"Romania" derives from the local name forRomanian (Romanian:român), which in turn derives fromLatinromanus, meaning "Roman" or "ofRome".[9] This ethnonym for Romanians is first attested in the 16th century by Italian humanists travelling inTransylvania,Moldavia, andWallachia.[10][11][12] The oldest known surviving document written inRomanian that can be precisely dated, a 1521 letter known as the "Letter of Neacșu from Câmpulung",[13] is notable for including the first documented occurrence ofRomanian in a country name: Wallachia is mentioned asȚara Rumânească.
Based on information from the inscription atDionysupolis[25][26][27] and the account ofIordanes, it is known that under the rule ofBurebista, assisted by the great priestDeceneu, the first Geto-Dacian state was formed.[28] In 44 BC, Burebista was assassinated by one of his servants.[29] After his death, the Geto-Dacian state fragmented into four, and later five, kingdoms.[30] The core of the state remained in the area of theȘureanu Mountains, where successive rulers such asDeceneu,Comosicus, andCoryllus held power.[31] The centralised Dacian state reached the peak of its development underDecebalus.[32] During this period, a series of conflicts with theRoman Empire continued, with part of the Dacian state being conquered in 106 AD by the Roman emperorTrajan.[33] Between 271 and 275 AD, the Aurelian retreat took place.[34]
Period of the Principalities and the Phanariot Era
Beginning in the late15th century, the two principalities gradually came under the influence of theOttoman Empire.Transylvania, which throughout theMiddle Ages was part of theKingdom of Hungary,[43] governed by voivodes, became a self-governing principality and a vassal of theOttoman Empire from 1526. At the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries,Michael the Brave for a very brief period ruled over a large part of the territory of present-day Romania.[44]
The Kingdom of Hungary collapsed, and the Ottomans occupied parts of Banat and Crișana in 1541.[45] Transylvania andMaramureș, along with the rest of Banat and Crișana developed into a new state under Ottoman suzerainty, thePrincipality of Transylvania.[46] TheReformation, initiated in Germany byMartin Luther in 1517, encouraged the rise of Protestantism and four denominations—Calvinism,Lutheranism,Unitarianism, and Roman Catholicism—were officially acknowledged in 1568.[who?][47] The Romanians' Orthodox faith remained only tolerated,[47] although they made up more than one-third of the population, according to 17th-century estimates.[48][49]
The princes of Transylvania, Wallachia, and Moldavia joined theHoly League against the Ottoman Empire in 1594.[50] The Wallachian prince,Michael the Brave, united the three principalities under his rule in May 1600.[51][52] The neighbouring powers forced him to abdicate in September, but he became a symbol of the unification of the Romanian lands in the 19th century.[51] Although the rulers of the three principalities continued to pay tribute to the Ottomans, the most talented princes—Gabriel Bethlen of Transylvania,Matei Basarab of Wallachia, andVasile Lupu of Moldavia—strengthened their autonomy.[53]
The united armies of theHoly League expelled the Ottoman troops from Central Europe between 1684 and 1699, and the Principality of Transylvania was integrated into theHabsburg monarchy.[54] The Habsburgs supported the Catholic clergy and persuaded the Orthodox Romanian prelates to accept theunion with the Roman Catholic Church in 1699.[55] In the18th century,Moldavia andWallachia maintained their internal autonomy, but in1711 and1716, respectively, the period of thePhanariots began, with rulers appointed directly by the Porte from among the noble families ofGreek origin inConstantinople. With the signing of theAusgleich in1867,Transylvania quickly lost its remaining political autonomy, being politically and administratively incorporated into theKingdom of Hungary.[56] The Church Union strengthened the Romanian intellectuals' devotion to their Roman heritage.[57] The Orthodox Church was restored in Transylvania only after Orthodox monks stirred up revolts in 1744 and 1759.[58] The organisation of theTransylvanian Military Frontier caused further disturbances,especially among the Székelys in 1764.[59]
PrincesDimitrie Cantemir of Moldavia andConstantin Brâncoveanu of Wallachia concluded alliances with the Habsburg Monarchy and Russia against the Ottomans, but they were dethroned in 1711 and 1714, respectively.[60] The sultans lost confidence in the native princes and appointed Orthodox merchants from thePhanar district of Istanbul to rule Moldova and Wallachia.[61][62] ThePhanariot princes pursued oppressive fiscal policies and dissolved the army.[63] The neighbouring powers took advantage of the situation: the Habsburg Monarchy annexed the northwestern part of Moldavia, orBukovina, in 1775, and theRussian Empire seized the eastern half of Moldavia, orBessarabia, in 1812.[64][65]
A census revealed that the Romanians were more numerous than any other ethnic group in Transylvania in 1733, but legislation continued to use contemptuous adjectives (such as "tolerated" and "admitted") when referring to them.[66][67] TheUniate bishop,Inocențiu Micu-Klein who demanded recognition of the Romanians as the fourth privileged nation was forced into exile.[68][67] Uniate and Orthodox clerics and laymen jointly signed aplea for the Transylvanian Romanians' emancipation in 1791, but the monarch and the local authorities refused to grant their requests.[69][66]
Animated map depicting the territorial changes of Romania from1859 to2010
TheTreaty of Küçük Kaynarca authorised the Russian ambassador in Istanbul to defend the autonomy of Moldavia and Wallachia (known as theDanubian Principalities) in 1774.[70] Taking advantage of theGreek War of Independence, a Wallachian lesser nobleman, Tudor Vladimirescu, stirred up a revolt against the Ottomans in January 1821, but he was murdered in June by Phanariot Greeks.[71] After anew Russo-Turkish War, theTreaty of Adrianople strengthened the autonomy of the Danubian Principalities in 1829, although it also acknowledged the sultan's right to confirm the election of the princes.[72]
Mihail Kogălniceanu,Nicolae Bălcescu and other leaders of the1848 revolutions in Moldavia andWallachia demanded the emancipation of the peasants and the union of the two principalities, but Russian and Ottoman troops crushed their revolt.[73][74] The Wallachian revolutionists were the first to adopt the blue, yellow and redtricolour as thenational flag.[75] In Transylvania, most Romanians supported the imperial government against theHungarian revolutionaries after the Diet passed a law concerning the union of Transylvania and Hungary.[75] BishopAndrei Șaguna proposed the unification of the Romanians of the Habsburg Monarchy in a separate duchy, but the central government refused to change the internal borders.[76]
The modern Romanian state was created through theunification of the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, accepted as a federative structure by the Great Powers following theParis Convention of 1858, and later cemented by the simultaneous election as ruler of both states of the unionistAlexandru Ioan Cuza.[77][78][79] After carrying out numerous reforms that laid the foundations for the modernisation of the state, he was forced in 1866 by a broad coalition of the political parties of the time, also known as the "Monstrous coalition", to abdicate and leave the country.[80]
The union was at one time in peril, but the political leaders of the era succeeded in placing on the princely throneCarol I of Romania, who accepted the Constitution and took the oath on 10 May 1866. Eleven years later, on 10 May 1877, Romania proclaimed its independence—achieved on the battlefield—and in 1881, on the same day of the year, Carol was crowned asKing of Romania. In 1913, Romania entered theSecond Balkan War againstBulgaria, at the end of which it obtained theQuadrilateral.[81][82][83] In 1914,King Carol I died, and his nephew,Ferdinand I, succeeded him on the throne.[80]
In 1916, Romania enteredWorld War I on the side of theEntente Powers.[84] Although the Romanian forces did not perform well militarily, by the end of the war the Austrian and Russian Empires had disintegrated; the National Assembly inTransylvania, and theSfatul Țării inBessarabia andBukovina proclaimed their union with Romania, andKing Ferdinand I andQueen Maria were crowned sovereign of all Romanians inAlba Iulia on 15 October 1922.[85] TheTreaty of Versailles recognised all the union proclamations in accordance with the right to self-determination established by U.S. PresidentWoodrow Wilson’sFourteen Points.[86]
Interwar period
After having left the country and renounced his claim to the throne in 1925,Carol II returned in 1930 and usurped his son’s throne; influenced by his inner circle—referred to by historians as the "Royal Camarilla"—he gradually undermined the democratic system, and in 1938 he assumed dictatorial powers. Although he was pro-Western (especially Anglophile), Carol attempted to appease extreme centrifugal forces by appointing nationalist governments that adopted anti-Semitic measures, such as theGoga cabinet and the one led by the Orthodox PatriarchMiron Cristea.
World War II: Positions and territorial losses
Romania's territorial losses in the summer of 1940. Of these territories, onlyNorthern Transylvania wasregained after the end of World War II
Following theMolotov–Ribbentrop Pact of 1939, in June 1940 Romania accepted the loss ofBessarabia,Northern Bukovina and theHertsa region in favour of theUSSR (as stipulated in the Soviet ultimatum of 28 June 1940). Unaware of the details of the Soviet–German pact, Carol attempted to secure an alliance withNazi Germany, and appointed Ion Gigurtu as President of the Council of Ministers, who declared that he would pursue a Nazi pro-Axis (Berlin–Rome) policy that was anti-Semitic and fascist-totalitarian in nature.[87][88][89] Between 4 July and 4 September 1940, by acceptingHitler's arbitration over Transylvania (after Gigurtu declared on radio that Romania must make territorial sacrifices to justify its Nazi orientation and full adherence to the Berlin–Rome Axis), Romania cededNorthern Transylvania—including the city ofCluj—to Hungary.[90][91][92] The vast territories in Transylvania ceded by Ion Gigurtu to Hungary contained important natural resources, including gold mines.[93] Ion Gigurtu also initiated negotiations to cede 8,000 km2 of Southern Dobruja to Bulgaria,[94] these negotiations were interrupted by Antonescu's unconditional acceptance of the territorial cession.[95]
In response to the chaotic withdrawal from Bessarabia, the territorial cessions, public discontent, and protests from political leaders, King Carol II suspended the1938 Constitution of Romania and appointed GeneralIon Antonescu as Prime Minister. This measure, supported by theIron Guard, demanded that the king abdicate in favour of his son,Mihai. Subsequently, Antonescu assumed dictatorial powers and became President of the Council of Ministers, self-titling himself as the "Leader" of the state.[96][97]
In 1941, as an ally ofNazi Germany, Romania enteredWorld War II by declaring war on theSoviet Union.[96][97] A shift in fortunes only became discernible after the defeat at Stalingrad and the subsequent change of the USSR from a defensive to an offensive posture. On 23 August 1944, with the Soviet army having been present in northern Moldova since March,King Mihai I forcibly removed MarshalIon Antonescu from power, as he refused to sign an armistice with theAllies of World War II.[98] Following Antonescu's outright refusal, King Mihai I ordered the dismissal and arrest of the marshal, and Romania switched sides to join the Allies.[98]
Less than three years after theSoviet occupation of Romania, in 1947,King Michael I was forced to abdicate[102] and thePeople's Republic of Romania—a state of "popular democracy"—was proclaimed. The newly established communist regime, led by theRomanian Workers' Party, consolidated its power through a Stalinist-type policy aimed at suppressing any political opposition and transforming the economic and social structures of the old bourgeois regime.[103][104]
In the early 1960s, the Romanian government began asserting a certain degree of independence from theSoviet Union in its foreign policy,[105] although it did not abandon its repressive policies (which it labeled "revolutionary conquests") in domestic affairs.[103] In 1965, communist leaderGheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej died, ushering in a period of change in Romania.[106] After a brief power struggle,Nicolae Ceaușescu emerged as the head of the communist party,[106] becoming General Secretary of theRomanian Communist Party in 1965, President of theState Council in 1967, and President of theSocialist Republic of Romania in 1974. Ceaușescu's rule from 1965 to 1989 grew increasingly authoritarian during the 1980s.[105]
In the context of the fall of communism throughout Eastern Europe during therevolutions of 1989, a protest in support ofReformed pastorLászló Tőkés that began in December 1989 inTimișoara quickly escalated into a national uprising against the communist regime, ultimately resulting in theexecution of Ceaușescu and his wifeElena on 25 December 1989.[107]
An interim council composed of figures from civil society and former communist officials assumed control of the government, andIon Iliescu became the provisional president of the country. The new government reversed many of the authoritarian communist policies[108][109][110] and dismissed several leaders of the former regime, although still influenced by members of the former regime (the basis for theGolaniad, andMineriads).
The post-1989 period has been characterised by the privatisation and closure of several former industrial and economic enterprises from the communist period were closed,[112] whilecorruption has been amajor issue in contemporary politics.[113]
ANational Anticorruption Directorate was formed in the country in 2002.[114] During the 2000s, Romania had one of the highest economic growth rates in Europe and has been referred at times as "the Tiger of Eastern Europe".[115] This has been accompanied by a significant improvement in living standards as the country successfully reduced domestic poverty and established a functional democratic state.[116][117] However, Romania's development suffered a major setback during thelate 2000s' recession leading to a large gross domestic product contraction and a budget deficit in 2009.[118] This led to Romania borrowing from the International Monetary Fund.[119] Worsening economic conditions led tounrest and triggered a political crisis in 2012.[120]
Since 2014, Romania launched an anti-corruption effort that led to the prosecution of medium- and high-level political, judicial and administrative offenses by theNational Anticorruption Directorate.[121] In 2015, massiveanti-corruption protests which developed in the wake of theColectiv nightclub fire led to the resignation of prime ministerVictor Ponta.[122] During 2017–2019, in response to measures which were perceived to weaken the fight against corruption, some of thebiggest post-1989 protests took place in Romania, with over 500,000 people protesting nationwide.[123][124][121]
Romania is the largest country inSoutheastern Europe and thetwelfth-largest in Europe, having an area of 238,397 square kilometres (92,046 sq mi).[130]: 17 It lies between latitudes43° and49° N and longitudes20° and30° E. The terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountains, hills, and plains. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the centre of Romania, with14 mountain ranges reaching above 2,000 m or 6,600 ft—the highest isMoldoveanu Peak at 2,544 m or 8,346 ft.[130]: 11 They are surrounded by theMoldavian andTransylvanian plateaus, thePannonian Plain and theWallachian plains.
Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe, covering almost 27% of its territory.[138] The country had a 2019Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 5.95/10, ranking it 90th globally out of 172 countries.[139] Some 3,700plant species have been identified in the country, from which to date 23 have been declarednatural monuments, 74 extinct, 39 endangered, 171 vulnerable, and 1,253 rare.[140]
Romania map of Köppen climate classification, according withClima României from theAdministrația Națională de Meteorologie, Bucharest 2008
Owing to its distance from open sea and its position on the southeastern portion of the European continent, Romania has a climate that iscontinental, with four distinct seasons. The average annual temperature is 11 °C (52 °F) in the south and 8 °C (46 °F) in the north.[144] In summer, average maximum temperatures in Bucharest rise to 28 °C (82 °F), and temperatures over 35 °C (95 °F) are fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country.[145] In winter, the average maximum temperature is below 2 °C (36 °F).[145] Precipitation is average, with over 750 mm (30 in) per year only on the highest western mountains, while around Bucharest it drops to approximately 570 mm (22 in).[130]: 29 There are some regional differences: in western sections, such as Banat, the climate is milder and has some Mediterranean influences; the eastern part of the country has a more pronounced continental climate. In Dobruja, the Black Sea also exerts an influence over the region's climate.[146]
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts with theHigh Court of Cassation and Justice being the supreme court of Romania.[149] There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by theFrench model, is based oncivil law and isinquisitorial in nature. TheConstitutional Court (Curtea Constituțională) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations with the constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country and can be amended only through a public referendum.[147][150] Romania's 2007 entry into the EU has been a significant influence on its domestic policy, and includingjudicial reforms, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption.[151] TheEconomist Intelligence Unit rated Romania as a "hybrid regime" in 2024.[152]
Countries that do not host Canadian diplomatic missions
Romania
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the EU, albeit with limitedrelations involving the Russian Federation. It joined NATO on 29 March 2004, the EU on 1 January 2007, while it joined the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a founding member of theWorld Trade Organization.[153] Romania is recognised as amiddle power for its military capabilities, as well as its active diplomatic engagement on the global stage.[154][155]
In the past, recent governments have stated that one of their goals is to strengthen ties with and helping other countries (in particularMoldova,Ukraine, andGeorgia) and better integration with the rest of the West.[156] Romania has also made clear since the late 1990s that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and theCaucasus.
Romania applied to join to theSchengen Area in 2007, acquiring full membership in 2025 along with Bulgaria.[157][158] In December 2005, President Traian Băsescu andUnited States Secretary of StateCondoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country.[159] In 2009, US Secretary of StateHillary Clinton referred to Romania as "one of the most trustworthy and respectable" US allies".[160] However, by 2025, relations had worsen, with US vice presidentJD Vance in Februaryscolding "flimsy suspicions" and "enormous pressure from its continental neighbours" for causing the annulment of the2024 Romanian presidential election in whichCălin Georgescu won the first round.
Relations with Moldova are a special case given that the two countries share the same language and acommon history.[156] Amovement for unification of Moldova and Romania appeared in the early 1990s after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule[161] but lost ground in the mid-1990s when a new Moldovan government pursued an agenda towards preserving a Moldovan republic independent of Romania.[162] After the2009 protests in Moldova and the subsequent removal of Communists from power, relations between the two countries have improved considerably.[163]
Romanian soldiers at the Saber Guardian 23 exercise opening ceremony inSmârdan, Galați
The Romanian Armed Forces consist ofland,air, andnaval forces led by aCommander-in-chief under the supervision of theMinistry of National Defence, and by thepresident as the Supreme Commander during wartime. The Armed Forces consist of approximately 55,000 reservists and 71,500 active military personnel—35,800 for land, 10,700 for air, 6,600 for naval forces, and 16,500 in other fields.[164] Total defence spending in 2023 accounted for 2.44% of total national GDP, or approximately US$8.48 billion,[165] with a total of $9 billion intended to be spent until 2026 for modernisation and acquisition of new equipment.[166] Conscription stopped in 2007, when Romania switched to a volunteer army.
Romania contributed troops to the international coalition inAfghanistan beginning in 2002,[171] with a peak deployment of 1,600 troops in 2010 (which was the 4th largest contribution according to the US).[172][173] Its combat mission in the country concluded in 2014.[174] Romanian troops participated in theoccupation of Iraq, reaching a peak of 730 soldiers before being slowly drawn down to 350 soldiers. Romania terminated its mission in Iraq and withdrew its last troops on 24 July 2009, among the last countries to do so. The frigate theRegele Ferdinand participated in the2011 military intervention in Libya.[175]
In 2024, construction work started on expanding the Mihail Kogălniceanu Air Base (RoAF 57th Air Base). The air base is set to become the largest NATO base in Europe after the implementation of a project spanning 20 years.[178][179]
Romania is divided into 41counties (județe) and the municipality ofBucharest. Each county is administered by a county council, responsible for local affairs, as well as aprefect responsible for the administration of national affairs at the county level. The prefect is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.[180] Each county is subdivided further intocities andcommunes, which have their own mayor and local council. There are a total of 320 cities and 2,861 communes in Romania.[130]: 17 A total of 103 of the larger cities havemunicipality status, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs. The municipality of Bucharest is a special case, as it enjoys a status on par to that of a county. It is further divided into sixsectors[130]: 6 and has a prefect, a general mayor (primar general), and a general city council.
The NUTS-3 (Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics) level divisions of the EU reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure and correspond to the 41 counties plus Bucharest.[181] The cities and communes correspond to the NUTS-5 level divisions, but there are no current NUTS-4 level divisions. The NUTS-1 (fourmacroregions) and NUTS-2[182] (eightdevelopment regions) divisions exist but have no administrative capacity and are used instead for coordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes.[181]
In 2024, Romania has a GDP (PPP) of around $894 billion and aGDP per capita (PPP) of $47,203.[6] According to the World Bank, Romania is ahigh-income economy.[184] According toEurostat, Romania's GDP per capita (PPS) was 77% of the EU average (100%) in 2022, an increase from 44% in 2007 (the year of Romania's accession to the EU), making Romania one of the fastest growing economies in the EU.[185]
After 1989 the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relativemacroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to theRomanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe.[188] However, theGreat Recession forced the government to borrow externally, including anIMF €20 billion bailout programme.[189] According toThe World Bank, GDP per capita in purchasing power parity grew from $13,703 in 2007 to $47,903 in 2023.[190]
In 2005, the government replaced Romania'sprogressive tax system with aflat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, among the lowest rates in the EU.[191] The economy is based predominantly on services, which account for 56.2% of the country's total GDP as of 2017, with industry and agriculture accounting for 30% and 4.4% respectively.[192]Approximately 25.8% of the Romanian workforce is employed in agriculture, one of the highest rates in Europe.[193]
Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment following the end of Communism, with the stock offoreign direct investment (FDI) in Romania rising to €83.8 billion in June 2019.[194] Romania's FDI outward stock (an external or foreign business either investing in or purchasing the stock of a local economy) amounted to $745 million in December 2018, the lowest value among the 28 EU member states.[194]
Since 1867 the official currency has been theRomanianleu ("lion") and following a denomination in 2005.[195] After joining the EU in 2007, Romania plans to adopt theeuro in 2029.[196]
Romania'sroad networkGraph depicting Romania's electricity supply mix as of 2015
According to the Romania's National Institute of Statistics (INS), Romania's total road network was estimated in 2015 at 86,080 kilometres (53,488 mi).[197] The World Bank estimates the railway network at 22,298 kilometres (13,855 mi) of track, the fourth-largest railway network in Europe.[198] Romania'srail transport experienced a dramatic decline after 1989 and was estimated at 99 million passenger journeys in 2004, but has experienced a recent (2013) revival due to infrastructure improvements and partial privatisation of lines,[147] accounting for 45% of all passenger and freight movements in the country.[147]Bucharest Metro, the onlyunderground railway system, was opened in 1979 and measures 80.01 km (49.72 mi) with an average ridership in 2021 of 720,000 passengers during the workweek in the country.[199] There aresixteen international commercial airports in service today. Over 12.8 million passengers flew through Bucharest'sHenri Coandă International Airport in 2017.[200]
Romania is a net exporter of electrical energy and is 52nd worldwide in terms of consumption of electric energy.[201] Around a third of the produced energy comes from renewable sources, mostly as hydroelectric power.[202] It has one of the largest refining capacities in Eastern Europe, even though oil and natural gas production has been decreasing for more than a decade.[203] With one of the largest reserves ofcrude oil andshale gas in Europe[204] it is among the most energy-independent countries in the EU,[205] and is looking to expand its nuclear power plant atCernavodă further.[206]
There were almost 18.3 million connections to the Internet in June 2014.[207] According toBloomberg, in 2013 Romania ranked fifth in the world, and according toThe Independent, it ranks number one in Europe at Internet speeds,[208][209] withTimișoara ranked among the highest in the world.[210]
Tourism is a significant contributor to the Romanian economy, generating around 5% of GDP.[211] The number of tourists has been rising steadily, reaching 9.33 million foreign tourists in 2016, according to the Worldbank.[212] Tourism in Romania attracted €400 million in investments in 2005.[213] More than 60% of the foreign visitors in 2007 were from other EU countries.[214] The popular summer attractions ofMamaia and otherBlack Sea Resorts attracted 1.3 million tourists in 2009.[215][216]
In 2014, Romania had 32,500 companies active in the hotel and restaurant industry, with a total turnover of €2.6 billion.[223] More than 1.9 million foreign tourists visited Romania in 2014, 12% more than in 2013.[224] According to the country's National Statistics Institute, some 77% came from Europe (particularly from Germany, Italy, and France), 12% from Asia, and less than 7% from North America.[224]
Historically, Romanian researchers and inventors have made notable contributions to several fields. In the history of flight,Traian Vuia built the firstaeroplane to take off under its own power[225] andAurel Vlaicu built and flew some of the earliest successful aircraft,[226] whileHenri Coandă discovered theCoandă effect of fluidics.[227]Victor Babeș discovered more than 50 types of bacteria;[228] biologistNicolae Paulescu developed an extract of the pancreas and showed that it lowers blood sugar in diabetic dogs, thus being significant in the history of insulin;[229] whileEmil Palade received the Nobel Prize for his contributions tocell biology.[230]Lazăr Edeleanu was the first chemist to synthesiseamphetamine, and he also invented the procedure of separating valuable petroleum components with selective solvents.[231]
During the 1990s and 2000s, the development of research was hampered by several factors, including: corruption, low funding, and a considerablebrain drain.[232] In recent years, Romania has ranked the lowest or second-lowest in the EU byresearch and development spending as a percentage of GDP, standing at roughly 0.5% in 2016 and 2017, substantially below the EU average of just over 2%.[233][234] The country joined theEuropean Space Agency (ESA) in 2011,[235] andCERN in 2016.[236] In 2018, however, Romania lost its voting rights in the ESA due to a failure to pay €56.8 million in membership contributions to the agency.[237]
In the early 2010s, the situation for science in Romania was characterised as "rapidly improving" albeit from a low base.[238] In January 2011, Parliament passed a law that enforces "strict quality control on universities and introduces tough rules for funding evaluation and peer review".[239] Romania was ranked 48th in theGlobal Innovation Index in 2024.[240]
According to the2021 Romanian census, Romania's population was 19,053,815.[5] Like other countries in the region, its population is expected to decline gradually as a result ofsub-replacement fertility rates and negativenet migration rate. According to the 2021 Romanian census,Romanians made up 89.33% of the population,Hungarians 6.05% and theRoma 3.44% of the population,[5] but many ethnicities are not recorded, as they do not have ID cards.[244] International sources give higher figures for Roma than the official census.[245][246][247] According to theCouncil of Europe, theRoma makes up 8.32% of the population.[248][failed verification] Hungarians constitute a majority in the counties ofHarghita andCovasna. Other minorities includeUkrainians,Germans,Turks,Lipovans,Aromanians,Tatars, andSerbs.[249] In 1930, there were 745,421 Germans living in Romania,[250] but only about 36,000 remained in the country to this day.[249] As of 2009[update], there were also approximately 133,000 immigrants living in Romania, primarily from Moldova and China.[116]
Thetotal fertility rate (TFR) in 2018 was estimated at 1.36 children born per woman, which is below the replacement rate of 2.1, and one of the lowest in the world,[251] it remains considerably below the high of 5.82 children born per woman in 1912.[252] In 2014, 31.2% of births were to unmarried women.[253]Thebirth rate (9.49‰, 2012) is much lower than themortality rate (11.84‰, 2012), resulting in a shrinking (−0.26% per year, 2012) and aging population (median age: 41.6 years, 2018), one of the oldest populations in the world,[251] with approximately 16.8% of total population aged 65 years and over.[251][254][255] The life expectancy in 2015 was estimated at 74.92 years (71.46 years male, 78.59 years female).[256]The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at 12 million.[257] After theRomanian Revolution of 1989, a significant number of Romanians emigrated to other European countries, North America or Australia.[258] For example, in 1990, 96,919 Romanians permanently settled abroad.[259]
Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91.55% of the entire population, whileHungarian andVlax Romani are spoken by 6.28% and 1.20% of the population, respectively. There are also 40,861 native speakers ofUkrainian (concentrated in some compact regions near the border, where they form local majorities),[261] 17,101 native speakers ofTurkish, 15,943 native speakers ofGerman, and 14,414 native speakers ofRussian living in Romania.[262][263]
According to the Constitution, local councils ensure linguistic rights to all minorities. In localities with ethnic minorities of over 20%, that minority's language can be used in the public administration, justice system, and education. Foreign citizens and stateless persons who live in Romania have access to justice and education in their own language.[264] English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools.[265] In 2010, theOrganisation internationale de la Francophonie identified 4,756,100 French speakers in the country.[266] According to the 2012Eurobarometer, English is spoken by 31% of Romanians, French is spoken by 17%, and Italian and German, each by 7%.[267]
Romania is asecular state and has nostate religion. An overwhelming majority of the population identify themselves as Christians. At the country's 2021 census,[2] 73.60% of respondents identified asOrthodox Christians, with 73.42% belonging to theRomanian Orthodox Church. Other denominations includeProtestantism (6.22%),Roman Catholicism (3.89%), andGreek Catholicism (0.61%). From the remaining population 128,291 people belong to other Christian denominations or have another religion, which includes 58,347Muslims (mostly of Turkish and Tatar ethnicity) and 2,708Jewish (Jews once constituted 4% of the Romanian population—728,115 persons in the 1930 census). Additionally, 71,430 people areirreligious, 57,229 areatheist, 25,485 areagnostic, and 2,658,165 people chose to not declare their religion.[2]
Another 17 cities have a population of over 100,000, with Cluj-Napoca, Iași, Constanța and Timișoara of more than 250,000 inhabitants, and Craiova, Brașov and Galați with over 200,000 inhabitants.[277]Metropolitan areas have been constituted for most of these cities.
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian educational system has been in a continuous process of reform that has received mixed criticism.[283] In 2004, some 4.4 million individuals were enrolled in school. Of these, 650,000 were inkindergarten (three-six years), 3.11 million in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 in tertiary level (universities).[284] In 2018, the adult literacy rate was 98.8%.[285] Kindergarten is optional between three and five years. Since 2020, compulsory schooling starts at age 5 with the last year of kindergarten (grupa mare) and is compulsory until twelfth grade.[286][287] Primary and secondary education is divided into 12 or 13 grades. There is also a semi-legal, informalprivate tutoring system used mostly during secondary school, which prospered during the Communist regime.[288]
Romania ranks fifth in the all-time medal count at theInternational Mathematical Olympiad with 316 total medals, dating back to 1959.Ciprian Manolescu managed to write a perfect paper (42 points) for a gold medal more times than anybody else in the history of the competition, in 1995, 1996 and 1997.[290] Romania has achieved the highest team score in the competition, after China, Russia, the United States and Hungary. Romania also ranks sixth in the all-time medal count at theInternational Olympiad in Informatics with 107 total medals, dating back to 1989.[291][292][293]
The Colțea Hospital in Bucharest completed a $90 million renovation in 2011[294]
Healthcare in Romania is mainly provided by the public sector, which runs most hospitals and offers national health insurance to nearly all citizens. In 2021, healthcare costs were US$16. 7 billion, or US$2,385 per person, making up 5.69€ of GDP. Government spending is higher than in markets like Bulgaria but lower than Hungary. Spending is expected to rise by 7. US$5 billion (+37. 68%) from 2024 to 2028, reaching 27. US$3 billion by 2028.[295]
The Romanian National Institute of Statistics reports over 65,000 health units in Romania, with 53,000 in urban areas and 12,000 in rural areas. There are 543 hospitals, including 488 in urban and 55 in rural areas, along with 160 other hospital-like establishments. Nearly 50% of these are large facilities with over 100 beds, while 39% are small with fewer than 50 beds. The total number of inpatient beds is 135,085, allocated mainly to psychiatry, surgery, and internal medicine among other specialties.[296]
The Christmas market inSibiu is one of the most famous in Europe.
There are 12 non-working public holidays, including theGreat Union Day, celebrated on 1 December in commemoration of the 1918 union of Transylvania with Romania.[320] Winter holidays include theChristmas and New Year festivities during which various unique folklore dances and games are common:plugușorul,sorcova,ursul, andcapra.[321][322] The traditionalRomanian dress that otherwise has largely fallen out of use during the 20th century, is a popular ceremonial vestment worn on these festivities, especially in rural areas.[323] There are sacrifices of live pigs during Christmas and lambs during Easter that has required a special exemption from EU law after 2007.[324] In the Easter, traditions such aspainting the eggs are very common. On 1 Marchmărțișor gifting is featured, which is a tradition whereby females are gifted with a type of talisman that is given for good luck.[325]
Pork, chicken, and beef are the preferred types of meat, but lamb and fish are also quite popular.[328][329] Certain traditional recipes are made in direct connection with the holidays:chiftele,tobă andtochitură atChristmas;drob,pască andcozonac at Easter and other Romanian holidays.[330]Țuică is a strong plumbrandy reaching a 70% alcohol content which is the country's traditional alcoholic beverage, taking as much as 75% of the national crop (Romania is one of thelargest plum producers in the world).[331][332] Traditional alcoholic beverages also includewine,rachiu,palincă andvișinată, butbeer consumption has increased dramatically over recent years.[333]
Arena Națională, opened in 2011, the national stadium of Romania, as seen on a Romanian stamp (2011)
Football is the most popular sport in Romania with over 219,000 registered players as of 2018[update]. The market for professional football in Romania is roughly €740 million according toUEFA.[334]
The governing body is theRomanian Football Federation, which belongs to UEFA. TheRomania national football team played its first match in 1922 and is one of only four national teams to have taken part in the first threeFIFA World Cups, the other three being Brazil, France, and Belgium. Overall, it has played in seven World Cups and had its most successful period during the 1990s, when it finished 6th at the1994 FIFA World Cup, eventually being ranked 3rd byFIFA in 1997.[335]
Romania's 306all-time Summer Olympics medals would rank 12th most among all countries, while its 89 gold medals would be 14th most. The1984 Summer Olympics was their most successful run, where they won 53 medals in total, 20 of them gold, ultimately placing 2nd to the hosts United States in themedal rankings. Amongst countries who have never hosted the event themselves, they are second in the total number of medals earned.[353]Gymnastics is the country's major medal-producing sport,[354]
^Saint Isaac's Cathedral inSaint Petersburg although larger in gross area (7,000 m2 the building including colonnades and 7,600 m2 with stairway), has a smaller area excluding colonnades (5,000 m2). Since 1931 it has been converted into aRussian state museum.[268]
^Cl. Isopescu (1929). "Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento".Bulletin de la Section Historique.XVI:1–90.... si dimandano in lingua loro Romei ... se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano, ...
^Holban, Maria (1983).Călători străini despre Țările Române (in Romanian). Vol. II. Ed. Științifică și Enciclopedică. pp. 158–161.Anzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli ...
^Cernovodeanu, Paul (1960). "Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier l'an 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48".Studii și Materiale de Istorie Medievală (in Romanian).IV: 444.Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transilvanie a eté peuplé des colonies romaines du temps de Traian l'empereur ... Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à-dire romain ...
^Vasile Pârvan,Getica, Chapter I, “Cimmero-Scythian Migrations. 10th–6th century BCE”, p. 25. – Editura Meridiane, Bucharest, 1982.
^“Thus, archaeology has demonstrated that the Geto-Dacian people was fully formed at least four or even five centuries before its name appeared in the literary sources of the ancient world. As for the unyielding ancestors and forefathers of the Geto-Dacians—the northern branch of the Thracian tribes—the same auxiliary science of history confirms their presence and their flourishing material and spiritual culture with the advent of the Bronze Age, a phenomenon that occurred around 2000–1800 BC.” – Excerpt fromDecebal by Liviu Mărghitan, Editura Militară, Bucharest, 1987, p. 41.
^“The race of the Thracians is the most numerous in the world, after that of the Indians. If they had a single ruler or if the Thracians were united, they would be invincible and far stronger than all other nations according to my estimation... The Thracians have several names according to their regions, but their customs are almost the same for all, except for the Getae, the Trausi, and those who live north of the Crestonai.” –Herodotus,Histories, V, 3.
^Iliescu, Vl.; Paschale, Chronicon (1970).Fontes Historiae Daco-Romanae. Vol. II. Bucharest. pp. 363, 587.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^Teodor, Dan Gh. (1995).Istoria României de la începuturi până în secolul al VIII-lea. Vol. 2. Bucharest. pp. 294–325.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^Anton Dörner, “Administrarea Transilvaniei în perioada anilor 1867–1876”, Institutul de Istorie „George Barițiu” din Cluj-Napoca – Accessed 02.05.2009.
^“On 27 June/10 July 1913, Romania summoned its ambassador from Sofia and, via an ultimative diplomatic note, announced to Bulgaria that, if it did not cease its aggressive actions against Greece and Serbia, the Romanian Army would take action.” – Lieutenant-Colonel drd. Rizescu Alexandru –Aspects of Romania’s Security Policy in Southeastern Europe at the Beginning of the 20th Century – Accessed 15 March 2009
^Anderson, Frank Maloy; Hershey, Amos Shartle (1918).Handbook for the Diplomatic History of Europe, Asia, and Africa 1870-1914. Washington D.C.: Government Printing Office.
^Carothers, Thomas."Romania: The Political Background"(PDF). Retrieved31 August 2008.This seven-year period can be characterized as a gradualistic, often ambiguous transition away from communist rule towards democracy.
^Hellman, Joel (1998). "Winners Take All: The Politics of Partial Reform in Postcommunist".Transitions World Politics.50 (2):203–234.doi:10.1017/S0043887100008091.
^"Romania's Biodiversity". Ministry of Waters, Forests and Environmental Protection of Romania (via enrin.grida.no). Archived fromthe original on 10 February 2008.
^"Protected Areas in Romania". Romanian Ministry of Waters, Forests and Environmental Protection (via envir.ee). Archived fromthe original on 17 November 2007. Retrieved10 January 2008.
^"Danube Delta". UNESCO's World Heritage Centre. Archived fromthe original on 27 January 2008. Retrieved9 January 2008.
^"Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere". Romanian Ministry of Waters, Forests and Environmental Protection (via envir.ee). Archived fromthe original on 26 April 2005. Retrieved10 January 2008.
^"Danube Delta". UNESCO's World Heritage Centre. Archived fromthe original on 27 January 2008. Retrieved10 January 2008.
^"GDP in 2006"(PDF) (in Romanian). Romanian National Institute of Statistics. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 16 February 2008. Retrieved10 January 2008.
^Report from Romanian National Institute of Statistics(PDF) (Report). Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 16 February 2008. Retrieved11 January 2008.for the first 9 months of 2007 an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million tourists; of these 94.0% came from European countries and 61.7% from EU
^"QS World University Rankings 2013". topuniversities.com. October 2013.Archived from the original on 21 October 2016. All four universities are ranked at 700+ which means they are ranked among the 701–800 places.
^"Cultural aspects". National Institute for Research & Development in Informatics, Romania. Archived fromthe original on 7 March 2008. Retrieved28 August 2008.
^"Mihai Eminescu" (in Romanian). National Institute for Research & Development in Informatics, Romania. Archived fromthe original on 31 December 2007. Retrieved20 January 2008.
^Tom Sandqvist,DADA EAST: The Romanians of Cabaret Voltaire, LondonMIT Press, 2006.
^Ștefănescu, Alex. (1999).Nichita Stănescu, The Angel with a Book in His Hands (in Romanian). Mașina de scris. p. 8.ISBN978-973-99297-4-5.
^"Sibiu 2019".europeanregionofgastronomy.org. International Institute of Gastronomy, Culture, Arts and Tourism.Archived from the original on 10 June 2021. Retrieved10 June 2021.
Bóna, István (1994). "From Dacia to Transylvania: The Period of the Great Migrations (271–895); The Hungarian–Slav Period (895–1172)". In Köpeczi, Béla; Barta, Gábor; Bóna, István; Makkai, László; Szász, Zoltán; Borus, Judit (eds.).History of Transylvania. Akadémiai Kiadó. pp. 62–177.ISBN963-05-6703-2.
Hitchins, Keith.Rumania 1866-1947 (1994) (Oxford History of Modern Europe)excerpt
Köpeczi, Béla (1994). "Transylvania under the Habsburg Empire". In Köpeczi, Béla; Barta, Gábor; Bóna, István; Makkai, László; Szász, Zoltán; Borus, Judit (eds.).History of Transylvania. Akadémiai Kiadó. pp. 663–692.ISBN963-05-6703-2.
Kristó, Gyula (2003).Early Transylvania (895-1324). Lucidus Kiadó.ISBN978-963-9465-12-1.
Madgearu, Alexandru (2005a).The Romanians in the Anonymous Gesta Hungarorum: Truth and Fiction. Romanian Cultural Institute, Center for Transylvanian Studies.ISBN978-973-7784-01-8.
Opreanu, Coriolan Horațiu (2005). "The North-Danube Regions from the Roman Province of Dacia to the Emergence of the Romanian Language (2nd–8th Centuries AD)". In Pop, Ioan-Aurel; Bolovan, Ioan (eds.).History of Romania: Compendium. Romanian Cultural Institute (Center for Transylvanian Studies). pp. 59–132.ISBN978-973-7784-12-4.
Pohl, Walter (2013). "National origin narratives in the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy". In Geary, Patrick J.; Klaniczay, Gábor (eds.).Manufacturing Middle Ages: Entangled History of Medievalism in Nineteenth-Century Europe.BRILL. pp. 13–50.ISBN978-90-04-24487-0.
Pop, Ioan-Aurel (1999).Romanians and Romania: A Brief History. Boulder.ISBN978-0-88033-440-2.
Price, T. Douglas (2013).Europe Before Rome: A Site-by-Site Tour of the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-991470-8.
Rustoiu, Aurel (2005). "Dacia before the Romans". In Pop, Ioan-Aurel; Bolovan, Ioan (eds.).History of Romania: Compendium. Romanian Cultural Institute (Center for Transylvanian Studies). pp. 31–58.ISBN978-973-7784-12-4.
Sălăgean, Tudor (2005). "Romanian Society in the Early Middle Ages (9th–14th Centuries AD)". In Pop, Ioan-Aurel; Bolovan, Ioan (eds.).History of Romania: Compendium. Romanian Cultural Institute (Center for Transylvanian Studies). pp. 133–207.ISBN978-973-7784-12-4.
Schramm, Gottfried (1997).Ein Damm bricht. Die römische Donaugrenze und die Invasionen des 5-7. Jahrhunderts in Lichte der Namen und Wörter[=A Dam Breaks: The Roman Danube frontier and the Invasions of the 5th-7th Centuries in the Light of Names and Words] (in German). R. Oldenbourg Verlag.ISBN978-3-486-56262-0.
Spinei, Victor (2009).The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta from the Tenth to the Mid-Thirteenth century. Koninklijke Brill NV.ISBN978-90-04-17536-5.
Stavrianos, L.S. The Balkans Since 1453 (1958), major scholarly history;online free to borrow
Trócsányi, Zsolt; Miskolczy, Ambrus (1994). "Transylvania under the Habsburg Empire". In Köpeczi, Béla; Barta, Gábor; Bóna, István; Makkai, László; Szász, Zoltán; Borus, Judit (eds.).History of Transylvania. Akadémiai Kiadó. pp. 413–523.ISBN963-05-6703-2.
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