Acleft sentence is acomplex sentence (one having a main clause and adependent clause) that has a meaning that could be expressed by asimple sentence. Clefts typically put a particularconstituent intofocus. Inspoken language, this focusing is often accompanied by a specialintonation.
InEnglish, a cleft sentence can be constructed as follows:
whereit is a cleft pronoun andX is thecleft constituent, usually anoun phrase (although it can also be aprepositional phrase, and in some cases an adjectival or adverbial phrase). The focus is onX, or else on the subordinate clause or some element of it. For example:
Furthermore, one might also describe a cleft sentence as inverted. That is to say, it has its dependent clause in front of the main clause. So, rather than (for example):
the cleft would be:
English is very rich in cleft constructions. Below are examples of some types of clefts found in English, though the list is not exhaustive. See Lambrecht 2001 for a comprehensive survey, Collins 1991 for an in-depth analysis of it-clefts and wh-clefts in English, and Calude 2009 for an investigation of clefts in spoken English.
In English, it-clefts consist of the pronounit, followed by a form of the verbto be, a cleft constituent, and acomplementizer, which introduces a relative clause that is attributed to the cleft phrase.[1] It-clefts introduce two meanings parts: (1) apresupposition that the property in the clause following the complementiser holds of some entity; and (ii) an assertion that this property holds of the entity denoted by the cleft constituent.[1]
In English, pseudo-clefts consist of an interrogative clause in the subject position, followed by a form of the verbbe, followed by the focused element that appears at the end of the sentence.[3] The prototypical pseudo-cleft construction useswhat, while otherwh-words likewho,where etc. and theirpro-form equivalents likething,one,place etc. are used less frequently.[4] Pseudo-clefts are tools for presenting and highlighting new information, serving as the building blocks of a coherent discourse progression, and a rhetorical toolkit to construct an authorial stance, being a grammatical resource for making evaluative meaning.[vague][5]
In English, an inverted pseudo-cleft consists of the identical structure to pseudoclefting, however, the two strings around the verbbe are inverted.[3] The focus element has been brought to the front of the sentence, and the clause is sentence final.[6]
In English, all-cleft sentences are related to pseudo-clefts in which they are constructed with the subject of the sentence embedded in the phrase and expressed with the verb "to be".[8] Where pseudo-clefts begin with a wh-phrase (what,where,who), all-clefts begin with the use of the word "all".[8]
In English, inferential clefts involve a subordinate clause that is embedded as a complement of the verb "to be", and the sentence begins with the subject "it".[10] Oftentimes, an inferential cleft will include an adverb such asonly, simply orjust.[10] While they are analyzed in written text, data on inferential clefts are often found in spoken language and act as a subordinate clause of the subject they are inferring.[11]
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Looking at existential sentences, in all languages, they are understood to belong to a grammatically distinct construction, which is utilized to express existential positions. Cleft-sentences in English contain existential sentences that have adummy there as a subject,be as a main verb, and an NP in the post-verbal complement position. To elaborate,dummy there can be distinguished as an adverbial, pronoun, and subject. Likewise,be can be distinguished as a main verb, and may contain other intransitive verbs such ascome,remain,exist,arise, andstand. Lastly,post-verbal NP depends on the discourse of the entity or entities that refer to the novel information it is expressing.[12]
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Traditional accounts of cleft structures classify these according to the elements involved following English-centric analyses (such aswh-words, thepronounit, thequantifierall, and so on). This makes it difficult to conduct cross-linguistic investigations of clefts since these elements do not exist in all other languages, which has led to a proposal for a revision of existing cleft taxonomy (see Calude 2009).
However, not all languages are so rich in cleft types as English, and some employ other means for focusing specific constituents, such astopicalization,word order changes,focusing particles and so on (see Miller 1996).Cleftability in Language (2009) by Cheng Luo presents a cross-linguistic discussion of cleftability.
The role of the cleft pronoun (it in the case of English) is controversial, and some believe it to be referential,[14] while others treat it as adummy pronoun or empty element.[15] The former analysis has come to be termed the "expletive" view, whereas the latter is referred to as the "extraposition" approach. Hedberg (2002) proposes a hybrid approach, combining ideas from both takes on the status of the cleft pronoun. She shows that it can have a range of scopes (from semantically void to full reference) depending on the context in which it is used.
Similarly controversial is the status of the subordinate clause, often termed the "cleft clause". While most would agree that the cleft clause in wh-clefts can be analysed as some kind ofrelative clause (free or fused or headless), there is disagreement as to the exact nature of the relative. Traditionally, the wh-word in a cleft such asWhat you need is a good holiday, pertaining to the relativeWhat you need, is understood to be the firstconstituent of the relative clause, and to function as itshead.
Bresnan and Grimshaw (1978) posit a different analysis. They suggest that the relative clause is headed (rather than headless), with wh-word being located outside the clause proper and functioning as its head. Miller (1996) also endorses this approach, citing cross-linguistic evidence that the wh-word functions as indefinitedeictics.
The cleft clause debate gets more complex with it-clefts, where researchers struggle to even agree as to the type of clause that is involved: the traditionalists claim it to be a relative clause (Huddleston and Pullum 2002), while others reject this on the basis of a lack of noun phrase antecedent (Quirk et al. 1985, Sornicola 1988, Miller 1999), as exemplified below:
Finally, the last element of a cleft is the cleft constituent, which typically corresponds to the focus. As mentioned earlier, the focused part of a cleft is typically a noun phrase, but may in fact, turn up to be just about anything:[16]
Clefts have been described as "equative" (Halliday 1976), "stative" (Delin and Oberlander 1995) and as "variable-value pairs", where the cleft constituent gives a variable expressed by the cleft clause (Herriman 2004, Declerck 1994, Halliday 1994). A major area of interest with regard to cleft constructions involves their information structure. The concept of "information structure" relates to the type of information encoded in a particular utterance, that can be one of these three:
The reason why information structure plays such an important role in the area of clefts is largely due to the fact that the organisation of information structure is tightly linked to the clefts' function as focusing tools used by speakers/writers to draw attention to salient parts of their message.
While it may be reasonable to assume that the variable of a cleft (that is, the material encoded by cleft clauses) may be typically GIVEN and its value (expressed by the cleft constituent) is NEW, it is not always so. Sometimes, neither element contains new information, as is in some demonstrative clefts, e.g.,That is what I think and sometimes it is the cleft clause that contains the NEW part of the message, as inAnd that's when I got sick (Calude 2009). Finally, in some constructions, it is the equation between cleft clause and cleft constituent that brings about the newsworthy information, rather than any of the elements of the cleft themselves (Lambrecht 2001).
Theshì...de construction in Mandarin is used to produce the equivalent of cleft sentences. However, in traditional grammar,shì...de clefts were seen as a construction with a function in reference to the construction as a whole. Bothshì, the copula, andde can occur in other contexts that express information-structural categories, but they are sometimes hard to distinguish fromshì...de clefts.[17] In addition, certain constructions with relative clauses have been referred to as "pseudo-cleft" constructions. SeeChinese grammar § Cleft sentences for details.
Examples:[17]
Several constructions play the role of cleft sentences in Spanish. A very common resource is the adding of "es que" (time-dependent). Similar to English cleft sentences, time-dependent cleft constructions in Spanish also share a temporal relationship between the verb of the relative clause and the copula.[18]
Another mechanism is the use of the identificating structure, or relative pronouns, "el/la que", "el/la cual" as well as the neuters: "lo que" and "lo cual". This form of cleft construction highlights an importance between the entity and the number and gender of said entity that is uttered in a cleft sentence.[18]
Possible uncleft variants:No quiero ir,Ir no quiero
In French, when a cleft is used to reply to a wh-question, it can appear in a complete formMatrix 'C'est XP' + relative clause 'que/qui YP' or in a reduced formMatrix 'C'est XP'.
Example:
Example with Gloss:[19]
Cleft sentences are the most natural way to answer a wh-question in French.[19] For example, if one were to ask:
a.
Qui
Who
Qui est ce qui a mangé un biscuit?
Who is-PRS-3SG it-SG that 3.SG ate-3SG.PST a.M biscuit-NOM.SG?
It would be answered with the following it-cleft:
TheX no wa (ga) construction in Japanese is frequently used to produce the equivalent of cleft sentences. In addition, a gap precedes its filler in bothsubject cleft (SC) constructions andobject cleft (OC) constructions. Japanese speakers have reported that there is an object gap preference in Japanese cleft constructions due to temporal structural ambiguities in subject clefts.[20]
Example:[21]
Watashitachi
We
ga
Watashitachi ga sagashite iru no wa Joey da.
Example of a subject cleft construction:[20]
Kyonen
Last year
<gap>
sobo-o
grandma-ACC
Kyonen <gap> sobo-o inaka-de kaihoushita-nowa shinseki-da-to haha-ga it-ta.
{Last year} {} grandma-ACC village-LOC nursed-NOWA relative-COP-COMP mother-NOM say-PAST
"Mother said it is the relative who nursed my grandmother last year at the village."
Example of an object cleft construction:[20]
Kyonen
Last year
sobo-ga
Grandma-NOM
Kyonen sobo-ga <gap> inaka-de kaihoushita-nowa shinseki-da-to haha-ga it-ta.
{Last year} Grandma-NOM {} village-LOC nursed-NOWA relative-COP-COMP mother-NOM say-PAST
"Mother said it is the relative whom my grandmother nursed last year at the village."
The construction is frequent in theGoidelic languages (Scottish Gaelic,Irish, andManx), much more so than in English, and can be used in ways that would be ambiguous or ungrammatical in English: almost any element of a sentence can be clefted. That sometimes carries over into the local varieties of English (Highland English,Lowland Scots,Scottish English,Hiberno-English).
The following examples from Scottish Gaelic are based on the sentence"Chuala Iain an ceòl a-raoir", "Iain heard the music last night":
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Cleft sentences in Tagalog arecopula constructions in which thefocused element serves as thepredicate of the sentence.
In the examples in (1) and (2), the foci are inbold. The remaining portions of the cleft sentences in (1) and (2) are noun phrases that contain headlessrelative clauses. (NB: Tagalog does not have an overt copula.)
This construction is also used forWH-questions in Tagalog, when theWH-word used in the question is eithersino "who" orano "what", as illustrated in (3) and (4).
Sino
who.NOM
who.NOM NOM ACT.bought ACC house
"Who bought the house?"
(or: "Who was the (one who) bought the house?")
Ano ang ibinigay ni Pedro kay Juan?
what NOM gave.PASS GEN Pedro DAT Juan
"What did Pedro give to Juan?"
(or: "What was the (thing that) was given to Juan by Pedro?")
Text was copied from this source, which is available under aCreative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.Frequencies for the different relative clause types in the corpus are presented in Table 3.1, which shows that the prototypical pseudo-cleft with relative clause introduced bywhat is statistically dominant, and that the fused-type is almost three times as common as the lexically-headed type.