines;the Cretan wines, however, no longer enjoy the reputation whichthey possessed in the time of the Venetians. Tobacco and cottonsucceed well in the plains and low grounds, though not at presentcultivated to any great extent.

Animals.—Of the wild animals of Crete, the wild goat oragrimi (Capra aegagrus) alone need be mentioned; it is still foundin considerable numbers on the higher summits of Psiloriti andthe White Mountains. The same species is found in the Caucasusand Mount Taurus, and is distinct from the ibex or bouquetin ofthe Alps. Crete, like several other large islands, enjoys immunityfrom dangerous serpents—a privilege ascribed by popular beliefto the intercession of Titus, the companion of St Paul, who accordingto tradition was the first bishop of the island, and became inconsequence its patron saint. Wolves also are not found in theisland, though common in Greece and Asia Minor. The nativebreed of mules is remarkably fine.

Population.—The population of Crete under the Venetians wasestimated at about 250,000. After the Turkish conquest itgreatly diminished, but afterwards gradually rose, till it wassupposed to have attained to about 260,000, of whom about halfwere Mahommedans, at the time of the outbreak of the Greekrevolution in 1821. The ravages of the war from 1821 to 1830,and the emigration that followed, caused a great diminution, andthe population was estimated by Pashley in 1836 at only about130,000. In the next generation it again materially increased;it was calculated by Spratt in 1865 as amounting to 210,000.According to the census taken in 1881, the complete publicationof which was interdicted by the Turkish authorities, the populationof the island was 279,165, or 35.78 to the square kilometre.Of this total, 141,602 were males, 137,563 females; 33,173 wereliterate, 242,114 illiterate; 205,010 were orthodox Christians,73,234 Moslems, and 921 of other religious persuasions. TheMoslem element predominated in the principal towns, of whichthe population was—Candia, 21,368; Canea, 13,812; Retimo,9274. According to the census taken in June 1900, the populationof the island was 301,273, the Christians having increasedto 267,266, while the Moslems had diminished to 33,281. TheMoslems, as well as the Christians, are of Greek origin and speakGreek.

Towns.—The three principal towns are on the northern coastand possess small harbours suitable for vessels of light draught.Candia, the former capital and the see of the archbishop of Crete(pop. in 1900, 22,501), is officially styled Herákleion; it issurrounded by remarkable Venetian fortifications and possessesa museum with a valuable collection of objects found at Cnossus,Phaestus, the Idaean cave and elsewhere. It has been occupiedsince 1897 by British troops. Canea (Xaviá), the seat of governmentsince 1840 (pop. 20,972), is built in the Italian style; its ​walls and interesting galley-slips recall the Venetian period.The residence of the high commissioner and the consulates ofthe powers are in the suburb of Halepa. Retimo (Ρέθυμνος) is,like Canea, the see of a bishop (pop. 9311). The other towns,Hierapetra, Sitia, Kisamos, Selino and Sphakia, are unimportant.

Constitution and Government.—During the past half-centurythe affairs of Crete have repeatedly occupied the attention ofEurope. Owing to the existence of a strong Mussulman minorityamong its inhabitants, the warlike character of the natives, andthe mountainous configuration of the country, which enabled aportion of the Christian population to maintain itself in a stateof partial independence, the island has constantly been the sceneof prolonged and sanguinary struggles in which the numericalsuperiority of the Christians was counterbalanced by the aidrendered to the Moslems by the Ottoman troops. This unhappystate of affairs was aggravated and perpetuated by the intriguesset on foot at Constantinople against successive governors of theisland, the conflicts between the Palace and the Porte, theduplicity of the Turkish authorities, the dissensions of therepresentatives of the great powers, the machinations of Greekagitators, the rivalry of Cretan politicians, and prolonged financialmismanagement. A long series of insurrections—those of 1821,1833, 1841, 1858, 1866–1868, 1878, 1889 and 1896 may beespecially mentioned—culminated in the general rebellion of1897, which led to the interference of Greece, the intervention ofthe great powers, the expulsion of the Turkish authorities, andthe establishment of an autonomous Cretan government underthe suzerainty of the sultan. According to the autonomousconstitution of 1899 the supreme power was vested in PrinceGeorge of Greece, acting as high commissioner of the protectingpowers. The authority thus conferred was confided exclusivelyto the prince, and was declared liable to modification by law in thecase of his successor. The modified constitution of February 1907curtailed the large exceptional legislative and administrativepowers then accorded. The high commissioner is irresponsible,but his decrees, except in certain specified cases, must be countersignedby a member of his council. He convokes, prorogues anddissolves the chamber, sanctions laws, exercises the right ofpardon in case of political offences, represents the island in itsforeign relations and is chief of its military forces. The chamber(βουλή), which is elected in the proportion of one deputy to every5000 inhabitants, meets annually for a session of two months.New elections are held every two years. The chamber exercisesa complete financial control, and no taxes can be imposed withoutits consent. The high commissioner is aided in the administrationby a cabinet of three members, styled “councillors”(σύμβουλοι), who superintend the departments of justice,finance, education, public security and the interior. Thecouncillors, who are nominated and dismissed by the high commissioner,are responsible to the chamber, which may impeachthem before a special tribunal for any illegal act or neglect of duty.

In general the Cretan constitution is characterized by a conservativespirit, and contrasts with the ultra-democratic systemsestablished in Greece and the Balkan States. A further point ofdifference is the more liberal payment of public functionaries inCrete. For administrative purposes the departmental divisionsexisting under the Turkish government have been retained.There are 5nomoi or prefectures (formerlysanjaks) each under aprefect (νομάρχος), and 23 eparchies (formerlykazas) each undera sub-prefect (ἔπαρχος). All these functionaries are nominatedby the high commissioner. The prefects are assisted by departmentalcouncils. The system of municipal and communalgovernment remains practically unchanged. The island isdivided into 86 communes, each with a mayor, an assistant-mayor,and a communal council elected by the people. Thecouncils assess within certain limits the communal taxes,maintain roads, bridges, &c., and generally superintend localaffairs. Public order is maintained by a force of gendarmerie(χωροφυλακή) organized and at first commanded by Italianofficers, who were replaced by Greek officers in December1906. The constitution authorizes the formation of a militia(πολιτοφυλακή) to be enrolled by conscription, but in existingcircumstances the embodiment of this force seems unnecessary.

Justice.—The administration of justice is on the French model.A supreme court of appeal, which also discharges the functions ofa court of cassation, sits at Canea. There are two assize courts atCanea and Candia respectively with jurisdiction in regard toserious offences (κακουργήματα). Minor offences (πλημμελήματα)and civil causes are tried by courts of first instance in each of thefive departments. There are 26 justices of peace, to whosedecision are referred slight contraventions of the law (πταίσματα)and civil causes in which the amount claimed is below 600 francs.These functionaries also hold monthly sessions in the variouscommunes. The judges are chosen without regard to religiousbelief, and precautions have been taken to render themindependent of political parties. They are appointed, promoted,transferred or removed by order of the council of justice, a bodycomposed of the five highest judicial dignitaries, sitting at Canea.An order for the removal of a judge must be based upon a convictionfor some specified offence before a court of law. Thejury system has not been introduced. The Greek penal codehas been adopted with some modifications. The Ottoman civilcode is maintained for the present, but it is proposed to establisha code recently drawn up by Greek jurists which is mainly basedon Italian and Saxon law. The Mussulman cadis retain theirjurisdiction in regard to religious affairs, marriage, divorce,the wardship of minors and inheritance.

Religion and Education.—The vast majority of the Christianpopulation belongs to the Orthodox (Greek) Church, which isgoverned by a synod of seven bishops under the presidency ofthe metropolitan of Candia. The Cretan Church is not, strictlyspeaking, autocephalous, being dependent on the patriarchateof Constantinople. There were in 1907 3500 Greek churchesin the island with 53 monasteries and 3 nunneries; 55 mosques,4 Roman Catholic churches and 4 synagogues. Education isnominally compulsory. In 1907 there were 547 primary schools(527 Christian and 20 Mahommedan), and 31 secondary schools ​(all Christian). About £20,000 is granted annually by the statefor the purposes of education.

The recent exploration and excavation of early sitesin Crete have entirely revolutionized our knowledge of itsremote past, and afforded the most astonishingevidence of the existence of a highly advancedcivilization going far back behind the historic period.Early, Middle and Late “Minoan” periods.Great “Minoan” palaces have been brought tolight at Cnossus and Phaestus, together with a minorbut highly interesting royal abode at Hagia Triada nearPhaestus. “Minoan” towns, some of considerable extent,have been discovered at Cnossus itself, at Gournia, Palaikastro,and at Zakro. The cave sanctuary of the Dictaean Zeushas been explored, and throughout the whole length andbreadth of the island a mass of early materials has nowbeen collected. The comparative evidence afforded by the discoveryof Egyptian relics shows that the Great Age of the Cretanpalaces covers the close of the third and the first half of thesecond millennium before our era. But the contents of early tombsand dwellings and indications supplied by such objects as stonevases and seal-stones show that the Cretans had already attainedto a considerable degree of culture, and had opened out communicationwith the Nile valley in the time of the earliestEgyptian dynasties. This more primitive phase of the indigenousculture, of which several distinct stages are traceable, is knownas the Early Minoan, and roughly corresponds with the firsthalf of the third millenniumB.C. The succeeding period, towhich the first palaces are due and to which the name ofMiddle Minoan is appropriately given, roughly coincides with theMiddle Empire of Egypt. An extraordinary perfection was atthis time attained in many branches of art, notably in the paintedpottery, often with polychrome decoration, of a class known as“Kamares” from its first discovery in a cave of that name onMount Ida. Imported specimens of this ware were found byFlinders Petrie among XIIth Dynasty remains at Kahun.The beginnings of a school of wall painting also go back to theMiddle Minoan period, and metal technique and such arts asgem engraving show great advance. By the close of this perioda manufactory of fine faience was attached to the palace ofCnossus. The succeeding Late Minoan period, best illustratedby the later palace at Cnossus and that at Hagia Triada, correspondsin Egypt with the Hyksos period and the earlier part ofthe New Empire. In the first phase of this the Minoan civilizationattains its acme, and the succeeding style already showsmuch that may be described as rococo. The later phase, whichfollows on the destruction of the Cnossian palace, and correspondswith the diffused Mycenaean style of mainland Greece and elsewhere,is already partly decadent. Late Minoan art in its finestaspect is best illustrated by the animated ivory figures, wallpaintings, andgesso duro reliefs at Cnossus, by the painted stuccodesigns at Hagia Triada, and the steatite vases found on the samesite with zones in reliefs exhibiting life-like scenes of warriors,toreadors, gladiators, wrestlers and pugilists, and of a festalthrong perhaps representing a kind of “harvest home.” Ofthe more conventional side of Late Minoan life a graphic illustrationis supplied by the remains of miniature wall paintings foundin the palace of Cnossus, showing groups of court ladies incuriously modern costumes, seated on the terraces and balustradesof a sanctuary. A grand “palace style” of vase painting wasat the same time evolved, in harmony with the general decorationof the royal halls.

It had been held till lately that the great civilization of prehistoricGreece, as first revealed to us by Schliemann’s discoveriesat Mycenae, was not possessed of the art of writing.In 1893, however, Arthur Evans observed some signs onseal-stones from Crete which led him to believe that aMinoan script.hieroglyphic system of writing had existed in Minoan times.Explorations carried out by him in Crete from 1894 onwards, forthe purpose of investigating the prehistoric civilization of theisland, fully corroborated this belief, and showed that a linearas well as a semi-pictorial form of writing was diffused in theisland at a very early period (“Cretan Pictographs and Prae-PhoenicianScript,”Journ. of Hellenic Studies, xiv. pt. 11).In 1895 he obtained a libation-table from the Dictaean cave witha linear dedication in the prehistoric writing (“Further Discoveries,”&c.,J.H.S. xvii.). Finally in 1900 all scepticism inthe learned world was set at rest by his discovery in the palace ofCnossus of whole archives consisting of clay tablets inscribed bothin the pictographic (hieroglyphic) and linear forms of the Minoanscript (Evans, “Palace of Knossos,”Reports of Excavation,1900–1905;Scripta Minoa, vol. i., 1909). Supplementaryfinds of inscribed tablets have since been found at Hagia Triada(F. Halbherr,Rapporto, &c., Monumenti antichi, 1903) andelsewhere (Palaikastro, Zakro and Gournia). It thus appearsthat a highly developed system of writing existed in MinoanCrete some two thousand years earlier than the first introductionunder Phoenician influence of Greek letters. In this, as in somany other respects, the old Cretan tradition receives strikingconfirmation. According to the Cretan version preserved byDiodorus (v. 74), the Phoenicians did not invent letters butsimply altered their forms.

There is evidence that the use in Crete of both linear andpictorial signs existed in the Early Minoan period, contemporarywith the first Egyptian dynasties. It is, however,during the Middle Minoan age, the centre point of whichcorresponds with the XIIth Egyptian dynasty, accordingEarlier pictographic script.to the Sothic system of dating,c. 2000–1850B.C.,that a systematized pictographic or hieroglyphic script makesits appearance which is common both to signets and clay tablets.During the Third Middle Minoan period, the lower limits ofwhich approach 1600B.C., this pictographic script finally givesway to a still more developed linear system—which is itselfdivided into an earlier and a later class. The earlier class (A)is already found in the temple repositories of Cnossus belongingto the age immediately preceding the great remodelling of the ​palace, and this class is specially well represented in thetablets of Hagia Triada (M.M. iii. and L.M. i.). The later class(B) of the linear script is that used on the great bulk of theclay tablets of the Cnossian palace, amounting in number tonearly 2000.

These clay archives are almost exclusively inventories andbusiness documents. Their general purport is shown in manycases by pictorial figures relating to various objects which appearon them—such as chariots and horses, ingots and metal vases,arms and implements, stores of corn, &c., flocks and herds. Manyshowing human figures apparently contain lists of personal names.A decimal system of numeration was used, with numbers goingup to 10,000. But the script itself is as yet undeciphered, thoughit is clear that certain words have changing suffixes, and thatthere were many compound words. The script also recurs onwalls in the shape of graffiti, and on vases, sometimes ink-written;and from the number of seals originally attached to perishabledocuments it is probable that parchment or some similar materialwas also used. In the easternmost district of Crete, where theaboriginal “Eteocretan” element survived to historic times(Praesus, Palaikastro), later inscriptions have been discoveredbelonging to the 5th and succeeding centuriesB.C., written inGreek letters but in the indigenous language (Comparetti,Mon.Ant. iii. 451 sqq.; R. S. Conway,British School Annual, viii.125 sqq. and ib. xl.). In 1908 a remarkable discovery was madeby the Italian Mission at Phaestus of a clay disk with imprintedhieroglyphic characters belonging to a non-Cretan system andprobably from W. Anatolia.

The remains of several shrines within the building, and thereligious element perceptible in the frescoes, show that a considerablepart of the Palace of Cnossus was devotedto purposes of cult. It is clear that the rulers, as socommonly in ancient states, fulfilled priestly as well asCharacter of
Minoan religion.royal functions. The evidence supplied by this andother Cretan sites shows that the principal Minoan divinity was akind ofMagna Mater, a Great Mother or nature goddess, withwhom was associated a male satellite. The cult in fact correspondsin its main outlines with the early religious conceptions ofSyria and a large part of Anatolia—a correspondence probablyexplained by a considerable amount of ethnic affinity existingbetween a large section of the primitive Cretan population andthat of southern Asia Minor. The Minoan goddess is sometimesseen in her chthonic form with serpents, sometimes in a morecelestial aspect with doves, at times with lions. One part of herreligious being survives in that of the later Rhea, another in thatof Aphrodite, one of whose epithets,Ariadne ( = the exceedingholy), takes us back to the earliest Cnossian tradition. Under hernative name, Britomartis ( = the sweet maiden) or Dictynna, sheapproaches Artemis and Leto, again associated with an infantgod, and this Cretan virgin goddess was worshipped in Aeginaunder the name of Aphaea. It is noteworthy that whereas, inGreece proper, Zeus attains a supreme position, the old superiorityof the Mother Goddess is still visible in the Cretan traditionsof Rhea and Dictynna and the infant Zeus.

Although images of the divinities were certainly known, theprincipal objects of cult in the Minoan age were of the aniconicclass; in many cases these were natural objects, such as rocks andmountain peaks, with their cave sanctuaries, like those of Idaor of Dicte. Trees and curiously shaped stones were alsoworshipped, and artificial pillars of wood or stone. These latter,as in the well-known case of the Lion’s Gate at Mycenae, oftenappear with guardian animals as their supporters. The essentialfeature of this cult is the bringing down of the celestial spirit byproper incantations and ritual into these fetish objects, the doveperched on a column sometimes indicating its descent. It is aprimitive cult similar to that of Early Canaan, illustrated by thepillow stone set up by Jacob, which was literally “Bethel” or the“House of God.” The story of thebaetylus, or stone swallowedby Saturn under the belief that it was his son, the Cretan Zeus,seems to cover the same idea and has been derived from the sameSemitic word.

A special form of this “baetylic” cult in Minoan Crete was therepresentation of the two principal divinities in their fetish formby double axes. Shrines of the Double Axes have been found inthe palace of Cnossus itself, at Hagia Triada, and in a smallpalace at Gournia, and many specimens of the sacred emblemoccurred in the Cave Sanctuary of Dicte, the mythical birthplaceof the Cretan Zeus. Complete scenes of worship in which libationsare poured before the Sacred Axes are, moreover, given on a finepainted sarcophagus found at Hagia Triada.

The same cult survived to later times in Caria in the case ofZeus Labrandeus, whose name is derived fromlabrys, the nativename for the double axe, and it had already beensuggested on philological grounds that the Cretan“labyrinthos” was formed from a kindred form ofLabyrinth and Minotaur.the same word. The discovery that the great Minoanfoundation at Cnossus was at once a palace and a sanctuary ofthe Double Axe and its associated divinities has now supplied astriking and it may well be thought an overwhelming confirmationof this view. We can hardly any longer hesitate to recognizein this vast building, with its winding corridors and subterraneanducts, the Labyrinth of later tradition; and as a matter of fact amaze pattern recalling the conventional representation of theLabyrinth in Greek art actually formed the decoration of one ofthe corridors of the palace. It is difficult, moreover, not toconnect the repeated wall-paintings and reliefs of the palaceillustrating the cruel bull sports of the Minoan arena, in whichgirls as well as youths took part, with the legend of the Minotaur,or bull of Minos, for whose grisly meals Athens was forced to payannual tribute of her sons and daughters. It appears certainfrom the associations in which they are found at Cnossus, thatthese Minoan bull sports formed part of a religious ceremony.Actual figures of a monster with a bull’s head and man’s bodyoccurred on seals of Minoan fabric found on this and otherCretan sites.

It is abundantly evident that whatever mythic element mayhave been interwoven with the old traditions of the spot, theyhave a solid substratum of reality. With such remainsbefore us it is no longer sufficient to relegate Minos tothe regions of sun-myths. His legendary presentationHistoric substratum of Cretan myths.as the “Friend of God,” like Abraham, to whom as toMoses the law was revealed on the holy mountain, callsup indeed just such a priest-king of antiquity as the palace-sanctuaryof Cnossus itself presupposes. It seems possible even thatthe ancient tradition which recorded an earlier or later king of thename of Minos may, as suggested above, cover a dynastic title.The earlier and later palaces at Cnossus and Phaestus, and theinterrupted phases of each, seem to point to a succession ofdynasties, to which, as to its civilization as a whole, it is certainlyconvenient to apply the name “Minoan.” It is interesting, asbringing out the personal element in the traditional royal seat,that an inscribed sealing belonging to the earliest period of thelater palace of Cnossus bears on it the impression of two officialsignets with portrait heads of a man and of a boy, recalling the“associations” on the coinage of imperial Rome. It is clear thatthe later traditions in many respects accurately summed up theperformances of the “Minoan” dynast who carried out the greatbuildings now brought to light. The palace, with its wonderfulworks of art, executed for Minos by the craftsman Daedalus,has ceased to belong to the realms of fancy. The extraordinaryarchitectural skill, the sanitary and hydraulic science revealed indetails of the building, bring us at the same time face to facewith the power of mechanical invention with which Daedaluswas credited. The elaborate method and bureaucratic controlvisible in the clay documents of the palace point to a highlydeveloped legal organization. The powerful fleet and maritimeempire which Minos was said to have established will no doubtreceive fuller illustration when the sea-town of Cnossus comes tobe explored. The appearance of ships on some of the mostimportant seal-impressions is not needed, however, to show howwidely Minoan influence made itself felt in the neighbouringMediterranean regions.

The Nilotic influence visible in the vases, seals and otherfabrics of the Early Minoan age, seems to imply a maritime ​activity on the part of the islanders going back to the days of thefirst Egyptian dynasties. In a deposit at Kahun, belonging tothe XIIth Dynasty,c. 2000B.C., were already foundEarly relations
with Egypt.imported polychrome vases of “Middle Minoan”fabric. In the same way the important part played byCretan enterprise in the days of the New Egyptianempire is illustrated by repeated finds of Late Minoan potteryon Egyptian sites. A series of monuments, moreover, belongingto the early part of the XVIIIth Dynasty show the representativesof the Kefts or peoples of “The Ring” and of the“Lands to the West” in the fashionable costume ofThe Kefts and Philistines.the Cnossian court, bearing precious vessels and otherobjects of typical Minoan forms. Farther to the eastthe recent excavations on the old Philistine sites like Gezer havebrought to light swords and vases of Cretan manufacture in thelater palace style. The principal Philistine tribe is indeed knownin the biblical records as the Cherethims or Cretans, and theMinoan name and the cult of the Cretan Zeus were preserved atGaza to the latest classical days. Similar evidenceEarly relations
with Cyprus and
N. Aegean.of Minoan contact, and indeed of wholesale colonizationfrom the Aegean side, recurs in Cyprus. The culture ofthe more northerly Aegean islands, best revealed to usby the excavations of the British School at Phylakopiin Melos, also attest a growing influence from theCretan side, which, about the time of the later palace atCnossus, becomes finally predominant.

Turning to the mainland of Greece we see that the astonishingremains of a highly developed prehistoric civilization, whichSchliemann first brought to light in 1876 at Mycenae,and which from those discoveries received the generalname of “Mycenaean,” in the main represent a transmarineMinoan influence on mainland of Greece.offshoot from the Minoan stock. The earlierremains both at Mycenae and Tiryns, still imperfectlyinvestigated, show that this Cretan influence goes back to theMiddle Minoan age, with its characteristic style of polychromevase decoration. The contents of the royal tombs, on the otherhand, reveal a wholesale correspondence with the fabrics of thefirst, and, to a less degree, the second Late Minoan age, asillustrated by the relics belonging to the Middle Period of the laterpalace at Cnossus and by those of the royal villa at Hagia Triada.The chronological centre of the great beehive tombs seems tobe slightly lower. The ceiling of that of Orchomenos, and thepainted vases and gold cups from the Vaphio tomb by Sparta,with their marvellous reliefs showing scenes of bull-hunting,represent the late palace style at Cnossus in its final development.

The leading characteristics of this mainland civilization arethus indistinguishable from the Minoan. The funeral rites aresimilar, and the religious representations show an identical formof worship. At the same time the local traditions and conditionsdifferentiate the continental from the insular branch. In Crete,in the later period, when the rulers could trust to the “woodenwalls” of the Minoan navy, there is no parallel for the massivefortifications that we see at Tiryns or Mycenae. The colder winterclimate of mainland Greece dictated the use of fixed hearths,whereas in the Cretan palaces these seem to have been of a portablekind, and the different usage in this respect again reactedon the respective forms of the principal hall or “Megaron.”

Minoan culture under its mainland aspect left its traces on theAcropolis at Athens,—a corroboration of the tradition whichmade the Athenians send their tribute children toMinos. Similar traces extend through a large part ofnorthern Greece from Cephallenia and Leucadia toMinoan influences
in N. Greece.Thessaly, and are specially well marked at Iolcus (nearmod. Volo), the legendary embarking place of the Argonauts.This circumstance deserves attention owing to the special connexiontraditionally existing between the Minyans of Iolcus andthose of Orchomenus, the point of all others on this side wherethe early Cretan influence seems most to have taken root. TheMinoan remains at Orchomenus which are traceable to the latestperiod go far to substantiate the philological comparison betweenthe name of Minyas, the traditional ancestor of this ancient race,and that of Minos.

Still farther to the north-west a distinct Minoan influence isperceptible in the old Illyrian lands east of the Adriatic, and itstraces reappear in the neighbourhood of Venice. It iswell marked throughout southern Italy from Tarantoto Naples. It was with Sicily, however, that the laterAdriatic and Italian extension.history of Minos and his great craftsman Daedalus wasin a special way connected by ancient tradition. Here, as inCrete, Daedalus executed great works like the temple of Eryx,and it was on Sicilian soil that Minos, engaged in a westerncampaign, was said to have met with a violent death at thehands of the native king Kokalos (Cocalus) and his daughters.His name is preserved in the Sicilian Minoa, and his tomb waspointed out in the neighbourhood of Agrigentum, with a shrineabove dedicated to his native Aphrodite, the lady of the dove;and in this connexion it must be observed that the cult of Eryxperpetuates to much later times the characteristic features ofthe worship of the Cretan Nature goddess, as now revealedto us in the palace of Cnossus and elsewhere. These ancientindications of a Minoan connexion with Sicily have now receivedinteresting confirmation in the numerous discoveries, principallydue to the recent excavations of P. Orsi, of arms and painted vasesof Late Minoan fabric in Bronze Age tombs of the provinces ofSyracuse and Girgenti (Agrigentum) belonging to the late BronzeAge. Some of these objects, such as certain forms of swords andvases, seem to be of local fabric, but derived from originals goingback to the beginning of the Late Minoan age.

The abiding tradition of the Cretan aborigines, as preservedby Herodotus (vii. 171), ascribes the eventual settlement of theGreeks in Crete to a widespread desolation that hadfallen on the central regions. It is certain that bythe beginning of the 14th century B.C., when the signsMinoan crisis:
c. 1400 B.C.of already decadent Minoan art are perceptible in theimported pottery found in the palace of Akhenaton at Tell el-Amarna,some heavy blows had fallen on the island power.Shortly before this date the palaces both of Cnossus and Phaestushad undergone a great destruction, and though during the ensuingperiod both these royal residences were partially reoccupiedit was for the most part at any rate by poorer denizens, and theirgreat days as palaces were over for ever. Elsewhere at Cnossus,in the smaller palace to the west, the royal villa and the townhouses, we find the evidence of a similar catastrophe followedby an imperfect recovery, and the phenomenon meets us againat Palaikastro and other early settlements in the east of Crete.At the same time, to whatever cause this serious setback ofMinoan civilization was owing, it would be very unsafe to inferas yet any large displacement of the original inhabitants by theinvading swarms from the mainland or elsewhere. The evidenceof a partial restoration of the domestic quarter of the palace ofCnossus tends to show a certain measure of dynastic continuity.There is evidence, moreover, that the script and with it theindigenous language did not die out during this period, and thattherefore the days of Hellenic settlement at Cnossus were notyet. The recent exploration of a cemetery belonging to theclose of the great palace period, and in a greater degree to theage succeeding the catastrophe, has now conclusively shownthat there was no real break in the continuity of Minoan culture.This third Late Minoan period—the beginning of which may befixed about 1400—is an age of stagnation and decline, but thepoint of departure continued to be the models supplied by theage that had preceded it. Art was still by no means extinct, andits forms and decorative elements are simply later derivativesof the great palace style. Not only the native form of writing,but the household arrangements, sepulchral usages, and religiousrites remain substantially the same. The third Late Minoan agecorresponds generally with the Late Mycenaean stage in theAegean world (seeAegean Civilization). It is an age indeedin which the culture as a whole, though following a lower level,attains the greatest amount of uniformity. From Sicily and eventhe Spanish coast to the Troad, southern Asia Minor, Cyprus andPalestine,—from the Nile valley to the mouth of the Po, verysimilar forms were now diffused. Here and there, as in Cyprus,we watch the development of some local schools. How far Crete ​itself continued to preserve the hegemony which may reasonablybe ascribed to it at an earlier age must remain doubtful. It iscertain that towards the close of this third and concludingLate Minoan period in the island certain mainland types of swordsand safety-pins make their appearance, which are symptomaticof the great invasion from that side that was now impending orhad already begun.

It will be convenient here to give a general view of the moreimportant Minoan remains recently excavated on various Cretansites.

Plate I.

​

Fig. 1.—PALACE OF CNOSSUS. GENERAL VIEW OF THE SITE FROM THE EAST.

Fig. 2.—VIEW OF PART OF GRAND STAIRCASE AND HALL OF COLONNADES (WOODEN COLUMNS RESTORED) (CNOSSUS). (By permission of Dr A. J. Evans.)

Plate II.

​

Fig. 3.—LARGE OIL-JARS IN EAST MAGAZINES (CNOSSUS).
Fig. 4.—GYPSUM THRONE (FRESCO PAINTING VISIBLE ON WALL) (CNOSSUS).		Fig. 5.—BASE OF WEST WALL NEAR ROYAL ENTRANCE (CNOSSUS).
(By permission of Dr A. J. Evans.)

The above summary gives, indeed, a very imperfect ideaof the extent to which the remains of the great Minoan civilizationare spread throughout the island. The “hundredcities” ascribed to Crete by Homer are in a fair wayof becoming an ascertained reality. The great daysThird Late Minoan period.of Crete lie thus beyond the historic period. Theperiod of decline referred to above (Late Minoan III.), whichbegins about the beginning of the 14th century before our era,must, from the abundance of its remains, have been of considerableduration. As to the character of the invading elements thathastened its close, and the date of their incursions, contemporaryEgyptian monuments afford the best clue. The Keftiu whorepresented Minoan culture in Egypt in the concluding periodof the Cnossian palace (Late Minoan II.) cease to appear onEgyptian monuments towards the end of the XVIIIth Dynasty(c. 1350B.C.), and their place is taken by the “Peoples of theSea.” The Achaeans, under the nameAkaiusha, already appearamong the piratical invaders of Egypt in the time of RamesesIII. (c. 1200B.C.) of the XXth Dynasty (see H. R. Hall,“Keftiu and the Peoples of the Sea,”Annual of British Schoolat Athens, viii. 157 sqq.).

About the same time the evidences of imports ofLate Minoan or “Mycenaean” fabrics in Egyptdefinitely cease. In theOdyssey we already find theAchaeans together with Dorians settled in centralCrete. In the extreme east and west of the island the aboriginalGreek settlements
in Crete.“Eteocretan” element, however, as represented respectivelyby the Praesians or Cydonians, still held its own, and inscriptionswritten in Greek characters show that the old language survivedto the centuries immediately preceding the Christian era.

The mainland invasions which produced these great ethnicchanges in Crete are marked archaeologically by signs of widespreaddestruction and by a considerable break inthe continuity of the insular civilization. New burialcustoms, notably the rite of cremation in place of theThe dark ages.older corpse-burial, are introduced, and in many cases the earliertombs were pillaged and re-used by new comers. The use ofiron for arms and implements now finally triumphed overbronze. Northern forms of swords and safety-pins are nowfound in general use. A new geometrical style of decorationlike that of contemporary Greece largely supplants the Minoanmodels. The civic foundations which belong to this period,and which include the greater part of the massive ruins ofGoulas and Anavlachos in the province of Mirabello and ofHyrtakina in the west, affect more or less precipitous sites andshow a greater tendency to fortification. The old system ofwriting now dies out, and it is not till some three centurieslater that the new alphabetic forms are introduced from aSemitic source. The whole course of the older Cretan civilizationis awhile interrupted, and is separated from the new by the truedark ages of Greece.

It is nevertheless certain that some of the old traditions werepreserved by the remnants of the old population now reducedto a subject condition, and that these finally leavened the wholelump, so that once more—this time under a Hellenic guise—Cretewas enabled to anticipate mainland Greece in nascentcivilization. Already in 1883 A. Milchhöfer (Anfänge derKunst) had called attention to certain remarkable examplesof archaic Greek bronze-work, and the subsequent discoveryof the votive bronzes in the cave of Zeus on Mount Ida, andnotably the shields with their fine embossed designs, shows thatby the 8th centuryB.C. Cretan technique in metal not only heldits own beside imported Cypro-Phoenician work, but was distinctlyahead of that of the rest of Greece (Halbherr,Bronzidel antro di Zeus Ideo). The recent excavations by the BritishSchool on the site of the Dictaean temple at Palaikastro bearout this conclusion, and an archaic marble head of Apollo foundat Eleutherna shows that classical tradition was not at fault inrecording the existence of a very early school of Greek sculpturein the island, illustrated by the names of Dipoenos and Scyllis.

The Dorian dynasts in Crete seem in some sort to have claimeddescent from Minos, and the Dorian legislators sought theirsanction in the laws which Minos was said to have receivedfrom the hands of the Cretan Zeus. The great monumentof Gortyna discovered by Halbherr and Fabricius (Monumentiantichi, iii.) is the most important monument of early lawhitherto brought to light in any part of the Greek world.

Among other Greek remains in the island may be mentioned,besides the great inscription, the archaic temple of the PythianApollo at Gortyna, a plain square building with apronaos added in later times, excavated by Halbherr,1885 and 1887 (Mon. Ant. iii. 2 seqq.), the HellenicGreek remains.bridge and the vast rock-cut reservoirs of Eleutherna, the citywalls of Itanos, Aptera and Polyrrhenia, and at Phalasarna, therock-cut throne of a divinity, the port, and the remains of atemple. The most interesting record, however, that has beenpreserved of later Hellenic civilization in the island is thecoinage of the Cretan cities (J. N. Svoronos,Numismatique dela Crete ancienne; W. Wroth,B. M. Coin Catalogue,Crete,&c.;P. Gardner,The Types of Greek Coins), which during the goodperiod display a peculiarly picturesque artistic style distinctfrom that of the rest of the Greek world, and sometimes indicativeof a revival of Minoan types. But in every case these artisticefforts were followed at short intervals by gross relapses intobarbarism which reflect the anarchy of the political conditions.

Under thePax Romana, the Cretan cities again enjoyed alarge measure of prosperity, illustrated by numerous edificesstill existing at the time of the Venetian occupation. A good ​account of these is preserved in a MS. description of the islanddrawn up under the Venetians about 1538, and existing in theRoman remains.library of St Mark (published by Falkener,Museumof Classical Antiquities, ii. pp. 263-303). Very littleof all this, however, has escaped the Turkish conquestand the ravages caused by the incessant insurrections of the lasttwo centuries. The ruin-field of Gortyna still evokes somethingof the importance that it possessed in Imperial days, and atLebena on the south coast are remains of a temple of Aesculapiusand its dependencies which stood in connexion with this city.At Cnossus, save some blocks of the amphitheatre, the Romanmonuments visible in Venetian times have almost whollydisappeared. Among the early Christian remains of the islandfar and away the most important is the church of St Titus atGortyna, which perhaps dates from the Constantinian age.

Ancient.—Lying midway between three continents, Cretewas from the earliest period a natural stepping-stone for thepassage of early culture from Egypt and the East to mainlandGreece. On all this the recent archaeological discoveries (seethe section onArchaeology) have thrown great light, but theearliest written history of Crete, like that of most parts ofcontinental Greece, is mixed up with mythology and fable toso great an extent as to render it difficult to arrive at any clearconclusions concerning it. The Cretans themselves claimedfor their island to be the birthplace of Zeus, as well as the parentof all the other divinities usually worshipped in Greece as theOlympian deities. But passing from this region of pure mythologyto the semi-mythic or heroic age, we find almost all the earlylegends and traditions of the island grouped around the nameof Minos. According to the received tradition, Minos was aking of Cnossus in Crete; he was a son of Zeus, and enjoyedthrough life the privilege of habitual intercourse with his divinefather. It was from this source that he derived the wisdomwhich enabled him to give to the Cretans the excellent systemof laws and governments that earned for him the reputationof being the greatest legislator of antiquity. At the same timehe was reported to have been the first monarch who establisheda naval power, and acquired what was termed by the GreekstheThalassocracy, or dominion of the sea.

This last tradition, which was received as an undoubted factboth by Thucydides and Aristotle, has during the last few yearsreceived striking confirmation. The remarkable remains recentlybrought to light on Cretan soil tend to show that already some2000 years before the Dorian conquest the island was exercising adominant influence in the Aegean world. The great palaces nowexcavated at Cnossus and Phaestus, as well as the royal villaof Hagia Triada, exhibit the successive phases of a brilliant primitivecivilization which had already attained mature developmentby the date of the XIIth Egyptian dynasty. To this civilizationas a whole it is convenient to give the name “Minoan,” andthe name of Minos itself may be reasonably thought to covera dynastic even more than a personal significance in much thesame way as such historic terms as “Pharaoh” or “Caesar.”

The archaeological evidence outside Crete points to the actualexistence of Minoan plantations as far afield on one side asSicily and on the other as the coast of Canaan. The historictradition which identifies with the Cretans the principal elementof the Philistine confederation, and places the tomb of Minoshimself in western Sicily, thus receives remarkable confirmation.Industrial relations with Egypt are also marked by the occurrenceof a series of finds of pottery and other objects of Minoan fabricamong the remains of the XVIIIth, XIIth and even earlierdynasties, while the same seafaring enterprise brought Egyptianfabrics to Crete from the times of the first Pharaohs. Even in theHomeric poems, which belong to an age when the great Minoancivilization was already decadent, the Cretans appear as the onlyGreek people who attempted to compete with the Phoeniciansas bold and adventurous navigators. In the Homeric age thepopulation of Crete was of a very mixed character, and we aretold in theOdyssey (xix. 175) that besides the Eteocretes, who,as their name imports, must have been the original inhabitants,the island contained Achaeans, Pelasgians and Dorians. Subsequentlythe Dorian element became greatly strengthened byfresh immigrations from the Peloponnesus, and during thehistorical period all the principal cities of the island were eitherDorian colonies, or had adopted the Dorian dialect andinstitutions. It is certain that at a very early period the Cretancities were celebrated for their laws and system of government,and the most extensive monument of early Greek law is thegreat Gortyna inscription, discovered in 1884. The origin of theCretan laws was of course attributed to Minos, but theyhad much in common with those of the other Dorian states, aswell as with those of Lycurgus at Sparta, which were, indeed,according to one tradition, copied in great measure from thosealready existing in Crete.^[2]

It is certain that whatever merits the Cretan laws may havepossessed for the internal regulation of the different cities, theyhad the one glaring defect, that they made no provision for anyfederal bond or union among them, or for the government of theisland as a whole. It was owing to the want of this that theCretans scarcely figure in Greek history as a people, though theisland, as observed by Aristotle, would seem from its naturalposition calculated to exercise a preponderating influence overGreek affairs. Thus they took no part either in the Persian or inthe Peloponnesian War, or in any of the subsequent civil contestsin which so many of the cities and islands of Greece were engaged.At the same time they were so far from enjoying tranquillity onthis account that the few notices we find of them in history alwaysrepresent them as engaged in local wars among one another; andPolybius tells us that the history of Crete was one continuedseries of civil wars, which were carried on with a bitter animosityexceeding all that was known in the rest of Greece.

In these domestic contests the three cities that generally tookthe lead, and claimed to exercise a kind ofhegemony or supremacyover the whole island, were Cnossus, Gortyna and Cydonia.But besides these three, there were many other independentcities, which, though they generally followed the lead of one orother of these more powerful rivals, enjoyed complete autonomy,and were able to shift at will from one alliance to another. Amongthe most important of these were—Lyttus or Lyctus, in theinterior, south-east of Cnossus; Rhaucus, between Cnossus andGortyna; Phaestus, in the plain of Messara, between Gortynaand the sea; Polyrrhenia, near the north-west angle of theisland; Aptera, a few miles inland from the Bay of Suda;Eleutherna and Axus, on the northern slopes of Mount Ida; andLappa, between the White Mountains and the sea. Phalasarnaon the west coast, and Chersonesus on the north, seem to havebeen dependencies, and served as the ports of Polyrrhenia andLyttus. Elyrus stood at the foot of the White Mountains just ​above the south coast. In the eastern portion of the island werePraesus in the interior, and Itanus on the coast, facing the east,while Hierapytna on the south coast was the only place ofimportance on the side facing Africa, and on this accountrose under the Romans to be one of the principal cities of theisland. (A. J. E.) 

Medieval to 19th Century.—Though it was continually torn bycivil dissensions, the island maintained its independence of thevarious Macedonian monarchs by whom it was surrounded; buthaving incurred the enmity of Rome, first by an alliance with thegreat Mithradates, and afterwards by taking active part withtheir neighbours, the pirates of Cilicia, the Cretans were at lengthattacked by the Roman arms, and, after a resistance protractedfor more than three years, were finally subdued by Q. Metellus,who earned by this success the surname of Creticus (67B.C.). Theisland was now reduced to a Roman province, and subsequentlyunited for administrative purposes with the district of Cyrenaicaor the Pentapolis, on the opposite coast of Africa. This arrangementlasted till the time of Constantine, by whom Crete wasincorporated in the prefecture of Illyria. It continued to formpart of the Byzantine empire till the 9th century, when it fellinto the hands of the Saracens (823). It then became a formidablenest of pirates and a great slave mart; it defied all the efforts ofthe Byzantine sovereigns to recover it till the year 960, when itwas reconquered by Nicephorus Phocas. In the partition of theGreek empire after the capture of Constantinople by the Latinsin 1204, Crete fell to the lot of Boniface, marquis of Montferrat,but was sold by him to the Venetians, and thus passed under thedominion of that great republic, to which it continued subject formore than four centuries.

Under the Venetian government Candia, a fortress originallybuilt by the Saracens, and called by them “Khandax,” becamethe seat of government, and not only rose to be the capital andchief city of the island, but actually gave name to it, so that itwas called in the official language of Venice “the island ofCandia,” a designation which from thence passed into modernmaps. The ancient name of Krete or Kriti was, however, alwaysretained in use among the Greeks, and is gradually resuming itsplace in the usage of literary Europe. The government of Creteby the Venetian aristocracy was, like that of their other dependencies,very arbitrary and oppressive, and numerousinsurrections were the consequence. Daru, in his history ofVenice, mentions fourteen between the years 1207 and 1365, themost important being that of 1361–1364,—a revolt not of thenatives against the rule of their Venetian masters, but of theVenetian colonists against the republic. But with all its defectstheir administration did much to promote the material prosperityof the country, and to encourage commerce and industry; and itis probable that the island was more prosperous than at anysubsequent time. Their Venetian masters at least secured to theislanders external tranquillity, and it is singular that the Turkswere content to leave them in undisturbed possession of thisopulent and important island for nearly two centuries after thefall of Constantinople. The Cretans themselves, however, wereeager for a change, and, disappointed in the hope of a Genoeseoccupation, were ready, as is stated in the report of a Venetiancommissioner, to exchange the rule of the Venetians for that ofthe Turks, whom they fondly expected to find more lenient, or atany rate less energetic, masters. It was not till 1645 that theTurks made any serious attempt to effect the conquest of theisland; but in that year they landed with an army of 50,000 men,and speedily reduced the important city of Canea. Retimo fell thefollowing year, and in 1648 they laid siege to the capital city ofCandia. This was the longest siege on record, having beenprotracted for more than twenty years; but in 1667 it waspressed with renewed vigour by the Turks under the grandvizier Ahmed Kuprili, and the city was at length compelledto surrender (September 1669). Its fall was followed by thesubmission of the whole island. Venice was allowed to retainpossession of Grabusa, Suda and Spinalonga on the north, but in1718 these three strongholds reverted to the Turks, and theisland was finally lost to Venice.

From this time Crete continued subject to Ottoman rulewithout interruption till the outbreak of the Greek revolution.After the conquest a large part of the inhabitants embracedMahommedanism, and thus secured to themselves the chief sharein the administration of the island. But far from this having afavourable effect upon the condition of the population, the resultwas just the contrary, and according to R. Pashley (Travels inCrete, 1837) Crete was the worst governed province of the Turkishempire. In 1770 an abortive attempt at revolt, the hero ofwhich was “Master” John, a Sphakiot chief, was repressed withgreat cruelty. The regular authorities sent from Constantinoplewere wholly unable to control the excesses of the janissaries, whoexercised without restraint every kind of violence and oppression.In 1813 the ruthless severity of the governor-general, HajiOsman, who obtained the co-operation of the Christians, brokethe power of the janissaries; but after Osman had fallen a victimto the suspicions of the sultan, Crete again came under theircontrol. When in 1821 the revolution broke out in continentalGreece, the Cretans, headed by the Sphakiots, after a massacre atCanea at once raised the standard of insurrection. They carriedon hostilities with such success that they soon made themselvesmasters of the whole of the open country, and drove the Turksand Mussulman population to take refuge in the fortified cities.The sultan then invoked the assistance of Mehemet Ali, pasha ofEgypt, who despatched 7000 Albanians to the island. Hostilitiescontinued with no decisive result till 1824, when the arrival offurther reinforcements enabled the Turkish commander toreduce the island to submission. In 1827 the battle of Navarinotook place, and in 1830 (3rd of February) Greece was declaredindependent. The allied powers (France, England and Russia)decided, however, that Crete should not be included amongst theislands annexed to the newly-formed kingdom of Greece; butrecognizing that some change was necessary, they obtained fromthe sultan Mahmud II. its cession to Egypt, which was confirmedby a firman of the 20th of December 1832. This changeof masters brought some relief to the unfortunate Cretans, whoat least exchanged the licence of local misrule for the oppressionof an organized despotism; and the government of MustafaPasha, an Albanian like Mehemet Ali, the ruler of the island fora considerable period (1832–1852), was more enlightened andintelligent than that of most Turkish governors. He encouragedagriculture, improved the roads, introduced an Albanian police,and put down brigandage. The period of his administrationhas been called the “golden age” of Crete.

In 1840 Crete was again taken from Mehemet Ali, and replacedunder the dominion of the Turks, but fortunately Mustafa stillretained his governorship until he left for Constantinople tobecome grand vizier in 1852. Four years later an insurrectionbroke out, owing to the violation of the provisions of an imperialdecree (February 1856), whereby liberty of conscience andequal rights and privileges with Mussulmans had been conferredupon Christians. The latter refused to lay down their arms untila firman was issued (July 1858), confirming the promised concessions.These promises being again repudiated, in 1864 theinhabitants held an assembly and a petition was drawn up forpresentation at Constantinople by the governor. The sultan’sreply was couched in the vaguest terms, and the Cretans wereordered to render unquestioning obedience to the authorities.After a period of great distress and cruel oppression, in 1866,on the demand for reforms being again refused, a general insurrectiontook place, which was only put down by great exertionson the part of the Porte. It was followed by the concession ofadditional privileges to the Christians of the island and of a kindof constitutional government and other reforms embodied inwhat is known as the “Organic Statute” of 1868. (J. H. F.) 

Modern Constitutional.—Cretan constitutional history may besaid to date from 1868, when, after the suppression of an insurrectionwhich had extended over three years, the Turkish governmentconsented to grant a certain measure of autonomy to theisland. The privileges now accorded were embodied in what isknown as the Organic Statute, an instrument which eventuallyobtained a somewhat wider importance, being proposed by ​Article XXIII. of the Berlin Treaty as a basis of reforms to beintroduced in other parts of the Ottoman empire. Variousprivileges already acquired by the Christian population wereconfirmed; a general council, or representative body, wasbrought into existence, composed of deputies from every districtin the island; mixed tribunals were introduced, together witha highly elaborate administrative system, under which all themore important functionaries, Christian and Mussulman, wereprovided with an assessor of the opposite creed. The newconstitution, however, proved costly and unworkable, and failedto satisfy either section of the population. The Christians wereready for another outbreak, when, in 1878, the Greek government,finding Hellenic aspirations ignored by the treaty of San Stefano,gave the signal for agitation in the island. During the insurrectionwhich followed, the usual barbarities were committed on bothsides; the Christians betook themselves to the mountains, andthe Mussulman peasants crowded into the fortified towns.Eventually the Cretan chiefs invoked the mediation of England,which Turkey, exhausted by her struggle with Russia, wasPact of Halepa.ready to accept, and the convention known as thePact of Halepa was drawn up in 1878 under the auspicesof Mr Sandwith, the British consul, and AdossidesPasha, both of whom enjoyed the confidence of the Cretanpopulation. The privileges conferred by the Organic Statutewere confirmed; the cumbersome and extravagant judicial andadministrative systems were maintained; the judges weredeclared independent of the executive, and an Assembly composedof forty-nine Christian and thirty-one Mussulman deputiestook the place of the former general council. A parliamentaryrégime was thus inaugurated, and party warfare for a time tookthe place of the old religious antagonism, the Moslems attachingthemselves to one or other of the political factions which nowmade their appearance among the Christians. The materialinterests of the island were neglected in the scramble for place andpower; the finances fell into disorder, and the party which cameoff worst in the struggle systematically intrigued against thegovernor-general of the day and conspired with his enemies atConstantinople. A crisis came about in 1889, when the “Conservative”leaders, finding themselves in a minority in thechamber, took up arms and withdrew to the mountains. Thoughthe outbreak was unconnected with the religious feud, the latentfanaticism of both creeds was soon aroused, and the island oncemore became a scene of pillage and devastation. Unlike the twopreceding movements, the insurrection of 1889 resulted unfavourablyfor the Christians. The Porte, having induced the Greekgovernment to persuade the insurgents not to oppose the occupationof several strategic posts, despatched a military governorto the island, proclaimed martial law, and issued a firmanabrogating many important provisions of the Halepa Pact.The mode of election to the assembly was altered, the numberof its members reduced, and the customs revenue, which hadhitherto been shared with the island, was appropriated by theTurkish treasury. The firman was undoubtedly illegal, as itviolated a convention possessing a quasi-international sanction,but the Christians were unable to resist, and the powers abstainedfrom intervention. The elections held under the new systemproved a failure, the Christians refusing to go to the polls, andfor the next five years Crete was governed absolutely by a successionof Mahommedan Valis. The situation went from bad toworse, the deficit in the budget increased, the gendarmery, whichreceived no pay, became insubordinate, and crime multiplied.In 1894 the Porte, at the instance of the powers, nominated aChristian, Karatheodory Pasha, to the governorship, and theChristians, mollified by the concession, agreed to take part inthe assembly which soon afterwards was convoked; no steps,however, were taken to remedy the financial situation, whichbecame the immediate cause of the disorders that followed. Therefusal of the Porte to refund considerable sums which had beenillegally diverted from the Cretan treasury or even to sanctiona loan to meet immediate requirements caused no little exasperationin the island, which was increased by the recall of Karatheodory(March 1895). Before that event an Epitropé, or“Committee of Reform,” had appeared in the mountains—theharbinger of the prolonged struggle which ended in the emancipationInsurrection of 1896–97.of Crete. The Epitropé was at first nothingmore than a handful of discontented politicians who hadfailed to find places in the administration, but someslight reverses which it succeeded in inflicting on theTurkish troops brought thousands of armed Christians to itsside, and in April 1896 it found itself strong enough to investthe important garrison town of Vamos. The Moslem peasantrynow flocked to the fortified towns and civil war began. Seriousdisturbances broke out at Canea on the 24th of May, and wereonly quelled by the arrival of foreign warships. The foreignconsuls intervened in the hope of bringing about a peacefulsettlement, but the Sultan resolved on the employment of force,and an expedition despatched to Vamos effected the relief of thattown with a loss of 200 men. The advance of a Turkish detachmentthrough the western districts, where other garrisons werebesieged, was marked by pillage and devastation, and 5000Christian peasants took refuge on the desolate promontory ofSpada, where they suffered extreme privations. These events,which produced much excitement in Greece, quickened theenergies of the powers. An international blockade of the islandwas proposed by Austria but rejected by England. Theambassadors at Constantinople urged peaceful counsels on thePorte, and the Sultan, alarmed at this juncture by an Armenianoutbreak, began to display a conciliatory disposition. The Pactof Halepa was restored, the troops were withdrawn from theinterior, financial aid was promised to the island, a Christiangovernor-general was appointed, the assembly was summoned,and an imperial commissioner was despatched to negotiate anarrangement. The Christian leaders prepared a moderatescheme of reforms, based on the Halepa Pact, which, with afew exceptions, were approved by the powers and eventuallysanctioned by the sultan.

On the 4th of September 1896 the assembly formally acceptedthe new constitution and declared its gratitude to the powersfor their intervention. The Moslem leaders acquiesced in thearrangement, which the powers undertook to guarantee, and,notwithstanding some symptoms of discontent at Candia,there was every reason to hope that the island was now enteringupon a period of tranquillity. It soon became evident, however,that the Porte was endeavouring to obstruct the execution of thenew reforms. Several months passed without any step beingtaken towards this realization; difficulties were raised withregard to the composition of the international commissionscharged with the reorganization of the gendarmery and judicialsystem; intrigues were set on foot against the Christian governor-general;and the presence of a special imperial commissioner,who had no place under the constitution, proved so injuriousto the restoration of tranquillity that the powers demanded hisimmediate recall. The indignation of the Christians increased,a state of insecurity prevailed, and the Moslem peasants refusedto return to their homes. A new factor now became apparentin Cretan politics. Since the outbreak in May 1896 the Greekgovernment had loyally co-operated with the powers in theirefforts for the pacification of the island, but towards the close ofthe year a secret society known as the Ethniké Hetaeria began toarrogate to itself the direction of Greek foreign policy. The aimof the society was a war with Turkey with a view to the acquisitionof Macedonia, and it found a ready instrument for itsdesigns in the growing discontent of the Cretan Christians.Emissaries of the society now appeared in Crete, large consignmentsof arms were landed, and at the beginning of 1897 theGreek Intervention.island was practically in a state of insurrection. Onthe 21st of January the Greek fleet was mobilized.Affairs were brought to a climax by a series of conflictswhich took place at Canea on the 4th of February;the Turkish troops fired on the Christians, a conflagration brokeout in the town, and many thousands of Christians took refugeon the foreign warships in the bay. The Greek government nowdespatched an ironclad and a cruiser to Canea, which werefollowed a few days later by a torpedo flotilla commanded by ​Prince George. The prince soon retired to Melos, but on the nightof the 14th of February a Greek expeditionary force underColonel Vassos landed at Kolymbari, near Canea, and its commanderissued a proclamation announcing the occupation of theisland in the name of King George. On the same day GeorgiPasha, the Christian governor-general, took refuge on board aRussian ironclad, and, on the next, naval detachments fromthe warships of the powers occupied Canea. This step paralysedthe movements of Colonel Vassos, who after a few slight engagementswith the Turks remained practically inactive in the interior.The insurgents, however, continued to threaten the town, andtheir position was bombarded by the international fleet (21stFebruary). The intervention of Greece caused immense excitementamong the Christian population, and terrible massacres ofMoslem peasants took place in the eastern and western districts.The forces of the powers shortly afterwards occupied Candiaand the other maritime towns, while the international fleetblockaded the Cretan coast. These measures were followed bythe presentation of collective notes to the Greek andDecision of
the powers.Turkish governments (2nd March), announcing thedecision of the powers that (1) Crete could in no casein present circumstances be annexed to Greece; (2)in view of the delays caused by Turkey in the application of thereforms Crete should now be endowed with an effective autonomousadministration, intended to secure to it a separategovernment, under the suzerainty of the sultan. Greece was atthe same time summoned to remove its army and fleet from theisland, while the Turkish troops were to be concentrated in thefortresses and eventually withdrawn. The cabinet of Athens,however, declined to recall the expeditionary force, whichremained in the interior till the 9th of May, when, after the Greekreverses in Thessaly and Epirus, an order was given for its return.Meantime Cretan autonomy had been proclaimed (20th March).After the departure of the Greek troops the Cretan leaders, whohad hitherto demanded annexation to Greece, readily acquiescedin the decision of the powers, and the insurgent Assembly, underits president Dr Sphakianakis, a man of good sense and moderation,co-operated with the international commanders in themaintenance of order. The pacification of the island, however,was delayed by the presence of the Turkish troops and the inabilityof the powers to agree in the choice of a new governor-general.The prospect of a final settlement was improved by thewithdrawal of Germany and Austria, which had favoured Turkishpretensions, from the European concert (April 1898); the remainingpowers divided the island into four departments, whichthey severally undertook to administer. An attack made by theMoslems of Candia on the British garrison of that town, withthe connivance of the Turkish authorities, brought home to thepowers the necessity of removing the Ottoman troops, and thelast Turkish soldiers quitted the island on the 14th of November1898.

On the 26th of that month the nomination of Prince Georgeof Greece as high commissioner of the powers in Crete for aperiod of three years (renewed in 1901) was formallyannounced, and on the 21st of December the princelanded at Suda and made his public entry into CaneaPrince George’s administration.amid enthusiastic demonstrations. For some timeafter his arrival complete tranquillity prevailed in the island,but the Moslem population, reduced to great distress by theprolonged insurrection, emigrated in large numbers. On the27th of April 1899 a new autonomous constitution was votedby a constituent assembly, and in the following June the localadministration was handed over to Cretan officials by the internationalauthorities. The extensive powers conferred by theconstitution upon Prince George were increased by subsequentenactments. In 1901 M. Venezelo, who had played a noteworthypart in the last insurrection, was dismissed from the post ofcouncillor by the prince, and soon afterwards became leader of astrong opposition party, which denounced the arbitrary methodsof the government. During the next four years party spirit ranhigh; in the spring of 1904 a deputation of chiefs and politiciansaddressed a protest to the prince, and early in the followingyear a band of armed malcontents under M. Venezelo raised thestandard of revolt at Theriso in the White Mountains. Theinsurgents, who received moral support from Dr Sphakianakis,proclaimed the union of the island with Greece (March 1905),and their example was speedily followed by the assembly atCanea. The powers, however, reiterated their decision to maintainthestatus quo, and increased their military and navalforces; the Greek flag was hauled down at Canea and Candia,and some desultory engagements with the insurgents took place,the international troops co-operating with the native gendarmerie.In the autumn M. Venezelo and his followers, having obtainedan amnesty, laid down their arms. A commission appointedby the powers to report on the administrative and financialsituation drew up a series of recommendations in January 1906,and a constituent assembly for the revision of the constitutionmet at Canea in the following June. On the 25th of July thepowers announced a series of reforms, including the reorganizationof the gendarmerie and militia under Greek officers, as apreliminary to the eventual withdrawal of the internationaltroops, and the extension to Crete of the system of financialcontrol established in Greece. On the 14th of September, underan agreement dated the 14th of August, they invited KingGeorge of Greece, in the event of the high commissionershipbecoming vacant, to propose a candidate for that post, to benominated by the powers for a period of five years, and on the25th of September Prince George left the island. He had donemuch for the welfare of Crete, but his participation in partystruggles and his attitude towards the representatives of thepowers had rendered his position untenable. His successor,M. Alexander Zaimis, a former prime minister of Greece, arrivedin Crete on the 1st of October. (J. D. B.) 

On the 22nd of February 1907 M. Zaimis, as high commissioner,took the oath to the new constitution elaborated after muchdebate by the Cretan national assembly. His position was oneof singular difficulty. Apart from the rivalry of the factionswithin the Assembly, there was the question of the Mussulmanminority, dwindling it is true,^[3] but still a force to be reckonedwith. The high commissioner, true to his reputation as a prudentstatesman and astute politician, showed great skill in dealingwith the situation. From the first he had taken up an attitudeof great reserve, appearing little in public and careful not toidentify himself with any faction. In such matters as appointmentsto the judicial bench, indeed, his studied impartialityoffended both parties; but on the whole his administration wasa marked success, and the cessation of the chronic state of disturbancein the island justified the powers in preparing for thewithdrawal of their troops. In spite of the admission of theirco-religionists to high office in the government, the Mussulmans,it is true, still complained of continuous ill-treatment havingfor its object their expatriation; but these complaints weredeclared by Sir Edward Grey, in answer to a question in parliament,to be exaggerated. The protecting powers had fixed theconditions preliminary to evacuation—(1) the organization of anative gendarmerie, (2) the maintenance of the tranquillityof the island, (3) the complete security of the Mussulman population.On the 20th of March 1908 M. Zaimis called the attentionof the powers to the fact that these conditions had been fulfilled,and on the 11th of May the powers announced to the highcommissioner their intention of beginning the evacuation at onceand completing it within a year. The first withdrawal of thetroops (July 27), hailed with enthusiasm by the Cretan Christians,led to rioting by the Mussulmans, who believed themselvesabandoned to their fate.

Meanwhile M. Zaimis had made a further advance towards theannexation of the island to Greece by a visit to Athens, wherehe arranged for a loan with the Greek National Bank and engagedGreek officers for the new gendarmerie. The issue was precipitatedby the news of the revolution in Turkey. On the 12th ​of October the Cretan Assembly once more voted the union withGreece, and in the absence of M. Zaimis—who had gone for aholiday to Santa Maura—elected a committee of six to governthe island in the name of the king of Greece.

Against this the Mussulman deputies protested, in a memorandumaddressed to the British secretary of state for foreignaffairs. His reply, while stating that his government wouldsafeguard the interests of the Mussulmans, left open the questionof the attitude of the powers, complicated now by sympathywith reformed Turkey. The efforts of diplomacy were directedto allaying the resentment of the “Young Turks” on the onehand and the ardour of the Greek unionists on the other; andmeanwhile the Cretan administration was carried on peaceablyin the name of King George. At last (July 13, 1909) the powersannounced to the Porte, in answer to a formal remonstrance,their decision to withdraw their remaining troops from Creteby July 26 and to station four war-ships off the island to protectthe Moslems and to safeguard “the supreme rights” of theOttoman Empire. This arrangement, which was duly carriedout, was avowedly “provisional” and satisfied neither party,leading in Greece especially to the military and constitutionalcrises of 1909 and 1910. (W. A. P.)