In theEarly Buddhist schools, as well as modernTheravāda Buddhism, bodhisattva (or bodhisatta) refers to someone who has made a resolution to become aBuddha and has also received a confirmation or prediction from a living Buddha that this will come to pass.[2]
InMahāyāna Buddhism, a bodhisattva refers to anyone who has generatedbodhicitta, a spontaneous wish and compassionate mind to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of allsentient beings.[3] Mahayana bodhisattvas are spiritually heroic persons that work to attain awakening and are driven by a great compassion (mahākaruṇā). These beings are exemplified by important spiritual qualities such as the "four divine abodes" (brahmavihāras) of loving-kindness (maitrī), compassion (karuṇā), empathetic joy (muditā) and equanimity (upekṣā), as well as the various bodhisattva "perfections" (pāramitās) which includeprajñāpāramitā ("transcendent knowledge" or "perfection of wisdom") and skillful means (upāya).[4][5][6]
InTheravāda Buddhism, the bodhisattva is mainly seen as an exceptional and rare individual. Only a few select individuals are ultimately able to become bodhisattvas, such asMaitreya.Mahāyāna Buddhism generally understands the bodhisattva path as being open to everyone, and Mahāyāna Buddhists encourage all individuals to become bodhisattvas.[7][8] Spiritually advanced bodhisattvas such asAvalokiteshvara,Maitreya, andManjushri are also widely venerated across the Mahāyāna Buddhist world and are believed to possess great magical power, which they employ to help all living beings.[9]
Inpre-sectarian Buddhism, the termbodhisatta is used in theearly texts to refer toGautama Buddha in his previous lives[11] and as a young man in his last life, when he was working towardsliberation. In theearly Buddhist discourses, the Buddha regularly uses the phrase "when I was an unawakened Bodhisatta" to describe his experiences before his attainment of awakening.[12] The early texts which discuss the period before the Buddha's awakening mainly focus on his spiritual development. According toBhikkhu Analayo, most of these passages focus on three main themes: "the bodhisattva's overcoming of unwholesome states of mind, his development of mental tranquillity, and the growth of his insight."[13]
Other early sources like theAcchariyabbhutadhamma-sutta (MN 123, and its Chinese parallel inMadhyama-āgama 32) discuss the marvelous qualities of the bodhisattva Gautama in his previous life inTuṣita heaven. The Pali text focuses on how the bodhisattva was endowed withmindfulness andclear comprehension while living in Tuṣita, while the Chinese source states that his lifespan, appearance, and glory was greater than all thedevas (gods). These sources also discuss various miracles which accompanied the bodhisattva's conception and birth, most famously, his taking seven steps and proclaiming that this was his last life.[14] The Chinese source (titledDiscourse on Marvellous Qualities) also states that while living as a monk under the Buddha Kāśyapa he "made his initial vow to [realize] Buddhahood [while] practicing the holy life."[15]
Another early source that discusses the qualities of bodhisattvas is theMahāpadāna sutta. This text discusses bodhisattva qualities in the context of six previous Buddhas who lived long ago, such as BuddhaVipaśyī.[16] Yet another important element of the bodhisattva doctrine, the a prediction of someone's future Buddhahood, is found in another Chinese early Buddhist text, theDiscourse on an Explanation about the Past (MĀ 66). In this discourse, a monk namedMaitreya aspires to become a Buddha in the future and the Buddha then predicts that Maitreya will become a Buddha in the future.[17] Other discourses found in the Ekottarika-āgama present the "bodhisattva Maitreya" as an example figure (EĀ 20.6 and EĀ 42.6) and one sutra in this collection also discuss how the Buddha taught the bodhisattva path of the six perfections to Maitreya (EĀ 27.5).[18]
'Bodhisatta' may also connote a being who is "bound for enlightenment", in other words, a person whose aim is to become fully enlightened. In thePāli canon, the Bodhisatta (bodhisattva) is also described as someone who is still subject to birth, illness, death, sorrow, defilement, and delusion. According to theTheravāda monkBhikkhu Bodhi, while all the Buddhist traditions agree that to attain Buddhahood, one must "make a deliberate resolution" and fulfill the spiritual perfections (pāramīs or pāramitās) as a bodhisattva, the actual bodhisattva path is not taught in the earliest strata of Buddhist texts such as the PaliNikayas (and their counterparts such as the ChineseĀgamas) which instead focus on the ideal of thearahant.[19][20]
The oldest known story about howGautama Buddha becomes a bodhisattva is the story of his encounter with the previous Buddha,Dīpankara. During this encounter, a previous incarnation of Gautama, variously namedSumedha, Megha, or Sumati offers five blue lotuses and spreads out his hair or entire body for Dīpankara to walk on, resolving to one day become a Buddha. Dīpankara then confirms that they will attainBuddhahood.[2] Early Buddhist authors saw this story as indicating that the making of a resolution (abhinīhāra) in the presence of a living Buddha and his prediction/confirmation (vyākaraṇa) of one's future Buddhahood was necessary to become a bodhisattva. According to Drewes, "all known models of the path to Buddhahood developed from this basic understanding."[2]
Stories and teachings on the bodhisattva ideal are found in the variousJataka tale sources, which mainly focus on stories of the past lives of the Sakyamuni. Among the non-Mahayana Nikaya schools, the Jataka literature was likely the main genre that contained bodhisattva teachings.[21] These stories had certainly become an important part of popular Buddhism by the time of the carving of theBharhut Stupa railings (c. 125–100 BCE), which contain depictions of around thirty Jataka tales. Thus, it is possible that the bodhisattva ideal was popularized through the telling of Jatakas.[22] Jataka tales contain numerous stories which focus on the past life deeds of Sakyamuni when he was a bodhisattva. These deeds generally express bodhisattva qualities and practices (such as compassion, the six perfections, and supernatural power) in dramatic ways, and include numerous acts of self-sacrifice.[23]
Apart from Jataka stories related to Sakyamuni, the idea that Metteya (Maitreya), who currently resides inTuṣita, would become the future Buddha and that this had been predicted by the Buddha Sakyamuni was also an early doctrine related to the bodhisattva ideal. It first appears in theCakkavattisihanadasutta.[24] According to A.L. Basham, it is also possible that some of theAshokan edicts reveal knowledge of the bodhisattva ideal. Basham even argues thatAshoka may have considered himself a bodhisattva, as one edict states that he "set out for sambodhi."[25]
6th century painting of Maitreya,Kizil Caves, Cave 224
By the time that the Buddhist tradition had developed into various competing sects, the idea of the bodhisattva vehicle (Sanskrit:bodhisattvayana) as a distinct (and superior) path from that of thearhat andsolitary buddha was widespread among all the major non-Mahayana Buddhist traditions orNikaya schools, includingTheravāda,Sarvāstivāda andMahāsāṃghika.[26][27] The doctrine is found, for example, in 2nd century CE sources like theAvadānaśataka and theDivyāvadāna.[27] The bodhisattvayana was referred by other names such as "vehicle of the perfections" (pāramitāyāna), "bodhisatva dharma", "bodhisatva training", and "vehicle of perfect Buddhahood".[26]
According to various sources, some of the Nikaya schools (such as theDharmaguptaka and some of theMahasamghika sects) transmitted a collection of texts on bodhisattvas alongside theTripitaka, which they termed "Bodhisattva Piṭaka" or "Vaipulya (Extensive) Piṭaka".[28][29][30] None of these have survived.[29] Dar Hayal attributes the historical development of the bodhisattva ideal to "the growth ofbhakti (devotion, faith, love) and the idealisation and spiritualisation of the Buddha."[31]
The North IndianSarvāstivāda school held it took Gautama three "incalculable aeons" (asaṃkhyeyas) and ninety one aeons (kalpas) to become a Buddha after his resolution (praṇidhāna) in front of a past Buddha. During the first incalculable aeon he is said to have encountered and served 75,000 Buddhas, and 76,000 in the second, after which he received his first prediction (vyākaraṇa) of future Buddhahood fromDīpankara, meaning that he could no longer fall back from the path to Buddhahood.[2] For Sarvāstivāda, the first two incalculable aeons is a period of time in which a bodhisattva may still fall away and regress from the path. At the end of the second incalculable aeon, they encounter a buddha and receive their prediction, at which point they are certain to achieve Buddhahood.[32]
Thus, the presence of a living Buddha is also necessary forSarvāstivāda. TheMahāvibhāṣā explains that its discussion of the bodhisattva path is partly meant "to stop those who are in fact not bodhisattvas from giving rise to the self-conceit that they are."[2] However, for Sarvāstivāda, one is not technically a bodhisattva until the end of the third incalculable aeon, after which one begins to perform the actions which lead to the manifestation of themarks of a great person.[2]
TheMahāvastu of theMahāsāṃghika-Lokottaravādins presents various ideas regarding the school's conception of the bodhisattva ideal. According to this text, bodhisattva Gautama had already reached a level of dispassion at the time of BuddhaDīpaṃkara many aeons ago and he is also said to have attained the perfection of wisdom countless aeons ago.[33]
TheMahāvastu also presents four stages or courses (caryās) of the bodhisattva path without giving specific time frames (though it's said to take variousincalculable aeons).[2][34] This set of four phases of the path is also found in other sources, including theGandhari “Many-Buddhas Sūtra” (*Bahubudha gasutra) and the ChineseFó běnxíng jí jīng (佛本行 集經, Taisho vol. 3, no. 190, pp. 669a1–672a11).[35]
The fourcaryās (Gandhari:caria) are the following:[2][34][35]
Natural (Sanskrit:prakṛti-caryā, Gandhari:pragidi, Chinese: 自性行 zì xìng xíng), one first plants the roots of merit in front of a Buddha to attain Buddhahood.
Resolution (praṇidhāna-caryā, G: praṇisi, C: 願性行 yuàn xìng xíng), one makes their first resolution to attain Buddhahood in the presence of a Buddha.
Continuing (anuloma-caryā, C: 順性行 shùn xìng xíng) or "development" (vivartana, G:vivaṭaṇa), in which one continues to practice until one meets a Buddha who confirms one's future Buddhahood.
Irreversible (anivartana-caryā, C: 轉性行 zhuǎn xìng xíng) or “course of purity” (G: śukracaria), this is the stage at which one cannot fall back and is assured of future Buddhahood.
Sinhalese statue of Avalokiteśvara (also known as Natha, Lokeshvara Natha, Natha Deviyo) inDambulla cave templeGilded bronze statue ofTara, Sri Lanka, 8th century CEBronze statue of the bodhisattvaAvalokiteśvara.Sri Lanka, c. 750 CE
The bodhisattva ideal is also found insouthern Buddhist sources, like the Theravāda school'sBuddhavaṃsa (1st-2nd century BCE), which explains how Gautama, after making a resolution (abhinīhāra) and receiving his prediction (vyākaraṇa) of future Buddhahood from past Buddha Dīpaṃkara, he became certain (dhuva) to attain Buddhahood. Gautama then took four incalculable aeons and a hundred thousand, shorterkalpas (aeons) to reach Buddhahood.[2][32] Several sources in thePali Canon depict the idea that there are multiple Buddhas and that there will be many future Buddhas, all of which must train as bodhisattas.[36] Non-canonical TheravadaJataka literature also teaches about bodhisattvas and the bodhisattva path.[36] The worship of bodhisattvas likeMetteya,Saman and Natha (Avalokiteśvara) can also be found in Theravada Buddhism.[36]
By the time of the great scholarBuddhaghosa (5th-century CE), orthodox Theravāda held the standard Indian Buddhist view that there were three main spiritual paths within Buddhism: the way of the Buddhas (buddhayāna) i.e. the bodhisatta path; the way of the individual Buddhas (paccekabuddhayāna); and the way of the disciples (sāvakayāna).[37]
An altar depicting Burmese Buddhist weizzas. In this esoteric tradition, weizzas consider themselves to be bodhisattvas
TheSri Lankan commentatorDhammapāla (6th century CE) wrote a commentary on theCariyāpiṭaka, a text which focuses on the bodhisattva path and on the ten perfections of a bodhisatta.[36]Dhammapāla's commentary notes that to become a bodhisattva one must make a valid resolution in front of a living Buddha.[2] The Buddha then must provide a prediction (vyākaraṇa) which confirms that one is irreversible (anivattana) from the attainment of Buddhahood. TheNidānakathā, as well as theBuddhavaṃsa andCariyāpiṭaka commentaries makes this explicit by stating that one cannot use a substitute (such as aBodhi tree,Buddha statue orStupa) for the presence of a living Buddha, since only a Buddha has the knowledge for making a reliable prediction. This is the generally accepted view maintained in orthodoxTheravada today.[2]
According to Theravāda commentators like Dhammapāla as well as theSuttanipāta commentary, there are three types of bodhisattvas:[32]
Bodhisattvas "preponderant in wisdom" (paññādhika), like Gautama, reach Buddhahood in four incalculable aeons (asaṃkheyyas) and a hundred thousand kalpas.
Bodhisattvas "preponderant in faith" (saddhādhika) take twice as long aspaññādhika bodhisattvas
Bodhisattvas "preponderant in vigor" (vīriyādhika) take four times as long aspaññādhika bodhisattvas
According to modern Theravada authors, meeting a Buddha is needed to truly make someone a bodhisattva because any other resolution to attain Buddhahood may easily be forgotten or abandoned during the aeons ahead. The Burmese monkLedi Sayadaw (1846–1923) explains that though it is easy to make vows for future Buddhahood by oneself, it is very difficult to maintain the necessary conduct and views during periods when the Dharma has disappeared from the world. One will easily fall back during such periods and this is why one is not truly a full bodhisattva until one receives recognition from a living Buddha.[2]
Because of this, it was and remains a common practice in Theravada to attempt to establish the necessary conditions to meet the future BuddhaMaitreya and thus receive a prediction from him. Medieval Theravada literature and inscriptions report the aspirations of monks, kings and ministers to meet Maitreya for this purpose. Modern figures such asAnagarika Dharmapala (1864–1933), andU Nu (1907–1995) both sought to receive a prediction from a Buddha in the future and believed meritorious actions done for the good of Buddhism would help in their endeavor to become bodhisattvas in the future.[2]
Over time the term came to be applied to other figures besides Gautama Buddha in Theravada lands, possibly due to the influence ofMahayana. The TheravadaAbhayagiri tradition of Sri Lanka practiced Mahayana Buddhism and was very influential until the 12th century.[38] Kings ofSri Lanka were often described as bodhisattvas, starting at least as early asSirisanghabodhi (r. 247–249), who was renowned for his compassion, took vows for the welfare of the citizens, and was regarded as amahāsatta (Sanskrit:mahāsattva), an epithet used almost exclusively inMahayana Buddhism.[39] Many other Sri Lankan kings from the 3rd until the 15th century were also described as bodhisattas and their royal duties were sometimes clearly associated with the practice of theten pāramitās.[40] In some cases, they explicitly claimed to have received predictions of Buddhahood in past lives.[2]
Popular Buddhist figures have also been seen as bodhisattvas in Theravada Buddhist lands. Shanta Ratnayaka notes thatAnagarika Dharmapala, Asarapasarana Saranarikara Sangharaja, andHikkaduwe Sri Sumamgala "are often called bodhisattvas".[36]Buddhaghosa was also traditionally considered to be a reincarnation of Maitreya.[36] Paul Williams writes that some modern Theravada meditation masters inThailand are popularly regarded as bodhisattvas.[41] Various modern figures ofesoteric Theravada traditions (such as theweizzās of Burma) have also claimed to be bodhisattvas.[32]
Theravadabhikkhu and scholarWalpola Rahula writes that the bodhisattva ideal has traditionally been held to be higher than the state of aśrāvaka not only in Mahayana but also in Theravada. Rahula writes "the fact is that both the Theravada and the Mahayana unanimously accept the Bodhisattva ideal as the highest...Although the Theravada holds that anybody can be a Bodhisattva, it does not stipulate or insist that all must be Bodhisattva which is considered not practical."[42] He also quotes the 10th century king of Sri Lanka,Mahinda IV (956–972 CE), who had the words inscribed "none but the bodhisattvas will become kings of a prosperous Lanka," among other examples.[43]
Jeffrey Samuels echoes this perspective, noting that while in Mahayana Buddhism the bodhisattva path is held to be universal and for everyone, in Theravada it is "reserved for and appropriated by certain exceptional people."[44]
Mahāyāna Buddhism (often also calledBodhisattvayāna, "Bodhisattva Vehicle") is based principally upon the path of a bodhisattva.[45] This path was seen as higher and nobler than becoming anarhat or asolitary Buddha. Hayal notes that Sanskrit sources generally depict the bodhisattva path as reaching a higher goal (i.e.anuttara-samyak-sambodhi) than the goal of the path of the "disciples" (śrāvakas), which is thenirvana attained by arhats.[46] For example, theLotus Sutra states:
"To the sravakas, he preached the doctrine which is associated with the four Noble Truths and leads to Dependent Origination. It aims at transcending birth, old age, disease, death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, distress of mind and weariness; and it ends in nirvana. But, to the great being, the bodhisattva, he preached the doctrine, which is associated with the six perfections and which ends in the Knowledge of the Omniscient One after the attainment of the supreme and perfect bodhi."[46]
According to Peter Skilling, the Mahayana movement began when "at an uncertain point, let us say in the first century BCE, groups of monks, nuns, and lay-followers began to devote themselves exclusively to the Bodhisatva vehicle."[26] These Mahayanists universalized the bodhisattvayana as a path which was open to everyone and which was taught for all beings to follow. This was in contrast to the Nikaya schools, which held that the bodhisattva path was only for a rare set of individuals.[7][8][26] Indian Mahayanists preserved and promoted a set of texts called Vaipulya ("Extensive") sutras (later calledMahayana sutras).[47]
Mahayana sources like theLotus Sutra also claim that arhats that have reached nirvana have not truly finished their spiritual quest, for they still have not attained the superior goal of sambodhi (Buddhahood) and thus must continue to strive until they reach this goal.[48]
TheAṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, one of the earliest known Mahayana texts, contains a simple and brief definition for the termbodhisattva, which is also the earliest known Mahāyāna definition.[49][50] This definition is given as the following: "Because he hasbodhi as his aim, a bodhisattva-mahāsattva is so called."[51]
Mahayana sutras also depict the bodhisattva as a being which, because they want to reach Buddhahood for the sake of all beings, is more loving and compassionate than the sravaka (who only wishes to end their own suffering). Thus, another major difference between the bodhisattva and the arhat is that the bodhisattva practices the path for the good of others (par-ārtha), due to theirbodhicitta, while the sravakas do so for their own good (sv-ārtha) and thus, do not havebodhicitta (which is compassionately focused on others).[52]
Mahayana bodhisattvas were not just abstract models for Buddhist practice, but also developed as distinct figures which were venerated by Indian Buddhists. These included figures likeManjushri andAvalokiteshvara, which are personifications of the basic virtues of wisdom and compassion respectively and are the two most important bodhisattvas in Mahayana.[53] The development of bodhisattva devotion parallels the development of the Hindubhakti movement. Indeed, Dayal sees the development of Indian bodhisattva cults as a Buddhist reaction to the growth of bhakti centered religion in India which helped to popularize and reinvigorate Indian Buddhism.[54]
Some Mahayana sutras promoted another revolutionary doctrinal turn, claiming that the three vehicles of theŚrāvakayāna,Pratyekabuddhayāna and theBodhisattvayāna were really just one vehicle (ekayana). This is most famously promoted in theLotus Sūtra which claims that the very idea of three separate vehicles is just anupaya, a skillful device invented by the Buddha to get beings of various abilities on the path. But ultimately, it will be revealed to them that there is only one vehicle, theekayana, which ends in Buddhahood.[55]
Bengali Sculpture of Manjushri, the bodhisattva of wisdom, 11th centuryWood carving ofAvalokiteśvara.Liao China, 907–1125Twenty-five Bodhisattvas Descending from Heaven. Japanese painting,c.1300
Classical Indian mahayanists held that the only sutras which teach the bodhisattva vehicle are theMahayana sutras. Thus,Nagarjuna writes "the subjects based on the deeds of Bodhisattvas were not mentioned in [non-Mahāyāna] sūtras."[56] They also held that the bodhisattva path was superior to the śrāvaka vehicle and so the bodhisattva vehicle is the "great vehicle" (mahayana) due to its greater aspiration to save others, while the śrāvaka vehicle is the "small" or "inferior" vehicle (hinayana). Thus,Asanga argues in hisMahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra that the two vehicles differ in numerous ways, such as intention, teaching, employment (i.e., means), support, and the time that it takes to reach the goal.[56]
Over time, Mahayana Buddhists developed mature systematized doctrines about the bodhisattva. The authors of the variousMadhyamaka treatises often presented the view of theekayana, and thus held that all beings can become bodhisattvas. The texts and sutras associated with theYogacara school developed a different theory of three separategotras (families, lineages), that inherently predisposed a person to either the vehicle of thearhat,pratyekabuddha orsamyak-saṃbuddha (fully self-awakened one).[57] For the yogacarins then, only some beings (those who have the "bodhisattva lineage") can enter the bodhisattva path.[58] In East Asian Buddhism, the view of the one vehicle (ekayana) which holds that all Buddhist teachings are really part of a single path, is the standard view.[59]
The term bodhisattva was also used in a broader sense by later authors. According to the eighth-century Mahāyāna philosopherHaribhadra, the term "bodhisattva" can refer to those who follow any of the three vehicles, since all are working towardsbodhi. Therefore, the specific term for a Mahāyāna bodhisattva is amahāsattva (great being)bodhisattva.[60] According toAtiśa's 11th centuryBodhipathapradīpa, the central defining feature of a Mahāyāna bodhisattva is the universal aspiration to end suffering for all sentient beings, which is termedbodhicitta (the mind set on awakening).[61]
The bodhisattva doctrine went through a significant transformation during the development of Buddhist tantra, also known asVajrayana. This movement developed new ideas and texts which introduced new bodhisattvas and re-interpreted old ones in new forms, developed in elaboratemandalas for them and introduced new practices which made use ofmantras,mudras and other tantric elements.
According to David Drewes, "Mahayana sutras unanimously depict the path beginning with the first arising of the thought of becoming a Buddha (prathamacittotpāda), or the initial arising ofbodhicitta, typically aeons before one first receives a Buddha's prediction, and apply the term bodhisattva from this point."[2] TheTen Stages Sutra, for example, explains that the arising of bodhicitta is the first step in the bodhisattva's career.[62] Thus, the arising of bodhicitta, the compassionate mind aimed at awakening for the sake of all beings, is a central defining element of the bodhisattva path.[63][64]
Another key element of the bodhisattva path is the concept of a bodhisattva'spraṇidhāna - which can mean a resolution, resolve, vow, prayer, wish, aspiration and determination.[65] This more general idea of an earnest wish or solemn resolve which is closely connected with bodhicitta (and is the cause and result of bodhicitta) eventually developed into the idea that bodhisattvas take certain formulaic "bodhisattva vows."[66] One of the earliest of these formulas is found in theAṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra and states:
We having crossed (the stream of samsara), may we help living beings to cross! We being liberated, may we liberate others! We being comforted, may we comfort others! We being finally released, may we release others![66]
Other sutras contain longer and more complex formulas, such as the ten vows found in theTen Stages Sutra.[67]
Mahayana sources also discuss the importance of a Buddha's prediction (vyākaraṇa) of a bodhisattva's future Buddhahood. This is seen as an important step along the bodhisattva path.[68]
Later Mahayana Buddhists also developed specific rituals and devotional acts for which helped to develop various preliminary qualities, such as faith, worship, prayer, and confession, that lead to the arising ofbodhicitta.[62] These elements, which constitute a kind of preliminary preparation for bodhicitta, are found in the "seven part worship" (saptāṅgavidhi, saptāṇgapūjā orsaptavidhā anuttarapūjā).[69] This ritual form is visible in the works ofShantideva (8th century) and includes:[70]
Punyanumodana (rejoicing in merit of the good deeds of oneself and others)
Adhyesana (prayer, entreaty) andyacana (supplication) – request to Buddhas and Bodhisattvas to continue preaching Dharma
Atmabhavadi-parityagah (surrender) andpariṇāmanā (the transfer of one's Merit to the welfare of others)
After these preliminaries have been accomplished, then the aspirant is seen as being ready to give rise to bodhicitta, often through the recitation of abodhisattva vow.[71] Contemporary Mahāyāna Buddhism encourages everyone to give rise to bodhicitta and ceremonially take bodhisattva vows. With these vows and precepts, one makes the promise to work for the complete enlightenment of allsentient beings by practicing the transcendent virtues orparamitas.[72]
In Mahāyāna, bodhisattvas are often not Buddhist monks and are former lay practitioners.[73]
After a being has entered the path by giving rise to bodhicitta, they must make effort in the practice or conduct (caryā) of the bodhisattvas, which includes all the duties, virtues and practices that bodhisattvas must accomplish to attain Buddhahood.[74] An important early Mahayana source for the practice of the bodhisattva is theBodhisattvapiṭaka sūtra, a major sutra found in theMahāratnakūṭa collection which was widely cited by various sources. According to Ulrich Pagel, this text is "one of the longest works on the bodhisattva in Mahayana literature" and thus provides extensive information on the topic bodhisattva training, especiallythe perfections (pāramitā).[75] Pagel also argues that this text was quite influential on later Mahayana writings which discuss the bodhisattva and thus was "of fundamental importance to the evolution of the bodhisattva doctrine."[76] Other sutras in theMahāratnakūṭa collection are also important sources for the bodhisattva path.[75]
According to Pagel, the basic outline of the bodhisattva practice in theBodhisattvapiṭaka is outlined in a passage which states "the path to enlightenment comprises benevolence towards all sentient beings, striving after the perfections and compliance with the means of conversion."[77] This path begins with contemplating the failures ofsamsara, developingfaith in the Buddha, giving rise to bodhicitta and practicing thefour immesurables. It then proceeds through all six perfections and finally discusses the four means of converting sentient beings (saṃgrahavastu). The path is presented through prose exposition, mnemonic lists (matrka) and also through Jataka narratives.[78] Using this general framework, theBodhisattvapiṭaka incorporates discussions related to other practices including super knowledge (abhijñā), learning, 'skill' (kauśalya), accumulation of merit (puṇyasaṃbhāra), the thirty-seven factors of awakening (bodhipakṣadharmas), perfect mental quietude (śamatha) and insight (vipaśyanā).[79]
Abhijñā-caryā, the practice of thesuper-knowledges (which are mainly developed in order to convert, help and guide others).[80]
Pāramitā-caryā, the practice of theperfections, which are:Dāna (generosity),Śīla (virtue, ethics),Kṣānti (patient endurance),Vīrya (heroic energy),Dhyāna (meditation),Prajñā (wisdom),Upāya (skillful means),Praṇidhāna (vow, resolve),Bala (spiritual power), andJñāna (knowledge).
Sattvaparipāka-caryā, the practice of maturing the living beings, i.e. preaching and teaching others.
The first six perfections (pāramitās) are the most significant and popular set of bodhisattva virtues and thus they serve as a central framework for bodhisattva practice. They are the most widely taught and commented upon virtues throughout the history of Mahayana Buddhist literature and feature prominently in major Sanskrit sources such as theBodhisattvabhumi, theMahāyānasūtrālamkāra, theKing of Samadhis Sutra and theTen Stages Sutra.[81] They are extolled and praised by these sources as "the great oceans of all the bright virtues and auspicious principles" (Bodhisattvabhumi) and "the Teacher, the Way and the Light...the Refuge and the Shelter, the Support and the Sanctuary" (Aṣṭasāhasrikā).[82]
While many Mahayana sources discuss the bodhisattva's training in ethical discipline (śīla) in classic Buddhist terms, over time, there also developed specific sets ofethical precepts for bodhisattvas (Skt.bodhisattva-śīla). These various sets of precepts are usually taken by bodhisattva aspirants (lay and ordained monastics) along with classic Buddhistpratimoksha precepts. However, in someJapanese Buddhist traditions, monastics rely solely on the bodhisattva precepts.[83][84]
The perfection of wisdom (prajñāpāramitā) is generally seen as the most important and primary of the perfections, without which all the others fall short. Thus, theMadhyamakavatara (6:2) states that wisdom leads the other perfections as a man with eyes leads the blind.[85] This perfect or transcendent wisdom has various qualities, such as being non-attached (asakti), non-conceptual and non-dual (advaya) and signless (animitta). It is generally understood as a kind of insight into the true nature of all phenomena (dharmas) which in Mahayana sutras is widely described as emptiness (shunyatā).[86][87][88]
Another key virtue which the bodhisattva must develop is greatcompassion (mahā-karuṇā), a vast sense of care aimed at ending the suffering of all sentient beings.[89] This great compassion is the ethical foundation of the bodhisattva, and it is also an applied aspect of their bodhicitta.[90] Great compassion must also be closely joined with the perfection of wisdom, which reveals that all the beings that the bodhisattva strives to save are ultimately empty of self (anātman) and lackinherent existence (niḥsvabhāva).[91] Due to the bodhisattva's compassionate wish to save all beings, they develop innumerable skillful means or strategies (upaya) with which to teach and guide different kinds of beings with all sorts of different inclinations and tendencies.[92]
Another key virtue for the bodhisattva ismindfulness (smṛti), which Dayal calls "the sine qua non of moral progress for a bodhisattva."[93] Mindfulness is widely emphasized by Buddhist authors and Sanskrit sources and it appears four times in the list of 37bodhipakṣadharmas.[93] According to theAṣṭasāhasrikā, a bodhisattva must never lose mindfulness so as not to be confused or distracted. TheMahāyānasūtrālamkāra states that mindfulness is the principal asset of a bodhisattva, while bothAsvaghosa andShantideva state that without mindfulness, a bodhisattva will be helpless and uncontrolled (like a mad elephant) and will not succeed in conquering the mental afflictions.[94]
Just as with non-Mahayana sources, Mahayana sutras generally depict the bodhisattva path as a long path that takes many lifetimes across many aeons.[95] Some sutras state that a beginner bodhisattva could take anywhere from 3 to 22 countless eons (mahāsaṃkhyeya kalpas) to become a Buddha.[96][97][98] TheMahāyānasaṃgraha ofAsanga states that the bodhisattva must cultivate the six paramitas for three incalculable aeons (kalpāsaṃkhyeya).[99]Shantideva meanwhile states that bodhisattvas must practice each perfection for sixty aeons orkalpas and also declares that a bodhisattva must practice the path for an "inconceivable" (acintya) number of kalpas. Thus, the bodhisattva path could take many billions upon billions of years to complete.[100]
Later developments in Indian and Asian Mahayana Buddhism (especially inVajrayana or tantric Buddhism) lead to the idea that certain methods and practices could substantially shorten the path (and even lead to Buddhahood in a single lifetime).[101][8] InPure Land Buddhism, an aspirant might go to a Buddha'spure land or buddha-field (buddhakṣetra), likeSukhavati, where they can study the path directly with a Buddha. This could significantly shorten the length of the path, or at least make it more bearable. East Asian Pure Land Buddhist traditions, such asJōdo-shū andJōdo Shinshū, hold the view that realizing Buddhahood through the long bodhisattva path of the perfections is no longer practical in the current age (which is understood as a degenerate age calledmappo). Thus, they rely on the salvific power ofAmitabha to bring Buddhist practitioners to the pure land of Sukhavati, where they will better be able to practice the path.[102]
This view is rejected by other schools such asTendai,Shingon andZen. The founders of Tendai and Shingon,Saicho andKukai, held that anyone who practiced the path properly could reach awakening in this very lifetime.[103] Buddhist schools likeTiantai,Huayan,Chan and the variousVajrayāna traditions maintain that they teach ways to attain Buddhahood within one lifetime.[104][105]
Some of early depictions of the Bodhisattva path in texts such as theUgraparipṛcchā Sūtra describe it as an arduous, difficult monastic path suited only for the few which is nevertheless the most glorious path one can take. Three kinds of bodhisattvas are mentioned: the forest, city, and monastery bodhisattvas—with forest dwelling being promoted a superior, even necessary path in sutras such as theUgraparipṛcchā and theSamadhiraja sutras.[106] The earlyRastrapalapariprccha sutra also promotes a solitary life of meditation in the forests, far away from the distractions of the householder life. TheRastrapala is also highly critical of monks living in monasteries and in cities who are seen as not practicing meditation and morality.[107]
TheRatnagunasamcayagatha also says the bodhisattva should undertake ascetic practices (dhūtaguṇa), "wander freely without a home", practice theparamitas and train under a guru in order to perfect his meditation practice and realization ofprajñaparamita.[108] The twelvedhūtaguṇas are also promoted by theKing of Samadhis Sutra, theTen Stages Sutra and Shantideva.[109] Some scholars have used these texts to argue for "the forest hypothesis", the theory that the initial Bodhisattva ideal was associated with a strict forestasceticism. But other scholars point out that many other Mahayana sutras do not promote this ideal, and instead teach "easy" practices like memorizing, reciting, teaching and copying Mahayana sutras, as well as meditating on Buddhas and bodhisattvas (and reciting or chanting their names).[57] Ulrich Pagel also notes that in numerous sutras found in theMahāratnakūṭa collection, the bodhisattva ideal is placed "firmly within the reach of non-celibate layfolk."[110]
Japanese statue ofKannon (Guanyin, a popular female form of Avalokiteshvara in East Asia)Mural painting ofManjushri in tantric union with his consort, the bodhisattvaSarasvati (also considered to be a form of Tara)
Related to the different views on the different types ofyanas or vehicles is the question of a bodhisattva's relationship tonirvāṇa. In the various Mahāyāna texts, two theories can be discerned. One view is the idea that a bodhisattva must postpone their awakening until full Buddhahood is attained (at which point one ceases to be reborn, which is the classical view ofnirvāṇa). This view is promoted in some sutras like thePañcavimsatisahasrika-prajñaparamita-sutra.[111] The idea is also found in theLaṅkāvatāra Sūtra, which mentions that bodhisattvas take the following vow: "I shall not enter into final nirvana before all beings have been liberated."[112] Likewise, theŚikṣāsamuccaya states "I must lead all beings to Liberation. I will stay here till the end, even for the sake of one living soul."[112]
The second theory is the idea that there are two kinds ofnirvāṇa, the nirvāṇa of an arhat and a superior type of nirvāṇa calledapratiṣṭhita (non-abiding) that allows a Buddha to remain engaged in the samsaric realms without being affected by them.[111][113] This attainment was understood as a kind ofnon-dual state in which one is neither limited to samsara nor nirvana. A being who has reached this kind of nirvana is not restricted from manifesting in the samsaric realms, and yet they remain fully detached from the defilements found in these realms (and thus they can help others).[113]
This doctrine of non-abiding nirvana developed in theYogacara school. As noted by Paul Williams, the idea ofapratiṣṭhita nirvāṇa may have taken some time to develop and is not obvious in some of the early Mahāyāna literature, therefore while earlier sutras may sometimes speak of "postponement", later texts saw no need to postpone the "superior"apratiṣṭhita nirvāṇa.[111]
In this Yogacara model, the bodhisattva definitely rejects and avoids the liberation of theśravaka andpratyekabuddha, described in Mahāyāna literature as either inferior or "hina" (as inAsaṅga's fourth centuryYogācārabhūmi) or as ultimately false or illusory (as in theLotus Sūtra).[114] That a bodhisattva has the option to pursue such a lesser path, but instead chooses the long path towards Buddhahood is one of the five criteria for one to be considered a bodhisattva. The other four are: being human, being a man, making a vow to become a Buddha in the presence of a previous Buddha, and receiving a prophecy from that Buddha.
Over time, a more varied analysis of bodhisattva careers developed focused on one's motivation. This can be seen in theTibetan Buddhist teaching on three types of motivation for generating bodhicitta. According toPatrul Rinpoche's 19th-centuryWords of My Perfect Teacher (Kun bzang bla ma'i gzhal lung), a bodhisattva might be motivated in one of three ways. They are:[115]
King-like bodhicitta – To aspire to become a Buddha first in order to then help sentient beings.
Boatman-like bodhicitta – To aspire to become a Buddha at the same time as other sentient beings.
Shepherd-like bodhicitta – To aspire to become a Buddha only after all other sentient beings have done so.
These three are not types of people, but rather types of motivation. According to Patrul Rinpoche, the third quality of intention is most noble though the mode by which Buddhahood occurs is the first; that is, it is only possible to teach others the path to enlightenment once one has attained enlightenment oneself.[115]
Green Tara and her devotees, Folio from a Bengali manuscript of theAṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā (Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines),MET
According to James B. Apple, if one studies the earliest textual materials which discuss the bodhisattva path (which includes the translations ofLokakshema and theGandharan manuscripts), "one finds four key stages that are demarcated throughout this early textual material that constitute the most basic elements in the path of a bodhisattva".[116] These main elements are:[116]
"The arising of the thought of awakening (bodhicittotpāda), when a person first aspires to attain the state of Buddhahood and thereby becomes a bodhisattva"
"Endurance towards the fact that things arenot produced" (anutpattikadharma-kṣānti), which in various sources also entails non-retrogression.
"The attainment of the status of irreversibility" or non-retrogression (avaivartika) from Buddhahood, which means one is close to Buddhahood and that one can no longer turn back or regress from that attainment. They are exemplary monks, with cognitive powers equal to arhats. They practice the four dhyanas, have a deep knowledge of perfect wisdom and teach it to others. In the Lokakshema's Chinese translation of theAṣṭasāhasrikā, theDaoxing Banruo Jing, this stage is closely related to a concentration (samadhi) that "does not grasp at anything at all" (sarvadharmāparigṛhīta).
The prediction (vyākaraṇa), "the event when a Buddha predicts the time and place of a bodhisattva's subsequent awakening." The prediction is directly associated with the status of irreversibility. TheDaoxing Banruo Jing states: "all the bodhisattvas who have realized the irreversible stage have obtained their prediction to Buddhahood from the Buddhas in the past."[116]
According to Drewes, theAṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra divides the bodhisattva path into three main stages. The first stage is that of bodhisattvas who "first set out in the vehicle" (prathamayānasaṃprasthita), then there is the "irreversible" (avinivartanīya) stage, and finally the third "bound by one more birth" (ekajātipratibaddha), as in, destined to become a Buddha in the next life.[2] Lamotte also mentions four similar stages of the bodhiattva career which are found in theDazhidulun translated byKumarajiva: (1)Prathamacittotpādika ("who produces the mind of Bodhi for the first time"), (2)Ṣaṭpāramitācaryāpratipanna ("devoted to the practice of the six perfections"), (3)Avinivartanīya (non-regression), (4)Ekajātipratibaddha ("separated by only one lifetime from buddhahood").[117]
Drewes notes that Mahāyāna sūtras mainly depict a bodhisattvas' first arising of bodhicitta as occurring in the presence of a Buddha. Furthermore, according to Drewes, most Mahāyāna sūtras "never encourage anyone to become a bodhisattva or present any ritual or other means of doing so."[2] In a similar manner to the nikāya sources, Mahāyāna sūtras also see new bodhisattvas as likely to regress, while seeing irreversible bodhisattvas are quite rare. Thus, according to Drewes, "theAṣṭasāhasrikā, for instance, states that as many bodhisattvas as there grains of sand in the Ganges turn back from the pursuit of Buddhahood and that out of innumerable beings who give rise to bodhicitta and progress toward Buddhahood, only one or two will reach the point of becoming irreversible."[2]
Drewes also adds that early texts like theAṣṭasāhasrikā treat bodhisattvas who are beginners (ādikarmika) or "not long set out in the [great] vehicle" with scorn, describing them as "blind", "unintelligent", "lazy" and "weak". Early Mahayana works identify them with those who reject Mahayana or who abandon Mahayana, and they are seen as likely to becomeśrāvakas (those on thearhat path). Rather than encouraging them to become bodhisattvas, what early Mahayana sutras like theAṣṭa do is to help individuals determine if they have already received a prediction in a past life, or if they are close to this point.[2]
TheAṣṭa provides a variety of methods, including forms of ritual ordivination,methods dealing with dreams and various tests, especially tests based on one's reaction to the hearing of the content in theAṣṭasāhasrikā itself. The text states that encountering and accepting its teachings mean one is close to being given a prediction and that if one does not "shrink back, cower or despair" from the text, but "firmly believes it", one is either irreversible or is close to this stage. Many other Mahayana sutras such as theAkṣobhyavyūha,Vimalakīrtinirdeśa,Sukhāvatīvyūha, and theŚūraṃgamasamādhi Sūtra present textual approaches to determine one's status as an advanced bodhisattva. These mainly depend on a person's attitude towards listening to, believing, preaching, proclaiming, copying or memorizing and reciting the sutra as well as practicing the sutra's teachings.[32][2]
According to Drewes, this claim that merely having faith in Mahāyāna sūtras meant that one was an advanced bodhisattva, was a departure from previous Nikaya views about bodhisattvas. It created new groups of Buddhists who accepted each other's bodhisattva status.[2] Some Mahayana texts are more open with their bodhisattva doctrine. TheLotus Sutra famously assures large numbers people that they will certainly achieve Buddhahood, with few requirements (other than hearing and accepting theLotus Sutra itself).[32]
The termavaivartika refers to the stage in Buddhist practice where a practitioner reaches a point of irreversibility, ensuring that they will not regress in their spiritual progress. Alternative Sanskrit forms includeavivartika,avinivartanīya andavaivartyabhūmi. Attaining this state guarantees that the practitioner remains steadfast on the path to enlightenment and will not abandon their aspirations or regress to a lower stage of realization.[118]
Within the framework of the Bodhisattva path, various Buddhist scriptures identify different stages at which non-retrogression is attained. Some sources associate it with the path of preparation (prayogamārga), where a bodhisattva solidifies their commitment and will no longer turn back to pursue the path of an arhat. Others link it to the firstbhūmi (stage) of the bodhisattva path or, in later systematic presentations, to the eighthbhūmi, after which full Buddhahood becomes inevitable.[118]
The concept ofavaivartika appears in early Mahāyāna texts such as theMahāprajñāpāramitāśāstra, which distinguishes between bodhisattvas who are prone to regression (vaivartika) and those who are not (avaivartika). True bodhisattvas are those who have transcended the possibility of falling back, while those who remain susceptible to regression are considered bodhisattvas only in a nominal sense.[119]
TheAṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, particularly in its early Chinese translation byLokakṣema, emphasizesavaivartika as a pivotal attainment. It describes how the bodhisattva, upon reaching the state ofanutpattikadharmakṣānti (the realization of theunborn nature of phenomena), becomes irreversible in their journey toward complete enlightenment. Unlike later Mahāyāna texts, which integrate this stage within the structuredbhūmi system, Lokakṣema’s version presents it more fluidly, portraying theavaivartin as one of a few key categories of bodhisattvas.[120]
InPure Land traditions, rebirth in Amitābha Buddha’sPure Land (Sukhāvatī) is equated with entering the stage of non-retrogression. It is believed that those who attain birth in Sukhāvatī are assured of progressing toward enlightenment without the risk of falling back into lower states of existence.[118]
The attainment ofavaivartika is often associated with the bodhisattva’s ability to inspire and lead countless beings toward liberation. Some texts suggest that a bodhisattva’s non-retrogression is linked to prior predictions (vyākaraṇa) made by past Buddhas, affirming their inevitable attainment of supreme enlightenment. Moreover, while later traditions integrate skillful means (upāyakauśalya) as a defining trait of theavaivartin, early texts such as Lokakṣema’sAṣṭa emphasize avoiding complacency in meditative absorption, which could lead to an arhat-like state rather than the full Buddhahood sought by bodhisattvas.[120][118]
According to various Mahāyāna sources, on the way to becoming a Buddha, a bodhisattva proceeds through various stages (bhūmis) of spiritual progress. The termbhūmi means "earth" or "place" and figurately can mean "ground, plane, stage, level; state of consciousness".[121] There are various lists of bhumis, the most common is a list of ten found in theDaśabhūmikasūtra (but there are also lists of seven stages as well as lists which have more than 10 stages).[122]
Great Joy: It is said that being close to enlightenment and seeing the benefit for allsentient beings, one achieves great joy, hence the name. In thisbhūmi the bodhisattvas practice allperfections (pāramitās), but especially emphasizinggenerosity (dāna).
Stainless: In accomplishing the secondbhūmi, the bodhisattva is free from the stains of immorality, therefore, thisbhūmi is named "stainless". The emphasized perfection ismoral discipline (śīla).
Luminous: The light of Dharma is said to radiate for others from the bodhisattva who accomplishes the thirdbhūmi. The emphasized perfection ispatience (kṣānti).
Radiant: Thisbhūmi it is said to be like a radiating light that fully burns that which opposes enlightenment. The emphasized perfection isvigor (vīrya).
Very difficult to train: Bodhisattvas who attain this ground strive to help sentient beings attain maturity, and do not become emotionally involved when such beings respond negatively, both of which are difficult to do. The emphasized perfection ismeditative concentration (dhyāna).
Obviously Transcendent: By depending on the perfection of wisdom, [the bodhisattva] does not abide in eithersaṃsāra ornirvāṇa, so this state is "obviously transcendent". The emphasized perfection iswisdom (prajñā).
Gone afar: Particular emphasis is on the perfection ofskillful means (upāya), to help others.
Immovable: The emphasized virtue is aspiration. This "immovable"bhūmi is where one becomes able to choose his place of rebirth.
Good Discriminating Wisdom: The emphasized virtue is the understanding of self and non-self.
Cloud of Dharma: The emphasized virtue is the practice of primordial wisdom. After thisbhūmi, one attains full Buddhahood.
In some sources, these ten stages are correlated with a different schema of the buddhist path calledthe five paths which is derived fromVaibhasikaAbhidharma sources.[123]
TheŚūraṅgama Sūtra recognizes 57 stages. VariousVajrayāna schools recognize additional grounds (varying from 3 to 10 further stages), mostly 6 more grounds with variant descriptions.[124][125] A bodhisattva above the 7th ground is called amahāsattva. Some bodhisattvas such asSamantabhadra are also said to have already attained Buddhahood.[126]
Buddhists (especially Mahayanists) venerate several bodhisattvas (such as Maitreya, Manjushri and Avalokiteshvara) which are seen as highly spiritually advanced (having attained the tenthbhumi) and thus possessing immensemagical power. According to Lewis Lancaster, these "celestial" or "heavenly" bodhisattvas are seen as "either the manifestations of a Buddha or they are beings who possess the power of producing many bodies through great feats ofmagical transformation."[127]
The religious devotion to these bodhisattvas probably first developed innorth India, and they are widely depicted inGandharan andKashmiri art. InAsian art, they are typically depicted as princes and princesses, with royal robes and jewellery (since they are the princes of the Dharma).[9] InBuddhist art, a bodhisattva is often described as abeautiful figure with a serene expression and graceful manner. This is probably in accordance to the description of PrinceSiddhārtha Gautama as a bodhisattva. The depiction of bodhisattva in Buddhist art around the world aspires to express the bodhisattva's qualities such as loving-kindness (metta), compassion (karuna), empathetic joy (mudita) and equanimity (upekkha).[4]
Literature which glorifies such bodhisattvas and recounts their various miracles remains very popular in Asia. One example of such a work of literature isMore Records of Kuan-shih-yin's Responsive Manifestations by Lu Kao (459–532) which was very influential in China.[128] In Tibetan Buddhism, theMaṇi Kambum is a similarly influential text (a revealed text, or terma) which focuses on Chenrezig (Avalokiteshvara, who is seen as the country's patron bodhisattva) and his miraculous activities inTibet.[129][130]
These celestial bodhisattvas likeAvalokiteshvara (Guanyin) are also seen as compassionate savior figures, constantly working for the good of all beings. The Avalokiteshvara chapter of theLotus Sutra even states that calling Avalokiteshvara to mind can help save someone from natural disasters, demons, and other calamities. It is also supposed to protect one from theafflictions (lust, anger and ignorance).[131] Bodhisattvas can also transform themselves into whatever physical form is useful for helping sentient beings (a god, a bird, a male or female, even a Buddha).[131] Because of this, bodhisattvas are seen as beings that one can pray to for aid and consolation from the sufferings of everyday life as well as for guidance in the path to enlightenment.[131] Thus, the great translatorXuanzang is said to have constantly prayed to Avalokiteshvara for protection on his long journey to India.[132]
Eight great bodhisattvas atEllora Caves (cave no. 12).[133]A Japanese illustration of the "sonsho mandala" which depicts Vairocana surrounded by the eight great bodhisattvas
In the later IndianVajrayana tradition, there arose a popular grouping of eight bodhisattvas known as the "Eight Great Bodhisattvas", or "Eight Close Sons" (Skt.aṣṭa utaputra; Tib.nyewé sé gyé) and are seen as the most important Mahayana bodhisattvas and appear in numerous esotericmandalas (e.g.Garbhadhatu mandala).[133]
These same "Eight Great Bodhisattvas" (Chn.Bādà Púsà, Jp.Hachi Daibosatsu) also appear inEast Asian Esoteric Buddhist sources, such asThe Sutra on the Maṇḍalas of the Eight Great Bodhisattvas (八大菩薩曼荼羅經), translated byAmoghavajra in the 8th century andFaxian (10th century).[134][135]
While there are numerous lists of Eight Great Bodhisattvas, the most widespread or "standard" listing is:[134][133]
Mañjuśrī ("Gentle Glory") Kumarabhuta ("Young Prince"), the main bodhisattva of wisdom
Avalokiteśvara ("Lord who gazes down at the world"), the savior bodhisattva of great compassion
Vajrapāṇi ("Vajra in hand"), the bodhisattva of protection, the protector of the Buddha (in East Asian sources, this figure appears asMahāsthāmaprāpta)
Maitreya ("Friendly One"), will become the Buddha of our world in the future
A 12th century Japanese illustration of the nāga princess offering the jewel to the Buddha, from theLotus SutraJapanese illustration ofBenzaiten, seated on a white dragon. Some Japanese sources associate this figure with the naga princess in the Lotus sutra[136]
The bodhisattvaPrajñāpāramitā-devi is a female personification of the perfection of wisdom and thePrajñāpāramitā sutras. She became an important figure, widely depicted in Indian Buddhist art.
Guanyin (Jp: Kannon), a female form of Avalokiteshvara, is the most widely revered bodhisattva in East Asian Buddhism, generally depicted as a motherly figure.[131] Guanyin is venerated in various other forms and manifestations, includingCundī,Cintāmaṇicakra,Hayagriva, Eleven-Headed Thousand-Armed Guanyin and Guanyin Of The Southern Seas among others.
Gender variant representations of some bodhisattvas, most notablyAvalokiteśvara, has prompted conversation regarding the nature of a bodhisattva's appearance. Chan masterSheng Yen has stated thatMahāsattvas such as Avalokiteśvara (known asGuanyin in Chinese) are androgynous (Ch. 中性;pinyin: "zhōngxìng"), which accounts for their ability to manifest in masculine and feminine forms of various degrees.[137]
InTibetan Buddhism,Tara or Jetsun Dölma (rje btsun sgrol ma) is the most important female bodhisattva.[138]
NumerousMahayana sutras feature female bodhisattvas as main characters and discuss their life, teachings and future Buddhahood. These includeThe Questions of the Girl Vimalaśraddhā (TohokuKangyur - Toh number 84),The Questions of Vimaladattā (Toh 77),The Lion's Roar of Śrīmālādevī (Toh 92),The Inquiry of Lokadhara (Toh 174),The Sūtra of Aśokadattā's Prophecy (Toh 76),The Questions of Vimalaprabhā (Toh 168),The Sūtra of Kṣemavatī's Prophecy (Toh 192),The Questions of the Girl Sumati (Toh 74),The Questions of Gaṅgottara (Toh 75),The Questions of an Old Lady (Toh 171),The Miraculous Play of Mañjuśrī (Toh 96), andThe Sūtra of the Girl Candrottarā's Prophecy (Toh 191).[139]
Sṛṣṭikartā Lokeśvara (Avalokiteshvara in the process of creation), in which the bodhisattva takes on the form of Sṛṣṭikartā (creator) and emanates all theHindu gods for the benefit of sentient beings.
Over time, numerous historical Buddhist figures also came to be seen as bodhisattvas in their own right, deserving of devotion. For example, an extensivehagiography developed aroundNagarjuna, the Indian founder of themadhyamaka school of philosophy. Followers of Tibetan Buddhism consider theDalai Lamas and theKarmapas to be an emanation ofChenrezig, the Bodhisattva of Compassion. VariousJapanese Buddhist schools consider their founding figures likeKukai andNichiren to be bodhisattvas. In Chinese Buddhism, various historical figures have been called bodhisattvas.[140]
Furthermore, variousHindu deities are considered to be bodhisattvas in Mahayana Buddhist sources. For example, in theKāraṇḍavyūhasūtra,Vishnu,Shiva,Brahma andSaraswati are said to be bodhisattvas, all emanations of Avalokiteshvara.[141] Deities like Saraswati (Chinese:Biàncáitiān, 辯才天, Japanese:Benzaiten) and Shiva (C:Dàzìzàitiān, 大自在天; J:Daikokuten) are still venerated as bodhisattva devas anddharmapalas (guardian deities) inEast Asian Buddhism.[142] Both figures are closely connected with Avalokiteshvara.[143][144] In a similar manner, the Hindu deityHarihara is called a bodhisattva in the famedNīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī, which states: "O Effulgence, World-Transcendent, come, ohHari, the great bodhisattva."[145]
The empressWu Zetian of the Tang dynasty, was the only female ruler of China. She used the growing popularity of Esoteric Buddhism in China for her own needs. Though she was not the only ruler to have made such a claim, the political utility of her claims, coupled with sincerity make her a great example. She built several temples and contributed to the finishing of theLongmen Caves and even went on to patronise Buddhism overConfucianism orDaoism. She ruled by the title of "Holy Emperor", and claimed to be a Bodhisattva too. She became one of China's most influential rulers.[146][147]
Thangka DepictingYamantaka, a wrathful manifestation of Manjushri in Tibetan Buddhism
While bodhisattvas tend to be depicted as conventionally beautiful, there are instances of their manifestation asfierceful and monstrous looking beings. A notable example isGuanyin's manifestation as apreta named "Flaming Face" (面燃大士).[148] This trope is commonly employed among theWisdom Kings, among whomMahāmāyūrī Vidyārājñī stands out with a feminine title and benevolent expression. In some depictions, hermount takes on a wrathful appearance. This variation is also found among images ofVajrapani.
InTibetan Buddhism, fierce manifestations (Tibetan:trowo) of the major bodhisattvas are quite common and they often act as protector deities.
The place of a bodhisattva's earthly deeds, such as the achievement ofenlightenment or the acts ofDharma, is known as abodhimaṇḍa (place of awakening), and may be a site ofpilgrimage. Many temples and monasteries are famous as bodhimaṇḍas. Perhaps the most famous bodhimaṇḍa of all is theBodhi Tree under whichŚākyamuṇi achieved Buddhahood. There are also sacred places of awakening for bodhisattvas located throughout the Buddhist world.Mount Potalaka, a sacred mountain in India, is traditionally held to be Avalokiteshvara's bodhimaṇḍa.
InChinese Buddhism, there are four mountains that are regarded as bodhimaṇḍas for bodhisattvas, with each site having major monasteries and being popular for pilgrimages by both monastics and laypeople. These four sacred places are:[149]
While the veneration of bodhisattvas is much more widespread and popular in the Mahayana Buddhist world, it is also found in Theravada Buddhist regions. Bodhisattvas which are venerated in Theravada lands include Natha Deviyo (Avalokiteshvara),Metteya (Maitreya),Upulvan (i.e.Vishnu),Saman (Samantabhadra) andPattini.[150][151][152] The veneration of some of these figures may have been influenced by Mahayana Buddhism.[150][151] These figures are also understood asdevas that have converted to Buddhism and have sworn to protect it.[151]
The recounting ofJataka tales, which discuss the bodhisattva deeds of Gautama before his awakening (i.e. during his past lives as a bodhisatta), also remains a popular practice.[150]
The etymology of the Indic terms bodhisattva and bodhisatta is not fully understood. The termbodhi is uncontroversial and means "awakening" or "enlightenment" (from the rootbudh-).[153][154] The second part of the compound has many possible meanings or derivations, including:[155]
Sattva and satta commonly means "living being", "sentient being" or "person" and many modern scholars adopt an interpretation based on this etymology. Examples include: "a sentient or reasonable being, possessing bodhi" (H. Kern), "a bodhi-being, i.e. a being destined to attain fullest Enlightenment" (T. W. Rhys Davids and W. Stede), "A being seeking for bodhi" (M. Anesaki), "Erleuchtungswesen" (Enlightenment Being) (M. Winternitz), "Weisheitswesen" ("Wisdom Being") (M. Walleser).[156] This etymology is also supported by the MahayanaSamādhirāja Sūtra, which, however, explains the meaning of the term bodhisattva as "one who admonishes or exhorts all beings."[157]
According to Har Dayal, the termbodhi-satta may correspond with the Sanskritbodhi-sakta which means "one who is devoted tobodhi" or "attached to bodhi". Later, the term may have been wronglysanskritized tobodhi-satva.[158] Hayal notes that the Sanskrit termsakta (fromsañj) means "clung, stuck or attached to, joined or connected with, addicted or devoted to, fond of, intent on".[158] This etymology forsatta is supported by some passages in the Early Buddhist Texts (such as at SN 23.2, parallel at SĀ 122). The etymology is also supported by the Pāli commentaries, Jain sources and other modern scholars like Tillman Vetter and Neumann.[159] Another related possibility pointed out byK.R. Norman and others is that satta carries the meaning ofśakta, and so bodhisatta means "capable of enlightenment."[160]
The Sanskrit term sattva may mean "strength, energy, vigour, power, courage" and therefore, bodhisattva could also mean "one whose energy and power is directed towards bodhi".[161] This reading of sattva is found in Ksemendra'sAvadanakalpaIata. Har Dayal supports this reading, noting that the term sattva is "almost certainly related to the Vedic wordsatvan, which means 'a strong or valiant man, hero, warrior'" and thus, the term bodhisatta should be interpreted as "heroic being, spiritual warrior."[162]
Sattva may also meanspirit,mind, sense,consciousness, orgeist. Various Indian commentators like Prajñakaramati interpret the term as a synonym for citta (mind, thought) or vyavasāya (decision, determination).[157] Thus, the term bodhisattva could also mean: "one whose mind, intentions, thoughts or wishes are fixed on bodhi".[157] In this sense, this meaning ofsattva is similar to the meaning it has in theYoga-sutras, where it means mind.[157]
Tibetan lexicographers translate bodhisattva asbyang chub (bodhi)sems dpa (sattva). In this compound,sems means mind, whiledpa means "hero, strong man" (Skt.vīra). Thus, this translation combines two possible etymologies of sattva explained above: as "mind" and as "courageous, hero".[163]
Chinese Buddhists generally use the termpusa (菩薩), a phonetic transcription of the Sanskrit term. However, early Chinese translators sometimes used a meaning translation of the term bodhisattva, which they rendered asmingshi (明士), which means "a person who understands", readingsattva as "man" or "person" (shi, 士).[164][165]
In Sanskrit,sattva can mean "essence, nature, true essence", and the Palisatta can mean "substance". Some modern scholars interpret bodhisattva in this light, such asMonier-Williams, who translates the term as "one who has bodhi or perfect wisdom as his essence."[156]
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