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Taro is among the most widely grown species in the group of tropical perennial plants that are colloquially referred to as "elephant ears", when grown asornamental plants.[9] Other plants with the same nickname include certain species of related aroids possessing large, heart-shaped leaves, usually within such genera asAlocasia,Caladium,Monstera,Philodendron,Syngonium,Thaumatophyllum, andXanthosoma.
In Cyprus, Colocasia has been in use since theRoman Empire. Today it is known askolokasi (Kολοκάσι). It is usually fried or cooked with corn, pork, or chicken, in a tomato sauce in casserole. "Baby" kolokasi is called "poulles": after being fried dry, red wine and coriander seed are added, and then it is served with freshly squeezed lemon. Lately, some restaurants have begun serving thin slices of kolokasi deep fried, calling them "kolokasi chips".
InPortuguese, it is known simply astaro, as well asinhame,inhame-coco,taioba,taiova,taioba-de-são-tomé ormatabala;[13][14] inSpanish, it is calledmalanga.[15][16]
In thePhilippines, the whole plant is usually referred to asgabi, while the corm is calledtaro. Taro is very popular flavor formilk tea in the country, and just as popular ingredient in several Filipino savory dishes such assinigang.[citation needed]
Colocasia esculenta is aperennial, tropical plant primarily grown as aroot vegetable for its edible, starchycorm. The plant hasrhizomes of different shapes and sizes. Leaves are up to 40 by 25 centimetres (15+1⁄2 by 10 inches) and sprout from the rhizome. They are dark green above and light green beneath. They are triangular-ovate, sub-rounded and mucronate at the apex, with the tip of the basal lobes rounded or sub-rounded. Thepetiole is.8–1.2 metres (2+1⁄2–4 feet) high. The path can be up to 25 cm (10 in) long. Thespadix is about three fifths as long as thespathe, with flowering parts up to8 millimetres (3⁄8 in) in diameter. The female portion is at the fertile ovaries intermixed with sterile white ones. Neuters grow above the females, and are rhomboid or irregular orium lobed, with six or eight cells. The appendage is shorter than the male portion.
Flower
Leaves
Corms
Corm (cross section)
Corm withsoil, may be sold (left bottom), washed (2 pcs)cross-section (2 pcs), Japan
18th-century SwedishbiologistCarl Linnaeus originally described two species,Colocasia esculenta andColocasia antiquorum, but many later botanists consider them both to be members of a single, very variable species, the correct name for which isColocasia esculenta.[30][31]
In Europe,C. esculenta is cultivated in Cyprus and it's called Colocasi, (Κολοκάσι in Greek) and it is certified as aPDO product. It is also found in the Greek island ofIkaria and cited as a vital source of food for the island during WW II.[34]
In Turkey,C. esculenta is locally known asgölevez and mainly grown on the Mediterranean coast, such as theAlanya district ofAntalya Province and theAnamur district ofMersin Province.
Taro is one of the most ancient cultivated crops.[40][41] Taro is found widely in tropical and subtropical regions of South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Papua New Guinea, and northern Australia and in Maldives. Taro is highlypolymorphic, making taxonomy and distinction between wild and cultivated types difficult. It is believed that they were domesticated independently multiple times, with authors giving possible locations asNew Guinea,Mainland Southeast Asia, and northeasternIndia, based largely on the assumed native range of the wild plants.[42][43][44] However, more recent studies have pointed out that wild taro may have a much larger native distribution than previously believed, and wild breeding types may also likely be indigenous to other parts of Island Southeast Asia.[45][46]
Archaeological traces of taro exploitation have been recovered from numerous sites, though whether these were cultivated or wild types can not be ascertained. They include theNiah Caves ofBorneo around 10,000 years ago,[47]Ille Cave ofPalawan, dated to at least 11,000 year ago;[47][48]Kuk Swamp ofNew Guinea, dated to between 8250 BC and 7960 BC;[49][50] andKilu Cave in theSolomon Islands dated to around 28,000 to 20,000 years ago.[51] In the case of Kuk Swamp, there is evidence of formalized agriculture emerging by about 10,000 years ago, with evidence of cultivated plots, though which plant was cultivated remains unknown.[52]
Taro were carried into thePacific Islands byAustronesian peoples from around 1300 BC, where they became a staple crop ofPolynesians, along with other types of "taros", likeAlocasia macrorrhizos,Amorphophallus paeoniifolius, andCyrtosperma merkusii. They are the most important and the most preferred among the four, because they were less likely to contain the irritatingraphides present in the other plants.[53][54] Taro is also identified as one of the staples ofMicronesia, from archaeological evidence dating back to the pre-colonialLatte Period (c. 900 – 1521 AD), indicating that it was also carried byMicronesians when they colonized the islands.[55][56] Taro pollen and starch residue have also been identified inLapita sites, dated to between 1100 BC and 550 BC.[57] Taro was later spread toMadagascar as early as the 1st century AD.[58]
In 2022, world production of taro was 18 milliontonnes, led by Nigeria with 46% of the total (table).
Taro has the fifth largest production among root and tuber crops worldwide.[59] The average yield of taro is around 7 tons per hectare.[59]
Taro can be grown inpaddy fields where water is abundant or in upland situations where water is supplied by rainfall or supplemental irrigation. Taro is one of the few crops (along withrice andlotus) that can be grown under flooded conditions.[citation needed] Flooded cultivation has some advantages over dry-land cultivation: higher yields (about double), out-of-season production (which may result in higher prices), and weed control (which flooding facilitates).[citation needed] Manmade floodplains particular to taro cultivation are commonly found throughout tropical Polynesian societies calledrepo.[60][61]
Like mostroot crops, taro andeddoes do well in deep, moist or even swampy soils where the annual rainfall exceeds 2,500 mm (100 in). Eddoes are more resistant to drought and cold. The crop attains maturity within six to twelve months after planting in dry-land cultivation and after twelve to fifteen months in wetland cultivation. The crop is harvested when the plant height decreases and the leaves turn yellow.[citation needed]
Taro generally commands a higher market price in comparison to other root crops, so the quality control measures throughout the production process are rather essential. The sizes found in most markets are 1–2 kg and 2–3 kg. The best size for packaging and for consumers is 1–2 kg. To guarantee the product meets the expected high standards upon reaching the consumer, there are some common grading standards for fresh corms:[63]
No excess soil, softness or decay
No bruises or deep cuts
Spherical to round shape
No major abnormal deformities
No roots
Approximately 5 cm (under 2”) of petiole left attached to the corm
No double-tops
Due to the high moisture content of the corms, and the plant’s natural love of humidity,mold and disease can easily develop, causingroot rot or decay. To prolong their shelf lives, the corms are usually stored at cooler temperatures, ranging from 10 to 15 degrees Celsius and maintained at a relative humidity of 80% to 90%. For packaging, the corms are commonly placed inpolypropylene bags or ventilated wooden crates to minimize condensation and 'sweating.' During export, a weight allowance of approximately 5% above the net weight is included to account for potential shrinkage during transit. For commercial shipping and export purposes, refrigeration is used; for instance, corms with 5 to 10 centimeters of petiole remaining are exported from Fiji to New Zealand in wooden boxes. They are then transported via refrigerated container, chilled to around 5° Celsius.[64] The corms can be maintained for up to six weeks in good condition; most good-quality corms may even be replanted and grown by the consumer, thanks to the species’ prolific nature and hardiness.
In the early 1970’s, one of the earliest taro breeding programs was initiated in the Solomon Islands to create cultivars that were resistant to taro leaf blight. After taro leaf blight was introduced to Samoa in 1993, another breeding program was initiated. In this program Asian varieties that were resistant to TLB were used. The breeding program helped restore the taro export industry in Samoa.[65]
Corm yield and corm quality appear to be negatively correlated. In order to produce the uniform fresh healthy corms that the market desires, early maturing cultivars with a growth period of 5 to 7 months can be used.[65]
Cultivars grown in the Pacific regions produce good quality corms, as a result of selecting for corm quality and yield. However, the genetic bases of these cultivars is very narrow. Asian cultivars have agriculturally undesirable traits (such as suckers and stolon), but appear to be more genetically diverse. There needs to be an international exchange of taro germplasm with reliable quarantine procedures.[65]
There are thought to be 15,000 varieties ofC. esculenta. Currently there are 6,000 accession from various institutes from across the world. The INEA (International Network for Edible Aroids) already has a core sample of 170 cultivars that have been distributed. These cultivars are maintained in vitro in a germplasm centre in Fiji,[66] which is considered safer and cheaper than field conservation.[65]
Taro exists as a diploid (2n=28) and a triploid (3n=42).[citation needed] Naturally occurring triploids in India were found to have significantly better yields. There have been attempts to artificially make triploids by crossing diploids with artificial tetraploids[65]
Raw taro leaves are 86% water, 7% carbohydrates, 5% protein, and 1% fat (table). The leaves are nutrient-rich, containing substantial amounts ofvitamins andminerals, especiallyvitamin K at 103% of the DV (table).
Taro is a food staple inAfrican,Oceanic andSouth Asian cultures.[41]People usually consume its edible corm and leaves. The corms, which have a light purple color due tophenolic pigments,[69] are roasted, baked or boiled. The natural sugars give a sweet, nutty flavor. The starch is easily digestible, and since the grains are fine and small it is often used for baby food.[citation needed]
In its raw form, the plant is toxic due to the presence ofcalcium oxalate,[70][71] and the presence of needle-shapedraphides in the plant cells. However, the toxin can be minimized and the tuber rendered palatable by cooking,[72] or by steeping in cold water overnight.
Corms of the small, round variety are peeled and boiled, then sold eitherfrozen, bagged in their own liquids, orcanned.
Taro is the pre-eminent crop of theCook Islands and surpasses all other crops in terms of land area devoted to production. The prominence of the crop there has led it to be a staple of the population's diet. Taro is grown across the country, but the method of cultivation depends on the nature of the island it is grown on. Taro also plays an important role in the country's export trade.[73] The root is eaten boiled, as is standard acrossPolynesia. Taro leaves are also eaten, cooked with coconut milk, onion, and meat or fish.[74]
Fijianlovo of cooked staples: taro andcassava (white)
Taro (dalo inFijian) has been a staple of the Fijian diet for centuries, and its cultural importance is celebrated onTaro Day. Its growth as an export crop began in 1993 whentaro leaf blight[75] devastated the taro industry in neighboringSamoa. Fiji filled the void and was soon supplying taro internationally. Almost 80% of Fiji's exported taro comes from the island ofTaveuni where the taro beetle speciesPapuana uninodis is absent. The Fijian taro industry on the main islands ofViti Levu andVanua Levu faces constant damage from the beetles. The Fiji Ministry of Agriculture and the Land Resources Division of the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) are researching pest control and instigating quarantine restrictions to prevent the spread of the pest. Taveuni now exports pest-damage-free crops.
Kalo is taro'sHawaiian name. The local crop plays an important role in Hawaiian culture andIndigenous religion. Taro is a traditionalstaple of thenative cuisine of Hawaii. Some of the uses for taro includepoi, table taro (steamed and served like a potato), taro chips, andlūʻau leaf (to makelaulau). In Hawaii, kalo is farmed under either dryland or wetland conditions. Taro farming there is challenging because of the difficulties of accessing fresh water. Kalo is usually grown in "pond fields" known asloʻi. Typical dryland or "upland" varieties (varieties grown in watered but not flooded fields) arelehua maoli andbun long, the latter widely known as "Chinese taro".Bun long is used for making taro chips.Dasheen (also called "eddo") is another dryland variety cultivated for its corms or as an ornamental plant. A contemporary Hawaiian diet consists of many tuberous plants, particularlysweet potato and kalo.
The Hawaii Agricultural Statistics Service determined the 10-year median production of kalo to be about 6.1 million pounds (2,800 t).[76] However, 2003 taro production was only 5 million pounds (2,300 t), the lowest since record-keeping began in 1946. The previous low (1997) was 5.5 million pounds (2,500 t). Despite generally growing demand, production was even lower in 2005—only 4 million pounds, withkalo for processing intopoi accounting for 97.5%.[77] Urbanization is one cause driving down harvests from the 1948 high of 14.1 million pounds (6,400 t), but more recently, the decline has resulted from pests and diseases. A non-nativeapple snail (Pomacea canaliculata) is a major culprit along with a plant rot disease traced to a species offungus in the genusPhytophthora that now damages kalo crops throughout Hawaii. Althoughpesticides could control both problems to some extent, pesticide use in theloʻi is banned because of the opportunity for chemicals to migrate quickly into streams, and then eventually the sea.[76][77]
Cleaning thekalo, Sandwich Islands, 1852, watercolour by James Gay Sawkins
Important aspects of Hawaiian culture revolve aroundkalo. For example, the newer name for a traditional Hawaiian feast, thelūʻau, comes fromkalo. Youngkalo tops baked withcoconut milk and chicken meat oroctopus arms are frequently served atluaus.[78]
By ancient Hawaiian custom, fighting is not allowed when a bowl ofpoi is "open". It is also disrespectful to fight in front of an elder and one should not raise their voice, speak angrily, or make rude comments or gestures.[79]
Several smallloʻi (pondfields) in whichkalo (taro) is being grown in theMaunawili Valley onOʻahu, Hawaiʻi. The ditch on the left in the picture is called anʻauwai and supplies diverted stream water to theloʻi.
Aloʻi is a patch of wetland dedicated to growingkalo. Hawaiians have traditionally usedirrigation to produce kalo. Wetland fields often produce more kalo per acre than dry fields.[80] Wetland-grown kalo need a constant flow of water.
About 300 varieties of kalo were originally brought to Hawaiʻi (about 100 remain). The kalo plant takes seven months to grow until harvest, solo`i fields are used in rotation and the soil can be replenished while theloʻi in use has sufficient water. Stems are typically replanted in thelo`i for future harvests.
One mythological version of Hawaiian ancestry cites the taro plant as an ancestor to Hawaiians. Legend joins two siblings of high and divine rank:Papahānaumoku ("Papa from whom lands are born", or Earth mother) andWākea (Sky father). Together they create the islands of Hawaii and a beautiful woman,Hoʻohokukalani (The Heavenly one who made the stars).[81]
The story of kalo begins when Wakea and Papa conceived their daughter, Hoʻohokukalani. Daughter and father then conceived a child together named Hāloanakalaukapalili (Long stalk trembling), but it wasstillborn. After the father and daughter buried the child near their house, a kalo plant grew over the grave:[82]
The stems were slender and when the wind blew they swayed and bent as though paying homage, their heart-shaped leaves shivering gracefully as in hula. And in the center of each leaf water gathered, like a mother’s teardrop.[83]
The second child born of Wākea and Hoʻohokukalani was namedHāloa after his older brother. The kalo of the earth was the sustenance for the young brother and became the principal food for successive generations.[84] The Hawaiian word for family,ʻohana, is derived fromʻohā, the shoot that grows from the kalo corm. As young shoots grow from the corm of the kalo plant, so people, too, grow from their family.[79]
The taro corm is a traditionalstaple crop for large parts ofPapua New Guinea, with a domestic trade extending its consumption to areas where it is not traditionally grown. Taro from some regions has developed particularly good reputations with (for instance)Lae taro being highly prized.
Among theUrapmin people of Papua New Guinea, taro (known inUrap asima) is the main source of sustenance along with thesweet potato (Urap:wan). In fact, the word for "food" in Urap is acompound of these two words.[85]
Considered the staple starch of traditionalPolynesian cuisine, taro is both a common and prestigious food item that was first introduced to the Polynesian islands by prehistoric seafarers of Southeast Asian derivation. The tuber itself is prepared in various ways, including baking, steaming inearth ovens (umu orimu), boiling, and frying. The famous Hawaiian staplepoi is made by mashing steamed taro roots with water. Taro also features in traditional desserts such as Samoanfa'ausi, which consists of grated, cooked taro mixed with coconut milk and brown sugar. The leaves of the taro plant also feature prominently in Polynesian cooking, especially as edible wrappings for dishes such as Hawaiianlaulau, Fijian and Samoanpalusami (wrapped around onions and coconut milk), and Tonganlupulu (wrapped corned beef). Ceremonial presentations on occasion of chiefly rites or communal events (weddings, funerals, etc.) traditionally included the ritual presentation of raw and cooked taro roots/plants.
The Hawaiianlaulau traditionally contains pork, fish, andlu'au (cooked taro leaf). The wrapping is inedibleti leaves (Hawaiian:lau ki). Cooked taro leaf has the consistency of cooked spinach and is therefore unsuitable for use as a wrapping.
In Samoa, the baby talo leaves and coconut milk are wrapped into parcels and cooked, along with other food, in an earth oven . The parcels are calledpalusami orlu'au. The resulting taste is smoky, sweet, savory and has a unique creamy texture. The root is also baked (Talo tao) in theumu or boiled with coconut cream (Faálifu Talo). It has a slightly bland and starchy flavor. It is sometimes called the Polynesian potato.
Lū is the Tongan word for the edible leaves of the taro plant (calledtalo in Tonga), as well as the traditional dish made using them. This meal is still prepared for special occasions and especially on Sunday. The dish consists of chopped meat, onions, and coconut milk wrapped in a number of taro leaves (lū talo). This is then wrapped traditionally in a banana leaf (nowadays, aluminum foil is often used) and put in theʻumu to cook. It has a number of named varieties, dependent on the filling:
Lū pulu –lū with beef, commonly using importedcorned beef (kapapulu)
Lū sipi –lū with lamb
Lū moa –lū with chicken
Lū hoosi –lū with horse meat
Oceanian Atolls
The islands situated along the border of the three main parts ofOceania (Polynesia,Micronesia andMelanesia) are more prone to being atolls rather than volcanic islands (most prominentlyTuvalu,Tokelau, andKiribati). As a result of this, Taro was not a part of the traditional diet due to the infertile soil and have only become a staple today through importation from other islands (Taro andCassava cultivars are usually imported fromFiji orSamoa). The traditional staple however is theSwamp Taro known asPulaka or Babai, a distant relative of the Taro but with a very long growing phase (3–5 years), larger and denser corms and coarser leaves. It is grown in a patch of land dug out to give rise to the freshwater lense beneath the soil. The lengthy growing time of this crop usually confines it as a food during festivities much like Pork although it can be preserved by drying out in the sun and storing it somewhere cool and dry to be enjoyed out of harvesting season.
Taro (simplified Chinese:芋头;traditional Chinese:芋頭;pinyin:yùtou;Cantonese Yale:wuhtáu) is commonly used as a main course as steamed taro with or withoutsugar, as a substitute for othercereals, inChinese cuisine in a variety of styles and provinces steamed, boiled or stir-fried as a main dish and as a flavor-enhancing ingredient. In Northern China, it is often boiled or steamed then peeled and eaten with or without sugar much like a potato. It is commonly braised withpork orbeef. It is used in theCantonesedim sum to make a small plated dish calledtaro dumpling as well as a pan-fried dish calledtaro cake. It can also be shredded into long strips which are woven together to form aseafood birdsnest. InFujian cuisine, it is steamed or boiled and mixed withstarch to form adough fordumpling.
Taro cake is a delicacy traditionally eaten duringChinese New Year celebrations. As a dessert, it can be mashed into apurée or used as a flavoring intong sui,ice cream, and other desserts such as Sweet Taro Pie. McDonald's sells taro-flavoredpies in China.
Taro paste, also known as "Or Nee", is a famous traditionalChaoshan dessert from China
Taro paste, a traditional Cantonese cuisine, which originated from theChaoshan region in the eastern part of China'sGuangdong Province is a dessert made primarily from taro. The taro is steamed and then mashed into a thick paste, which forms the base of the dessert. Lard or fried onion oil is then added for fragrance. The dessert is traditionally sweetened with water chestnut syrup, and served with ginkgo nuts. Modern versions of the dessert include the addition of coconut cream and sweet corn. The dessert is commonly served at traditional Teochew wedding banquet dinners as the last course, marking the end of the banquet.
Excavated Japanesesatoimo root (stems are cut before the plant is dug up): (1) Remaining stem from parent or seed satoimo, (2) Parent or seed satoimo, (3) Remaining stem from child satoimo, (4) Child satoimo, (5) Grandchild satoimoColocasia esculenta from the Japanese agricultural encyclopediaSeikei Zusetsu
A similar plant in Japan is calledsatoimo (里芋、サトイモ, literally "village potato"). The "child" and "grandchild" corms (cormels, cormlets) which bud from the parentsatoimo, are calledkoimo (子芋) andmagoimo (孫芋), respectively, or more generallyimonoko (芋の子).Satoimo has been propagated inSoutheast Asia since the lateJōmon period. It was a regional staple beforerice became predominant. The tuber,satoimo, is often prepared through simmering in fish stock (dashi) and soy sauce. The stalk,zuiki [ja], can also be prepared a number of ways, depending on the variety.[86]
In Korea, taro is calledtoran (Korean:토란: "earth egg"), and the corm is stewed and the leaf stem is stir-fried. Taro roots can be used for medicinal purposes, particularly for treating insect bites. It is made into the Korean traditional souptoranguk (토란국). Taro stems are often used as an ingredient inyukgaejang (육개장).
Small ball of mashed taro paste served on a banana leaf in a restaurant of the Daan district (Taipei)
InTaiwan, taro—yùtóu (芋頭) in Mandarin, andō͘-á (芋仔) inTaiwanese—is well-adapted to Taiwanese climate and can grow almost anywhere in the country with minimal maintenance. Before theTaiwan Miracle made rice affordable to everyone, taro was one of the main staples in Taiwan. Nowadays taro is used more often in desserts.Supermarket varieties range from about the size and shape of abrussels sprout to longer, larger varieties the size of afootball. Taro chips are often used as a potato-chip-like snack. Compared topotato chips, taro chips are harder and have anuttier flavor. Another popular traditional Taiwanese snack istaro ball, served on ice or deep-fried. It is common to see taro as a flavor in desserts and drinks, such asbubble tea. TheTaiwan Technical Mission launched a Taro ice cream making workshop forMicronesians in Nekken,Aimeliik.[87]
InIndonesia, taro is widely used for snacks, cakes, crackers, and even macarons, thus it can be easily found everywhere. Some varieties are specially cultivated in accordance with social or geographical traditions. Taro is usually known as "keladi", although other varieties are also known as "talas", among others. The vegetable soup,sayur asem andsayur lodeh may use taro and its leaves alsolompong (taro stem) in Java.Chinese descendants inIndonesia often eat taro with stewed rice and dried shrimp. The taro is diced and cooked along with the rice, the shrimp, and sesame oil. InNew Guinea, there are some traditional dishes made of taro as well its leaves such askeripik keladi (sweet spicy taro chips),keladi tumbuk [id], pounded taro with vegetables, andaunu senebre [id], anchovies mixed with slices of taro leaf.Mentawai people has a traditional food calledlotlot, taro leaves cooked withtinimbok (smoked fish).
In thePhilippines taro is usually calledgabi,abi, oravi and is widely available throughout the archipelago. Its adaptability to marshland and swamps make it one of the most common vegetables in the Philippines. The leaves, stems, and corms are all consumed and form part of the local cuisine. A popular recipe for taro islaing from theBicol Region; the dish's main ingredients are taro leaves (at times including stems) cooked in coconut milk, and salted with fermented shrimp or fishbagoong.[88] It is sometimes heavily spiced with red hot chilies calledsiling labuyo. Another dish in which taro is commonly used is the Philippine national stew,sinigang, although radish can be used if taro is not available. This stew is made with pork and beef, shrimp, or fish, a souring agent (tamarind fruit,kamias, etc.) with the addition of peeled and diced corms as thickener. The corm is also prepared as a basic ingredient forginataan, a coconut milk and taro dessert.
InThai cuisine, taroThai:เผือก (pheuak) is used in a variety of ways depending on the region. Boiled taro is readily available in the market packaged in small cellophane bags, already peeled and diced, and eaten as a snack. Pieces of boiled taro with coconut milk are a traditional Thai dessert.[89] Raw taro is also often sliced and deep fried and sold in bags as chips (เผือกทอด). As in other Asian countries, taro is a popular flavor for ice cream in Thailand.[90]
In Vietnam, there is a large variety of taro plants. One is calledkhoai môn, which is used as a filling inspring rolls, cakes, puddings andsweet soup desserts, smoothies and other desserts. Taro is used in theTết dessertchè khoai môn, which is sticky rice pudding with taro roots. The stems are also used in soups such ascanh chua. One is calledkhoai sọ, which is smaller in size thankhoai môn. Another common taro plant grows roots in shallow waters and grows stems and leaves above the surface of the water. This taro plant hassaponin-like substances that cause a hot, itchy feeling in the mouth and throat. Northern farmers used to plant them to cook the stems and leaves to feed their hogs. They re-grew quickly from their roots. After cooking, thesaponin in the soup of taro stems and leaves is reduced to a level the hogs can eat. Today this practice is no longer popular in Vietnam agriculture. These taro plants are commonly calledkhoai ngứa, which literally means "itchy potato".
Taro roots are commonly known as Arbi or Arvi inUrdu andHindi language. It is a common dish in Northern India and Pakistan. Arbi Gosht (meat) Masala Recipe is a tangy mutton curry recipe with taro vegetable. Mutton and Arbi is cooked in whole spices and tomatoes which lends a wonderful taste to the dish.[91]
InBangladesh taro is a very popular vegetable known askochu (কচু) ormukhi (মুখি). Within theSylheti language, it is calledmukhi. It is usually cooked with smallprawns or theilish fish into acurry, but some dishes are cooked withdried fish. Its green leaves,kochu pata (কচু পাতা), and stem,kochu (কচু), are also eaten as a favorite dish and usually ground to a paste or finely chopped to makeshak — but it must be boiled well beforehand. Taro stolons or stems,kochur loti (কচুর লতি), are also favored by Bangladeshis and cooked withshrimp, dried fish or the head of the ilish fish.[92] Taro is available, either fresh or frozen, in the UK and US in most Asian stores and supermarkets specialising inSylheti,Bangladeshi orSouth Asian food. Also, another variety calledmaan kochu is consumed and is a rich source of vitamins and nutrients.Maan Kochu is made into a paste and fried to prepare a food known asKochu Bata.
In India, taro oreddoe is a common dish served in many ways.
InMizoram, innorth-eastern India, it is calledbäl; the leaves, stalks and corms are eaten asdawl bai. The leaves and stalks are often traditionally preserved to be eaten in dry season asdawl rëp bai.[93][94]
InAssam, a north-eastern state, taro is known askosu (কচু). Various parts of the plant are eaten by making different dishes. The leaf buds calledkosu loti (কচু লতি) are cooked with sour dried fruits and calledthekera (থেকেৰা) or sometimes eaten alongsidetamarind,elephant apple, a small amount of pulses, or fish. Similar dishes are prepared from the long root-like structures calledkosu thuri. A sour fried dish is made from its flower (kosu kala). Porridges are made from the corms themselves, which may also be boiled, seasoned with salt and eaten as snacks.
InManipur, another north-eastern state, taro is known aspan. TheKukis calls itbal. Boiledbal is a snack at lunch along with chutney or hot chili-flakes besides being cooked as a main dish along with smoked or dried meat, beans, and mustard leaves. Sun-dried taro leaves are later used in broth and stews. It is widely available and is eaten in many forms, either baked, boiled, or cooked into a curry withhilsa or with fermented soybeans calledhawai-zaar. The leaves are also used in a special traditional dish calledutti, cooked with peas.
It is calledarbi in Urdu/Hindi andarvi in Punjabi innorth India. It is calledkəchu (कचु) in Sanskrit.[95]
InHimachal Pradesh, innorthern India, taro corms are known asghandyali, and the plant is known askachalu in theKangra andMandi districts. The dish calledpatrodu is made using taro leaves rolled with corn or gram flour and boiled in water. Another dish,pujji is made with mashed leaves and the trunk of the plant andghandyali or taro corms are prepared as a separate dish. InShimla, a pancake-style dish, calledpatra orpatid, is made using gram flour.
InUttarakhand and neighboringNepal, taro is considered a healthy food and is cooked in a variety of ways. The delicategaderi (taro variety) ofKumaon, especially fromLobanj, Bageshwar district, is much sought after. Most commonly it is boiled in tamarind water until tender, then diced into cubes which are stir-fried in mustard oil with fenugreek leaves. Another technique for preparation is boiling it in salt water till it is reduced to a porridge. The young leaves calledgaaba, are steamed, sun-dried, and stored for later use. Taro leaves and stems are pickled. Crushed leaves and stems are mixed with de-huskedurad daal (black lentils) and then dried as small balls calledbadi. These stems may also be sun-dried and stored for later use. On auspicious days, women worshipsaptarshi ("seven sages") and only eat rice with taro leaves.
InMaharashtra, inwestern India, the leaves, calledalu che paana, are de-veined and rolled with a paste of gram flour. Then seasoned with tamarind paste, red chili powder, turmeric, coriander,asafoetida and salt, and finally steamed. These can be eaten whole, cut into pieces, or shallow fried and eaten as a snack known asalu chi wadi.Alu chya panan chi patal bhaji a lentil and colocasia leaves curry, is also popular. InGoan as well asKonkani cuisine taro leaves are very popular. A tall-growing variety of taro is extensively used on the western coast of India to makepatrode,patrade, orpatrada (lit. "leaf-pancake") a dish with gram flour, tamarind and other spices.
InGujarat, it is calledpatar vel orsaryia na paan. Gram flour, salt, turmeric, and red chili powder are made into paste and stuffed inside a roll of green taro leaves. Then the mixture is steamed, divided into small portions, and fried.[96]
Sindhis call itkachaloo; they fry it, compress it, and re-fry it to make a dish calledtuk which complementsSindhi curry.
InKerala, a state insouthern India, taro corms are known aschembu kizhangu (ചേമ്പ് കിഴങ്ങ്) and are astaple food, a side dish, and an ingredient in various side dishes likesambar. As a staple food, it is steamed and eaten with a spicychutney of green chilies, tamarind, and shallots. The leaves and stems of certain varieties of taro are also used as a vegetable in Kerala. InDakshin Kannada inKarnataka, it is used as a breakfast dish, either made likefritters or steamed.
InTamil Nadu andAndhra Pradesh, taro corms are known assivapan-kizhangu (seppankilangu orcheppankilangu),chamagadda, or in coastal Andhra districts aschaama dumpa. They can be prepared in a variety of ways, such as by deep-frying the steamed and sliced corms in oil known aschamadumpa chips to be eaten on the side with rice, or cooking in a tangy tamarind sauce with spices, onion, and tomato.
In theeast Indian state ofWest Bengal, taro corms are thinly sliced and fried to make chips calledkochu bhaja(কচু ভাজা). The stem is used to cookkochur saag (কচুর শাগ) with fried hilsha (ilish) head or boiledchhola (chickpea), often eaten as a starter with hot rice. The corms are also made into a paste with spices and eaten with rice. The most popular dish is a spicy curry made with prawn and taro corms.Gathi kochu (গাঠি কচু) (taro variety) are very popular and used to make a thick curry calledgathi kochur dal (গাঠি কচুর ডাল). Herekochur loti (কচুর লতি) (taro stolon) dry curry[97] is a popular dish which is usually prepared with poppy seeds and mustard paste. Leaves and corms ofshola kochu (শলা কচু) andmaan kochu (মান কচু) are also used to make some popular traditional dishes.
InMithila,Bihar, taro corms are known asədua (अडुआ) and its leaves are calledədikunch ke paat (अड़िकंच के पात). A curry of taro leaves is made with mustard paste and sour sun-dried mango pulp (आमिल;aamil).
InOdisha, taro corms are known assaru. Dishes made of taro includesaru besara (taro in mustard and garlic paste). It is also an indispensable ingredient in preparingdalma, anOdia cuisine staple (vegetables cooked withdal). Sliced taro corms, deep fried in oil and mixed with red chili powder and salt, are known assaru chips.
Ala was widely grown in the southern atolls ofAddu Atoll,Fuvahmulah,Huvadhu Atoll, andLaamu Atoll and is considered astaple even after rice was introduced.Ala andolhu ala are still widely eaten all over the Maldives, cooked or steamed with salt to taste, and eaten with grated coconut along with chili paste and fish soup. It is also prepared as a curry. The corms are sliced and fried to make chips and are also used to prepare varieties of sweets.[98]
Arikanchan is prepared from taro leaves, black lentils paste and spices in mostly the Eastern Terai of Nepal, is traditional and indigenous food.
Taro is grown in theTerai and thehilly regions ofNepal. The root (corm) of taro is known aspindalu (पिँडालु) and petioles with leaves are known askarkalo (कर्कलो),Gava (गाभा) and also Kaichu (केेेैचु) in Maithili. Almost all parts are eaten in different dishes. Boiled corm of Taro is commonly served with salt, spices, and chilies. Taro is a popular dish in the hilly region. Chopped leaves and petioles are mixed withUrad bean flour to make dried balls calledmaseura (मस्यौरा). Large taro leaves are used as an alternative to an umbrella when unexpected rain occurs. Popular attachment to taro since ancient times is reflected in popular culture, such as in songs and textbooks.Jivan hamro karkala ko pani jastai ho (जीवन हाम्रो कर्कलाको पानी जस्तै हो) means, "Our life is as vulnerable as water stuck in the leaf of taro".
Taro is cultivated and eaten by theTharu people in theInner Terai as well. Roots are mixed with dried fish and turmeric, then dried in cakes calledsidhara which are curried with radish, chili, garlic and other spices to accompany rice. The Tharu prepare the leaves in a fried vegetable side-dish that also shows up inMaithili cuisine.[99]
In Pakistan, taro oreddoe orarvi is a very common dish served with or without gravy; a popular dish isarvi gosht, which includes beef, lamb or mutton. The leaves are rolled along with gram flour batter and then fried or steamed to make a dish calledPakora, which is finished by tempering with red chilies and carrom (ajwain) seeds. Taro orarvi is also cooked with chopped spinach. The dish calledArvi Palak is the second most renowned dish made of Taro.
Many varieties are recorded in Sri Lanka, several being edible, most being toxic to humans and, therefore, are not grown. Edible varieties (such askiri ala,kolakana ala,gahala, andsevel ala) are grown for their corms and leaves. Sri Lankans eat corms after boiling them or making them into a curry with coconut milk. Some varieties of the leaves of ,kolakana ala and kalu alakola are eaten.
Taro was consumed by the early Romans in much the same way the potato is today. They called this root vegetablecolocasia. The Roman cookbookApicius mentions several methods for preparing taro, including boiling, preparing with sauces, and cooking with meat or fowl. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the use of taro dwindled in Europe. This was largely due to the decline of trade and commerce with Egypt, previously controlled by Rome. When the Spanish and Portuguese sailed to the new world, they brought taro along with them. Recently[when?] there has been renewed interest in exotic foods and consumption is increasing.
InCyprus, taro has been in use since the time of theRoman Empire.[100][101] Today it is known askolokas in Turkish orkolokasi (κολοκάσι) in Greek, which comes from theAncient Greek name κολοκάσιον (kolokasion) forlotus root. It is usually sauteed withcelery andonion with pork,chicken or lamb, in atomato sauce – a vegetarian version is also available. The cormlets are calledpoulles (sing.poulla), and they are prepared by first being sauteed, followed by decaramelising the vessel withdryred wine andcoriander seeds, and finally served with freshly squeezedlemon.[102]
In Lebanon, taro is known askilkass and is grown mainly along the Mediterranean coast. The leaves and stems are not consumed in Lebanon and the variety grown produces round to slightly oblong tubers that vary in size from a tennis ball to a small cantaloupe.Kilkass is a very popular winter dish in Lebanon and is prepared in two ways:kilkass with lentils is a stew flavored with crushed garlic and lemon juice and’il’as (Lebanese pronunciation ofقلقاس)bi-tahini. Another common method of preparing taro is to boil, peel then slice it into1 cm (1⁄2 in) thick slices, before frying and marinating in edible "red"sumac.In northern Lebanon, it is known as a potato with the nameborshoushi (el-orse borshushi). It is also prepared as part of a lentil soup with crushed garlic and lemon juice. Also in the north, it is known by the namebouzmet, mainly aroundMenieh, where it is first peeled, and left to dry in the sun for a couple of days. After that, it is stir-fried in lots of vegetable oil in a casserole until golden brown, then a large amount of wedged, melted onions are added, in addition to water, chickpeas and some seasoning. These are all left to simmer for a few hours, and the result is a stew-like dish. It is considered a hard-to-make delicacy, not only because of the tedious preparation but the consistency and flavour that the taro must reach. The smaller variety of taro is more popular in the north due to its tenderness.
In theAzores taro is known asinhame orinhame-coco and is commonly steamed with potatoes,vegetables andmeats orfish. The leaves are sometimes cooked into soups and stews. It is also consumed as adessert after first being steamed and peeled, then fried invegetable oil orlard, and finally sprinkled withsugar,cinnamon andnutmeg. Taro grows abundantly in the fertile land of the Azores, as well as in creeks that are fed by mineral springs. Through migration to other countries, theinhame is found in the Azorean diaspora.
In Egypt, taro is known asqolqas (Egyptian Arabic:قلقاس,IPA:[ʔolˈʔæːs]). The corms are larger than what would be found inNorth American supermarkets. After being peeled completely, it is cooked in one of two ways: cut into small cubes and cooked in broth with freshcoriander andchard and served as an accompaniment to meatstew, or sliced and cooked withminced meat and tomato sauce.[103]
Taro has remained popular in theCanary Islands where it is known asñame and is often used in thick vegetable stews, likepotaje de berros (cresspotage)[104] or simply boiled and seasoned withmojo or honey. InCanarian Spanish the wordÑame refers to Taro, while in other variants of Castilian is normally used to designateyams.
Njahi, Nduma, Chapati, Kachumbari, chicken – an average Kikuyu party mix
InKenya,Uganda andTanzania, taro is commonly known asarrow root, yam, amayuni (plural) or ejjuni (singular),ggobe, ornduma andmadhumbe in some localBantu languages. There are several varieties and each variety has its own local name. It is usually boiled and eaten withtea or other beverages, or as the mainstarch of a meal. It is also cultivated inMadagascar,Malawi,Mozambique, andZimbabwe.
Taro is consumed as astaple crop inWest Africa, particularly inGhana,Nigeria andCameroon. It is calledcocoyam in Nigeria, Ghana and Anglophone Cameroon,macabo inFrancophone Cameroon, in Democratic Republic of Congo or Republic of Congombálá ya makoko,mankani inHausa language,koko andlambo inYoruba, andede inIgbo language.Cocoyam is often boiled, fried, or roasted and eaten with a sauce. In Ghana, it substitutes forplantain in makingfufu when plantains are out of season. It is also cut into small pieces to make a soupy baby food and appetizer calledmpotompoto. It is also common in Ghana to findcocoyam chips (deep-fried slices, about1 mm (1⁄32 in) thick).Cocoyam leaves, locally calledkontomire in Ghana, are a popular vegetable for local sauces such aspalaver sauce andegusi/agushi stew.[105] It is also commonly consumed in Guinea and parts of Senegal, as a leaf sauce or as a vegetable side, and is referred to asjaabere in the localPulaar dialect.
InLusophone countries,inhame (pronouncedPortuguese pronunciation:[ĩˈɲɐ̃mi],Portuguese pronunciation:[ˈɲɐ̃mi] orPortuguese pronunciation:[ĩˈɲɐ̃mi], literally "yam") andcará are the common names for various plants with edible parts of the generaAlocasia,Colocasia (familyAraceae) andDioscorea (familyDioscoreaceae), and its respective starchy edible parts, generallytubers, with the exception ofDioscorea bulbifera, calledcará-moela (pronouncedPortuguese pronunciation:[kɐˈɾamuˈɛlɐ], literally, "gizzard yam"), in Brazil and never deemed to be aninhame. Definitions of what constitutes aninhame and acará vary regionally, but the common understanding inBrazil is thatcarás are potato-like in shape, whileinhames are more oblong.
In theBrazilian Portuguese of the hotter and drierNortheastern region, bothinhames andcarás are calledbatata (literally, "potato"). For differentiation, potatoes are calledbatata-inglesa (literally, "English potato"), a name used in other regions andsociolects to differentiate it from thebatata-doce, "sweet potato", ironic names since both were first cultivated by the indigenous peoples ofSouth America, their native continent, and only laterintroduced in Europe by the colonizers.
Taros are often prepared like potatoes, eaten boiled, stewed or mashed, generally with salt and sometimesgarlic as a condiment, as part of a meal (most often lunch or dinner).
InBelize,Costa Rica,Nicaragua andPanama, taro is eaten insoups, as a replacement for potatoes, and as chips. It is known locally asmalanga (alsomalanga coco), a word of Bantu origin, anddasheen in Belize and Costa Rica,quiquizque in Nicaragua, and asotoe in Panama.
InHaiti, it is usually calledmalanga, ortaro. The corm is grated into a paste and deep-fried to make a fritter calledAcra.Acra is a very popular street food in Haiti.
InJamaica, taro is known ascoco,cocoyam anddasheen. Corms with flesh which is white throughout are referred to asminty-coco. The leaves are also used to make Pepper Pot Soup which may includecallaloo.
InSuriname it is calledtayer,taya,pomtayer orpongtaya. The taro root is calledaroei by the indigenous Surinamese and is commonly known as "Chinesetayer". The variety known aseddoe is also called Chinesetayer. It is a popular cultivar among theMaroon population in the interior, also because it is not adversely affected by high water levels. Thedasheen variety, commonly planted in swamps, is rare, although appreciated for its taste. The closely relatedXanthosoma species is the base for the popular Surinamese dishpom. The cooked taro leaf (taya-wiri, ortayerblad) is also a well-known green leafy vegetable.
InTrinidad and Tobago, it is calleddasheen. The leaves of the taro plant are used to make the Trinidadian variant of the Caribbean dish known ascallaloo (which is made with okra,dasheen/taro leaves, coconut milk or creme and aromatic herbs) and it is also prepared similarly to steamed spinach. The root of the taro plant is often served boiled, accompanied by stewed fish or meat, curried, often with peas and eaten with roti, or in soups. The leaves are also sauteed with onions, hot pepper and garlic til they are melted to make a dish called "bhaji". This dish is popular withIndo-Trinidadian people. The leaves are also fried in a split pea batter to make "saheena", a fritter of Indian origin.
Taro leaf-stems (petioles) for sale at a market in California, 2009
Taro has been grown for centuries in the United States.William Bartram observedSouth CarolinaSea Islands residents[clarification needed: were these people Indigenous?] eating roasted roots of the plant, which they calledtanya, in 1791, and by the 19th century it was common as a food crop from Charleston to Louisiana.[106]In the 1920s,dasheen[nb 1], as it was known, was highly touted by the Secretary of the Florida Department of Agriculture as a valuable crop for growth inmuck fields.[108]Fellsmere, Florida, near the east coast, was a farming area deemed perfect for growingdasheen. It was used in place of potatoes and dried to make flour.Dasheen flour was said to make excellent pancakes when mixed with wheat flour.
Poi is aHawaiian cuisinestaple food made from taro. Traditional poi is produced by mashing cooked starch on a wooden pounding board (papa kuʻi ʻai), with a carvedpestle (pōhaku kuʻi ʻai) made from basalt, calcite, coral, or wood.[109][110] Modern methods use an industrialfood processor to produce large quantities for retail distribution. This initial paste is calledpaʻi ʻai.[111] Water is added to the paste during mashing, and again just before eating, to achieve the desired consistency, which can range from highlyviscous to liquid. In Hawaii, this is informally classified as either "one-finger", "two-finger", or "three-finger", alluding to how many fingers are required to scoop it up (the thicker the poi, the fewer fingers required to scoop a sufficient mouthful).[112]
Since the late 20th century, taro chips have been available in many supermarkets and natural food stores, and taro is often used in AmericanChinatowns, inChinese cuisine.
In Venezuela, taro is calledocumo chino orchino and used in soups andsancochos. Soups contain large chunks of several kinds of tubers, includingocumo chino, especially in the eastern part of the country, where West Indian influence is present. It is also used to accompany meats inparrillas (barbecue) or fried cured fish whereyuca is not available.Ocumo is an indigenous name;chino means "Chinese", an adjective for produce that is considered exotic.Ocumo without the Chinese denomination is a tuber from the same family, but without taro's inside purplish color.Ocumo is the Venezuelan name formalanga, soocumo chino means "Chinese malanga". Taro is always prepared boiled. No porridge form is known in the local cuisine.
Taro is calleddasheen,[107] in contrast to the smaller variety of corms callededdo, ortanya in the English speaking countries of theWest Indies, and is cultivated and consumed as a staple crop in the region. There are differences among the roots mentioned above: taro ordasheen is mostly blue when cooked,tanya is white and very dry, andeddoes are small and very slimy.
In the Spanish-speaking countries of theSpanish West Indies taro is calledñame, the Portuguese variant of which (inhame) is used in former Portuguese colonies where taro is still cultivated, including theAzores andBrazil. InPuerto Rico[113] andCuba, and the Dominican Republic it is sometimes calledmalanga oryautia. In some countries, such asTrinidad and Tobago,Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, andDominica, the leaves and stem of thedasheen, or taro, are most often cooked and pureed into a thick liquid calledcallaloo, which is served as a side dish similar to creamed spinach.Callaloo is sometimes prepared withcrab legs, coconut milk, pumpkin, and okra. It is usually served alongside rice or made into a soup along with various other roots.
It is also sold as an ornamental plant, often by the name ofelephant ears. It can be grown indoors or outdoors with high humidity. In the UK, it has gained theRoyal Horticultural Society'sAward of Garden Merit.[114]
A matured variation of taro plant. With dark leaves that appear black, it's often referred to as "Black Magic".
It is also used foranthocyanin study experiments, especially with reference toabaxial andadaxial anthocyanic concentration.[115] A recent study has revealed honeycomb-like microstructures on the taro leaf that make the leavessuperhydrophobic. The measuredcontact angle on the leaf in this study is around 148°.[116]
In Melissa K. Nelson's articleProtecting the Sanctity of Native Foods, scientists at the University of Hawaii attempted to patent and genetically alter taro before being dissuaded by activists and farmers, "In 2006, the University of Hawaii withdrew its patents on the three varieties and agreed to stop genetically modifying Hawaii forms of taro. Researchers continue to experiment with modifying a Chinese form of taro, however."[117]
InMeitei mythology andMeitei folklore ofManipur, Taro (Meitei:ꯄꯥꯟ,romanized: paan) plants are mentioned. One significant instance is theMeitei folktale of theHanuba Hanubi Paan Thaaba (Meitei for 'Old Man and Old Woman planting Taro').[118][119] In this story, an old man and an old woman, were deceived by some monkeys regarding the planting of the Taro plants in a very different way.[120][121][122]The old man and woman followed the monkeys' advice, peeling off the best tubers of the plants, then boiling them in a pot until softened and after cooling them off, wrapping them in banana leaves and putting them inside the soils of the grounds.[123][124]In the middle of the night, the monkeys secretly came into the farm and ate all the well cooked plants. After their eating, they (monkeys) planted some inedible giant wild plants in the place where the old couple had placed the cooked plant tubers. In the morning, the old couple were amazed to see the plants getting fully grown up just after one day of planting the tubers. They were unaware of the tricks of the monkeys. So, the old couple cooked and ate the inedible wild Taro plants. As a reaction of eating the wild plants, they suffered from the unbearabletingling sensation in theirthroats.[125][126][127]
Native Hawaiians believe that the taro plant (kalo) grew out of the still-born body of one of the first two humans conceived by godsHoʻohokukalani andWākea;[128] thus is connected to humans more than just providing sustenance. Thus, it is often a part of sacred offerings given in ceremonies.
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