Different varieties of grapes andstrains of yeasts are major factors in different styles of wine. These differences result from the complex interactions between thebiochemical development of the grape, the reactions involved infermentation, the grape's growing environment (terroir), and the wine production process. Many countries enact legalappellations intended to define styles and qualities of wine. These typically restrict the geographical origin and permitted varieties of grapes, as well as other aspects of wine production.
Wine has been produced for thousands of years. The earliest evidence of wine is from the present-dayGeorgia (6000 BCE),Persia (5000 BCE),Italy, andArmenia (4000 BCE).New World wine has some connection to alcoholic beverages made by theindigenous peoples of the Americas but is mainly connected to later Spanish traditions inNew Spain.[2][3] Later, asOld World wine further developed viticulture techniques, Europe would encompass three of the largestwine-producing regions. The top five wine producing countries of 2023 were Italy, France, Spain, the United States and China.
The earliest archaeological and archaeobotanical evidence for grape wine and viniculture, dating to 6000–5800 BCE was found on the territory of modernGeorgia.[13][14] Both archaeological and genetic evidence suggest that the earliest production of wine outside of Georgia was relatively later, likely having taken place elsewhere in theSouthern Caucasus (which encompassesArmenia, Georgia andAzerbaijan), or theWest Asian region betweenEastern Turkey, and northernIran.[15][16] The earliest known winery, from 4100 BCE, is theAreni-1 winery inArmenia.[10][17]
A 2003 report by archaeologists indicates a possibility that grapes were mixed withrice to producefermented drinks in ancientChina in the early years of the seventh millennium BCE. Pottery jars from the Neolithic site ofJiahu,Henan, contained traces oftartaric acid and other organic compounds commonly found in wine. However, other fruits indigenous to the region, such ashawthorn, cannot be ruled out.[18][19] If these drinks, which seem to be the precursors ofrice wine, included grapes rather than other fruits, they would have been any of the several dozen indigenous wild species in China, rather thanVitis vinifera, which was introduced 6000 years later.[18][20][21][22][3]
In 2020, a 2,600-year-old well-preservedPhoenician wine press was excavated at Tell el-Burak, south ofSidon inLebanon, probably devoted to making wine for trading in their colonies.[23] The spread of wine culture westwards was most probably due to the Phoenicians, who spread outward from a base ofcity-states along theMediterranean coast centered around modern dayLebanon (as well as including small parts ofIsrael/Palestine and coastalSyria);[24] however, theNuragic culture in Sardinia already had a custom of consuming wine before the arrival of the Phoenicians.[25][26] The wines ofByblos were exported to Egypt during theOld Kingdom and then throughout the Mediterranean. Evidence for this includes two Phoenician shipwrecks from 750 BCE, found with their cargoes of wine still intact.[27] As the first great traders in wine (cherem), the Phoenicians seem to have protected it from oxidation with a layer of olive oil, followed by a seal of pinewood and resin, similar toretsina.
The earliest remains ofApadana Palace inPersepolis dating back to 515 BCE include carvings depicting soldiers from theAchaemenid Empire subject nations bringing gifts to the Achaemenid king, among themArmenians bringing their famouswine.
Literary references to wine are abundant inHomer (8th century BCE, but possibly relating earlier compositions),Alkman (7th century BCE), and others. Inancient Egypt, six of 36 wineamphoras were found in the tomb of KingTutankhamun bearing the name "Kha'y", a royal chiefvintner. Five of these amphoras were designated as originating from the king's personal estate, with the sixth from the estate of the royal house ofAten.[28] Traces of wine have also been found in central AsianXinjiang in modern-day China, dating from the second and first millennia BCE.[29]
Pressing wine after the harvest;Tacuinum Sanitatis, 14th century
The first known mention ofgrape-based wines inIndia is from the late 4th-century BCE writings ofChanakya, the chief minister of EmperorChandragupta Maurya. In his writings, Chanakya condemns the use of alcohol while chronicling the emperor and his court's frequent indulgence of a style of wine known asmadhu.[30]
Theancient Romans planted vineyards near garrison towns so wine could be produced locally rather than shipped over long distances. Some of these areas are now world-renowned for wine production.[31] The Romans discovered that burning sulfur candles inside empty wine vessels kept them fresh and free from avinegar smell, due to theantioxidant effects ofsulfur dioxide.[32] Inmedieval Europe, theRoman Catholic Church supported wine because the clergy required it for theMass.Monks inFrance made wine for years, aging it in caves.[33] An old English recipe that survived in various forms until the 19th century calls for refining white wine from bastard—bad or taintedbastardo wine.[34]
Later, the descendants of the sacramental wine were refined for a more palatable taste. This gave rise to modernviticulture inFrench wine,Italian wine,Spanish wine, and these wine grape traditions were brought intoNew World wine. For example,Mission grapes were brought by Franciscan monks toNew Mexico in 1628 beginning theNew Mexico wine heritage, these grapes were also brought toCalifornia which started theCalifornia wine industry. Thanks to Spanish wine culture, these two regions eventually evolved into the oldest and largest producers, respectively, ofwine of the United States.[35][36][37] Viking sagas earlier mentioned a fantastic land filled with wild grapes and high-quality wine called preciselyVinland.[38][unreliable source?] Prior to the Spanish establishing their American wine grape traditions in California and New Mexico, both France and Britain had unsuccessfully attempted to establish grapevines inFlorida andVirginia respectively.[39]
In East Asia, the first modern wine industry wasJapanese wine, developed in 1874 after grapevines were brought back from Europe.[40]
The ultimate Indo-European origin of the word is the subject of some continued debate. Some scholars have noted the similarities between the words for wine inIndo-European languages (e.g. Armeniangini, Latinvinum, Ancient Greek οἶνος, Russian вино[vʲɪˈno]),Kartvelian (e.g.Georgianღვინო[ˈɣvino]), andSemitic (*wayn;Hebrew יין[jajin]), pointing to the possibility of a common origin of the word denoting "wine" in these language families.[46] The Georgian word goes back toProto-Kartvelian *ɣwino-,[47] which is either a borrowing fromProto-Indo-European[47][48] or the lexeme was specifically borrowed fromProto-Armenian *ɣʷeinyo-, whence Armeniangini.[49][50][51][52][47][verification needed] An alternative hypothesis by Fähnrich supposes *ɣwino-, a native Kartvelian word derived from the verbal root *ɣun- ('to bend').[53][54] All these theories place the origin of the word in the same geographical location, South Caucasus, that has been established based on archeological and biomolecular studies as the origin of viticulture.[citation needed]
The type of grape used and the amount ofskin contact while the juice is being extracted determines the color and general style of the wine. The color has no relation to a wine'ssweetness—all may be made sweet or dry.
Red wine gains its color and flavor (notably,tannins) from the grape skin, by allowing the grapes tosoak in the extracted juice. Red wine is made from dark-coloredred grape varieties. The actualcolor of the wine can range from violet, typical of young wines, through red for mature wines, to brown for older red wines. The juice from most red grapes is actually greenish-white; the red color comes fromanthocyanins present in the skin of the grape. A notable exception is the family of rareteinturier varieties, which actually have red flesh and produce red juice.
To make white wine, grapes are pressed quickly with the juice immediately drained away from the grape skins. The grapes used are typicallywhite grape varieties, though red grapes may be used if the winemaker is careful not to let the skin stain thewort during the separation of the pulp-juice. For example,pinot noir (a red grape) is commonly used inchampagne.
Dry (low sugar) white wine is the most common, derived from the complete fermentation of the juice, however sweet white wines such asMoscato d'Asti are also made.
A rosé wine gainscolor from red grape skins, but not enough to qualify it as ared wine. It may be the oldest known type of wine, as it is the most straightforward to make with theskin contact method. The color can range from a pale orange to a vivid near-purple, depending on the varietals used and wine-making techniques.
There are three primary ways to produce rosé wine: Skin contact (allowing dark grape skins to stain thewort), saignée (removing juice from themust early in fermentation and continuing fermentation of the juice separately), andblending of a red and white wine (uncommon and discouraged in most wine growing regions). Rosé wines have a wide range ofsweetness levels fromdryProvençal rosé to sweetWhite Zinfandels and blushes. Rosé wines are made from a wide variety of grapes all over the world.[55][56]
Sometimes called amber wines, these are wines made with white grapes but with the skins allowed tosoak during pressing, similar to red and rosé wine production. They are notablytannic, and usually made dry.[57]
Two common methods of accomplishing this are thetraditional method, used forCava,Champagne, and more expensive sparkling wines, and theCharmat method, used forProsecco,Asti, and less expensive wines. A hybridtransfer method is also used, yielding intermediate results, and simple addition of carbon dioxide is used in the cheapest of wines.[58]
The bottles used for sparkling wine must be thick to withstand the pressure of the gas behind thecork, which can be up to 6 standard atmospheres (88 psi).[59]
Wines from other fruits, such as apples and berries, are usually named after the fruit from which they are produced, and combined with the word "wine" (for example,apple wine andelderberry wine) and are generically calledfruit wine or country wine (similar toFrench termvin de pays). Other than the grapevarieties traditionally used for wine-making, most fruits naturally lack either sufficient fermentable sugars, proper amount of acidity, yeast amounts needed to promote or maintain fermentation, or a combination of these three materials. This is probably one of the main reasons why wine derived from grapes has historically been more prevalent by far than other types, and why specific types of fruit wines have generally been confined to the regions in which the fruits were native or introduced for other reasons.[citation needed]
Mead, also called honey wine, is created by fermentinghoney with water, sometimes with various fruits, spices, grains, orhops. As long as the primary substance fermented is honey, the drink is considered mead.[60] Mead was produced in ancient history throughout Europe, Africa and Asia,[61] and was known in Europe before grape wine.[62]
Other drinks called "wine", such asbarley wine andrice wine (e.g.sake,huangjiu andcheongju), are made from starch-based materials and resemblebeer more than traditional wine, whileginger wine is fortified withbrandy. In these latter cases, the term "wine" refers to the similarity in alcohol content rather than to the production process.[63] The commercial use of the English word "wine" (and its equivalent in other languages) is protected by law in many jurisdictions.[64]
Wine is usually made from one or morevarieties of the EuropeanspeciesVitis vinifera,[65] such asPinot noir,Chardonnay,Cabernet Sauvignon,Gamay andMerlot. When one of these varieties is used as the predominant grape (usually defined by law as a minimum of 75% to 85%), the result is a "varietal" as opposed to a "blended" wine. Blended wines are not necessarily inferior to varietal wines, rather they are a different style of wine-making.[66]
Hybridization is different fromgrafting. Most of the world's vineyards are planted with EuropeanVitis vinifera vines that have been grafted onto North American species' rootstock, a common practice due to their resistance tophylloxera, a root louse that eventually kills the vine.[65] In the late 19th century, most of Europe's vineyards (excluding some of the driest in the south) were devastated by the infestation, leading to widespread vine deaths and eventual replanting. Grafting is done in every wine-producing region in the world except inArgentina and theCanary Islands – the only places not yet exposed to the insect.[citation needed]
In the context of wine production,terroir is a concept that encompasses the varieties of grapes used, elevation and shape of the vineyard, type and chemistry of soil, climate and seasonal conditions, and the local yeast cultures.[67] The range of possible combinations of these factors can result in great differences among wines, influencing the fermentation, finishing, and aging processes as well. Many wineries use growing and production methods that preserve or accentuate thearoma and taste influences of their uniqueterroir.[68] However, flavor differences are less desirable for producers of mass-markettable wine or other cheaper wines, where consistency takes precedence. Such producers try to minimize differences in sources of grapes through production techniques such asmicro-oxygenation, tannin filtration, cross-flow filtration, thin-film evaporation, and spinning cones.[69]
About 700 grapes go into one bottle of wine, approximately 2.6 pounds.[70]
Some blended wine names are marketing terms whose use is governed bytrademark law rather than by specific wine laws. For example,Meritage is generally a Bordeaux-style blend ofCabernet Sauvignon and Merlot, but may also includeCabernet Franc,Petit Verdot, andMalbec. Commercial use of the term Meritage is allowed only via licensing agreements with the Meritage Association.
France has variousappellation systems based on the concept ofterroir, with classifications ranging fromVin de Table ("table wine") at the bottom, throughVin de Pays andAppellation d'Origine Vin Délimité de Qualité Supérieure (AOVDQS), up toAppellation d'Origine Contrôlée (AOC) or similar, depending on the region.[77][78]Portugal has developed a system resembling that of France and, in fact, pioneered this concept in 1756 with a royal charter creating the Demarcated Douro Region and regulating the production and trade of wine.[79] Germany created a similar scheme in 2002, although it has not yet achieved the authority of the other countries' classification systems.[80][81]Spain,Greece andItaly have classifications based on a dual system of region of origin and product quality.[82]
New World wines—those made outside the traditional wine regions of Europe—are usually classified by grape rather than byterroir or region of origin, although there have been unofficial attempts to classify them by quality.[83][84][needs update]
According to Canadian Food and Drug Regulations, wine in Canada is an alcoholic drink that is produced by the complete or partial alcoholic fermentation of fresh grapes, grape must, products derived solely from fresh grapes, or any combination of them. There are many materials added during the course of the manufacture, such as yeast, concentrated grape juice,dextrose,fructose,glucose or glucose solids,invert sugar, sugar, or aqueous solutions.Calcium sulphate in such quantity that the content of soluble sulphates in the finished wine shall not exceed 0.2 percent weight by volume calculated as potassium sulphate.Calcium carbonate in such quantity that the content oftartaric acid in the finished wine shall not be less than 0.15 percent weight by volume. Also,sulphurous acid, including salts thereof, in such quantity that its content in the finished wine shall not exceed 70 parts per million in the free state, or 350 parts per million in the combined state, calculated as sulphur dioxide. Caramel,amylase andpectinase at a maximum level of use consistent with good manufacturing practice. Prior to final filtration may be treated with a strongly acid cation exchange resin in the sodium ion form, or a weakly basic anion exchange resin in the hydroxyl ion form.[85]
For wines produced in theEuropean Union, if a bottle of wine indicates a vintage, then at least 85% of the grapes must have been harvested in that year.[86] In the United States, for a wine to be vintage-dated and labeled with a country of origin orAmerican Viticultural Area (AVA; e.g.,Sonoma Valley), 95% of its volume must be from grapes harvested in that year.[87] If a wine is not labeled with a country of origin or AVA the percentage requirement is lowered to 85%.[87]
Vintage wines are generally bottled in a single batch so that each bottle will have a similar taste. Climate's impact on the character of a wine can be significant enough to cause different vintages from the same vineyard to vary dramatically in flavor and quality.[88][unreliable source?] Thus, vintage wines are produced to be individually characteristic of the particular vintage and to serve as the flagship wines of the producer. Superior vintages from reputable producers and regions will often command much higher prices than their average ones. Some vintage wines (e.g.Brunello), are only made in better-than-average years.
For consistency, non-vintage wines can be blended from more than one vintage, which helps wine-makers sustain a reliable market image and maintain sales even in bad years.[89][90] One recent study suggests that for the average wine drinker, the vintage year may not be as significant for perceived quality as had been thought, although wine connoisseurs continue to place great importance on it.[91]
Some wines are packaged in thick plastic bags withincorrugated fiberboard boxes, and are called "box wines", or "cask wine". Tucked inside the package is a tap affixed to thebag in box, or bladder, that is later extended by the consumer for serving the contents. Box wine can stay acceptably fresh for up to a month after opening because the bladder collapses as wine is dispensed, limiting contact with air and, thus, slowing the rate of oxidation. In contrast, bottled wineoxidizes more rapidly after opening because of the increasing ratio of air to wine as the contents are dispensed; it can degrade considerably in a few days.Canned wine is one of the fastest-growing forms of alternative wine packaging on the market.[94]
Environmental considerations of wine packaging reveal the benefits and drawbacks of both bottled and box wines. The glass used to make bottles is a nontoxic, naturally occurring substance that is completely recyclable, whereas the plastics used for box-wine containers are typically much less environmentally friendly. However, wine-bottle manufacturers have been cited forClean Air Act violations. ANew York Times editorial suggested that box wine, being lighter in package weight, has a reducedcarbon footprint from its distribution; however, box-wine plastics, even though possibly recyclable, can be more labor-intensive (and therefore expensive) to process than glass bottles. In addition, while a wine box is recyclable, its plastic bladder most likely is not.[95] Some people are drawn to canned wine due to its portability and recyclable packaging.[94]
Incidents of fraud, such as mislabeling the origin or quality of wines, have resulted in regulations on labeling. "Wine scandals" that have received media attention include:
In 2010, some Chinese red wines were found to be adulterated, and as a consequence China's Hebei province shut down nearly 30 wineries.[97][98][99][100]
Wine tasting is the sensory examination and evaluation of wine. Wines contain many chemical compounds similar or identical to those in fruits, vegetables, andspices. Thesweetness of wine is determined by the amount of residual sugar in the wine after fermentation, relative to the acidity present in the wine.Dry wine, for example, has only a small amount of residual sugar. Some wine labels suggest opening the bottle and letting the wine "breathe" for a couple of hours before serving, while others recommend drinking it immediately.Decanting (the act of pouring a wine into a special container just for breathing) is a controversial subject among wine enthusiasts. In addition to aeration, decanting with a filter allows the removal of bitter sediments that may have formed in the wine. Sediment is more common in older bottles, but aeration may benefit younger wines.[101]
During aeration, a younger wine's exposure to air often "relaxes" the drink, making it smoother and better integrated in aroma, texture, and flavor. Older wines generally fade (lose their character and flavor intensity) with extended aeration.[102] Despite these general rules, breathing does not necessarily benefit all wines. Wine may be tasted as soon as the bottle is opened to determine how long it should be aerated, if at all.[103][better source needed] When tasting wine, individual flavors may also be detected, due to the complex mix of organic molecules (e.g.esters andterpenes) that grape juice and wine can contain. Experienced tasters can distinguish between flavors characteristic of a specific grape and flavors that result from other factors in wine-making. Typical intentional flavor elements in wine—chocolate, vanilla, or coffee—are those imparted by aging in oak casks rather than the grape itself.[104]
Vertical and horizontal tasting involves a range of vintages within the same grape and vineyard, or the latter in which there is one vintage from multiple vineyards. "Banana" flavors (isoamyl acetate) are the product of yeast metabolism, as are spoilage aromas such as "medicinal" or "Band-Aid" (4-ethylphenol), "spicy" or "smoky" (4-ethylguaiacol),[105] and rotten egg (hydrogen sulfide).[106] Some varieties can also exhibit a mineral flavor due to the presence of water-soluble salts as a result of limestone's presence in the vineyard's soil. Wine aroma comes from volatile compounds released into the air.[107] Vaporization of these compounds can be accelerated by twirling the wine glass or serving at room temperature. Many drinkers prefer to chill red wines that are already highly aromatic, likeChinon andBeaujolais.[108]
The ideal temperature for serving a particular wine is a matter of debate by wine enthusiasts and sommeliers, but some broad guidelines have emerged that will generally enhance the experience of tasting certain common wines. White wine should foster a sense of coolness, achieved by serving at "cellar temperature" (13 °C or 55 °F). Light red wines drunk young should also be brought to the table at this temperature, where they will quickly rise a few degrees. Red wines are generally perceived best when servedchambré ("at room temperature"). However, this does not mean the temperature of the dining room—often around 21 °C (70 °F)—but rather the coolest room in the house and, therefore, always slightly cooler than the dining room itself. Pinot noir should be brought to the table for serving at 16 °C (61 °F) and will reach its full bouquet at 18 °C (64 °F). Cabernet Sauvignon, zinfandel, and Rhone varieties should be served at 18 °C (64 °F) and allowed to warm on the table to 21 °C (70 °F) for best aroma.[109]
Outstanding vintages from the best vineyards may sell for thousands ofdollars per bottle, though the broader term "fine wine" covers those typically retailing in excess of US$30–50.[110] "Investment wines" are considered by some to beVeblen goods: those for which demand increases rather than decreases as their prices rise.Particular selections such as "Verticals", which span multiple vintages of a specific grape and vineyard, may be highly valued. The most notable was aChâteau d'Yquem 135-year vertical containing every vintage from 1860 to 2003 sold for $1.5 million.The most common wines purchased for investment include those fromBordeaux andBurgundy;cult wines fromEurope and elsewhere; andvintage port. Characteristics of highly collectible wines include:
A proven track record of holding well over time
A drinking-window plateau (i.e., the period for maturity and approachability) that is many years long
A consensus among experts as to the quality of the wines
Rigorous production methods at every stage, including grape selection and appropriate barrel aging
Investment in fine wine has attracted those who take advantage of their victims' relative ignorance of this wine market sector.[111] Suchwine fraudsters often profit by charging excessively high prices for off-vintage or lower-status wines from well-known wine regions, while claiming that they are offering a sound investment unaffected byeconomic cycles. As with any investment, thorough research is essential to making an informed decision.
Reduction of red wine for a sauce by cooking it on a stovetop. It is called a reduction because the heat boils off some of the water, leaving a more concentrated, wine-flavoured sauce.
Wine is a popular and importantdrink that accompanies and enhances a wide range of cuisines, from the simple and traditionalstews to the most sophisticated and complexhaute cuisines. Wine is often served with dinner. Sweetdessert wines may be served with thedessert course. In fine restaurants in Western countries, wine typically accompanies dinner. At a restaurant, patrons are helped to make good food-wine pairings by the restaurant'ssommelier or wine waiter. Individuals dining at home may use wine guides to help make food–wine pairings. Wine is also drunk without the accompaniment of a meal inwine bars or with a selection of cheeses (at a wine and cheese party). Wines are also used as a theme for organizing various events such asfestivals around the world; the city ofKuopio inNorth Savonia,Finland is known for its annual Kuopio Wine Festivals (Kuopion viinijuhlat).[115]
Wine is important in cuisine not just for its value as a drink, but as a flavor agent, primarily instocks andbraising, since its acidity lends balance to richsavoury orsweet dishes.[116]Wine sauce is an example of a culinary sauce that uses wine as a primary ingredient.[117] Natural wines may exhibit a broad range of alcohol content, from below 9% to above 16%ABV, with most wines being in the 12.5–14.5% range.[118]Fortified wines (usually with brandy) may contain 20% alcohol or more.
Wine containsethyl alcohol, the chemical inbeer anddistilled spirits. The effects of wine depend on the amount consumed, the span of time over which consumption occurs, and the amount of alcohol in the wine, among other factors. Drinking enough to reach ablood alcohol concentration (BAC) of 0.03%-0.12% may cause an overall improvement in mood, increase self-confidence and sociability, decrease anxiety,flushing of the face, and impair judgment and finemotor coordination. A BAC of 0.09% to 0.25% causeslethargy,sedation, balance problems and blurred vision. A BAC from 0.18% to 0.30% causes profound confusion, impaired speech (e.g. slurred speech), staggering, dizziness and vomiting. A BAC from 0.25% to 0.40% causesstupor, unconsciousness,anterograde amnesia, vomiting, and death may occur due torespiratory depression andinhalation of vomit during unconsciousness. A BAC from 0.35% to 0.80% causescoma, life-threatening respiratory depression and possibly fatalalcohol poisoning. The operation of vehicles or machinery while drunk can increase the risk of accident, and many countries have laws againstdrinking and driving. The social context and quality of wine can affect the mood and emotions.[119]
The main active ingredient of wine is ethanol. A 2016 systematic review and meta-analysis found that moderate ethanol consumption brought no mortality benefit compared with lifetime abstention from ethanol consumption.[120] A systematic analysis of data from the Global Burden of Disease study found that consumption of ethanolincreases the risk of cancer and increases the risk of all-cause mortality, and that the most healthful dose of ethanol is zero consumption.[121] Some studies have concluded that drinking small quantities of alcohol (less than one drink daily in women and two drinks daily in men) is associated with a decreased risk ofheart disease,stroke,diabetes mellitus, and early death.[122] Ethanol consumption increases the risk of heart disease,high blood pressure,atrial fibrillation, andstroke. Some studies that reported benefits of moderate ethanol consumption erred by lumping former drinkers and life-long abstainers into a single group of nondrinkers, hiding the health benefits of life-long abstention from ethanol.[122] Risk is greater in younger people due tobinge drinking which may result in violence or accidents.[122] About 3.3 million deaths (5.9% of all deaths) annually are due to ethanol use.[123][124][125]
Alcohol use disorder is the inability to stop or control alcohol use despite harmful consequences to health, job, or relationships; alternative terms include alcoholism, alcohol abuse, alcohol dependence, or alcohol addiction.[126][127][128][129][130] and alcohol use is the third leading cause of early death in the United States.[122] No professional medical association recommends that people who are nondrinkers should start drinking wine.[122][131]
Excessive consumption of alcohol can causeliver cirrhosis andalcoholism.[132] TheAmerican Heart Association "cautions people NOT to start drinking ... if they do not already drink alcohol. Consult your doctor on the benefits and risks of consuming alcohol in moderation."[133]
Although red wine contains more of thestilbeneresveratrol and of other polyphenols than white wine, the evidence for a cardiac health benefit is of poor quality and at most, the benefit is trivial.[134][135][136] Grape skins naturally produce resveratrol in response to fungal infection, including exposure to yeast duringfermentation. White wine generally contains lower levels of the chemical as it has minimal contact with grape skins during this process.[137]
Wine cellars, or wine rooms, if they are above-ground, are places designed specifically for the storage and aging of wine. Fine restaurants and some private homes have wine cellars. In an active wine cellar, temperature and humidity are maintained by a climate-control system. Passive wine cellars are not climate-controlled, and so must be carefully located. Because wine is a natural, perishable food product, all types—including red, white, sparkling, and fortified—can spoil when exposed to heat, light, vibration or fluctuations in temperature and humidity. When properly stored, wines can maintain their quality and in some cases improve in aroma, flavor, and complexity as they age. Some wine experts contend that the optimal temperature for aging wine is 13 °C (55 °F),[138] others 15 °C (59 °F).[139]
Wine refrigerators offer a smaller alternative to wine cellars and are available in capacities ranging from small, 16-bottle units to furniture-quality pieces that can contain 500 bottles. Wine refrigerators are not ideal for aging, but rather serve to chill wine to the proper temperature for drinking. These refrigerators keep the humidity low (usually under 50%), below the optimal humidity of 50% to 70%. Lower humidity levels can dry out corks over time, allowing oxygen to enter the bottle, which reduces the wine's quality through oxidation.[140] While some types of alcohol are sometimes stored in the freezer, such asvodka, it is not possible to safely freeze wine in the bottle, as there is insufficient room for it to expand as it freezes and the bottle will usually crack. Certain shapes of bottle may allow the cork to be pushed out by the ice, but if the bottle is frozen on its side, the wine in the narrower neck will invariably freeze first, preventing this.
There are a large number of occupations and professions that are part of the wine industry, ranging from the individuals who grow the grapes, prepare the wine, bottle it, sell it, assess it, market it and finally make recommendations to clients and serve the wine.
A wine scientist orwine chemist; a student ofoenology. In the 2000s, BSc degrees in oenology andviticulture are available. A wine-maker may be trained as an oenologist, but often hires one as a consultant
Also called a "wine steward", this is a specialist wine expert in charge of developing a restaurant'swine list, educating the staff about wine, and assisting customers with their selections (especially food–wine pairings)
Baruch atah Hashem (Ado-nai) Eloheinu melech ha-olam, boray p'ree hagafen – Praised be the Lord, our God, King of the universe, Creator of the fruit of the vine.
— The blessing over wine said before consuming the drink.
Wine is an integral part ofJewish laws and traditions. TheKiddush is a blessing recited over wine or grape juice to sanctify theShabbat. On Pesach (Passover) during the Seder, it is aRabbinic obligation of adults to drink four cups of wine.[141] In theTabernacle and in theTemple in Jerusalem, the libation of wine was part of the sacrificial service.[142] Note that this does not mean that wine is a symbol of blood, a common misconception that contributes to the Christian beliefs of theblood libel."It has been one of history's cruel ironies that the blood libel—accusations against Jews using the blood of murdered gentile children for the making of wine and matzot—became the false pretext for numerouspogroms. And due to the danger, those who live in a place where blood libels occur arehalachically exempted from using red wine, lest it be seized as "evidence" against them."[143]
While some Christians consider the use of wine from the grape as essential for the validity of thesacrament, many Protestants also allow (or require)pasteurized grape juice as a substitute. Wine was used in Eucharistic rites by all Protestant groups until an alternative arose in the late 19th century.Methodistdentist andprohibitionistThomas Bramwell Welch applied new pasteurization techniques to stop the natural fermentation process ofgrape juice. Some Christians who were part of the growingtemperance movement pressed for a switch from wine to grape juice, and the substitution spread quickly over much of the United States, as well as to other countries to a lesser degree.[144] There remains an ongoing debate between some AmericanProtestant denominations as to whether wine can and should be used for the Eucharist or allowed as an ordinary drink, with Catholics and some mainline Protestants allowing wine drinking in moderation, and some conservative Protestant groups opposing consumption of alcohol altogether.[citation needed]
The earliest viticulture tradition in the Southwestern United States starts withsacramental wine, beginning in the 1600s, with Christian friars and monks producingNew Mexico wine.[145]
Alcoholic drinks, including wine, are forbidden under most interpretations ofIslamic law.[146] In many Muslim countries, possession or consumption of alcoholic drinks carry legal penalties.Iran had previously hada thriving wine industry that disappeared after theIslamic Revolution in 1979.[147] InGreater Persia,mey (Persian wine) was a central theme ofpoetry for more than a thousand years, long before the advent of Islam. SomeAlevi sects – one of the two main branches of Islam in Turkey (the other beingSunni Islam) – use wine in their religious services.[citation needed]
Certain exceptions to the ban on alcohol apply. Alcohol derived from a source other than the grape (or its byproducts) and the date[148] is allowed in "very small quantities" (loosely defined as a quantity that does not cause intoxication) under the SunniHanafimadhab, for specific purposes (such as medicines), where the goal is not intoxication. However, modern Hanafi scholars regard alcohol consumption as totally forbidden.[149]
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^Hornsey, Ian (2003).A History of Beer and Brewing. Royal Society of Chemistry. p. 7.ISBN978-0-85404-630-0....mead was known in Europe long before wine, although archaeological evidence of it is rather ambiguous. This is principally because the confirmed presence of beeswax or certain types of pollen ... is only indicative of the presence of honey (which could have been used for sweetening some other drink) – not necessarily of the production of mead.
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^Johnson, Hugh; Jancis Robinson (13 September 2001).The World Atlas of Wine. Mitchell Beazley. pp. 44–45.ISBN978-1-84000-332-1.
^Danner, Lukas; Ristic, Renata; Johnson, Trent E.; Meiselman, Herbert L.; Hoek, Annet C. (November 2016). "Context and wine quality effects on consumers' mood, emotions, liking and willingness to pay for Australian Shiraz wines".Food Research International.89 (Pt 1):254–265.doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2016.08.006.PMID28460912.
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^Tomé-Carneiro, J; Gonzálvez, M; Larrosa, M; Yáñez-Gascón, MJ; García-Almagro, FJ; Ruiz-Ros, JA; Tomás-Barberán, FA; García-Conesa, MT; Espín, JC (July 2013). "Resveratrol in primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease: a dietary and clinical perspective".Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.1290 (1):37–51.Bibcode:2013NYASA1290...37T.doi:10.1111/nyas.12150.PMID23855464.S2CID206223647.
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