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 A selection ofbiwa in a Japanese museum | |
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Thebiwa (Japanese:琵琶) is a Japanese short-necked woodenlute traditionally used in narrative storytelling. Thebiwa is aplucked string instrument that first gained popularity inChina before spreading throughoutEast Asia, eventually reaching Japan sometime during theNara period (710–794).
Typically 60 centimetres (24 in) to 106 centimetres (42 in) in length, the instrument is constructed of a water drop–shaped body with a short neck, typically with four (though sometimes five) strings.
In Japan, thebiwa is generally played with abachi instead of the fingers, and is often used to playgagaku. One of thebiwa's most famous uses is for recitingThe Tale of theHeike, from theKamakura period (1185–1333).
In previous centuries, the predominantbiwa musicians would have been blind monks (琵琶法師,biwa hōshi), who used thebiwa as musical accompaniment when reading scriptural texts.
Thebiwa's Chinese predecessor was thepipa (琵琶), which arrived in Japan in two forms;[further explanation needed] following its introduction to Japan, varieties of thebiwa quadrupled. Guilds supportingbiwa players, particularly thebiwa hōshi, helped proliferatebiwa musical development for hundreds of years.Biwa hōshi performances overlapped with performances by otherbiwa players many years beforeheikyoku (平曲,The Tale of theHeike),[further explanation needed] and continues to this day. This overlap resulted in a rapid evolution of thebiwa and its usage and made it one of the most popular instruments in Japan.
In spite of its popularity, theŌnin War and subsequentWarring States Period disruptedbiwa teaching and decreased the number of proficient users. With the abolition ofTodo in theMeiji period,biwa players lost their patronage.
By the late 1940s, thebiwa, a thoroughly Japanese tradition, was nearly completely abandoned for Western instruments. However, thanks to collaborative efforts by Japanese musicians, interest in thebiwa is being revived. Japanese and foreign musicians alike have begun embracing traditional Japanese instruments, particularly thebiwa, in their compositions.
While blindbiwa singers no longer dominate thebiwa, many performers continue to use the instrument in traditional and modern ways.
Thebiwa arrived in Japan in the 7th century, having evolved from the Chinese bent-neckpipa (曲項琵琶;quxiang pipa),[1] while thepipa itself was derived from similar instruments inWest Asia. This type ofbiwa, known as thegaku-biwa, was later used ingagaku ensembles and became the most commonly known type. However, another variant of thebiwa – known as themōsō-biwa or thekōjin-biwa – also found its way to Japan, first appearing in theKyushu region. Though its origins are unclear, this thinner variant of thebiwa was used in ceremonies and religious rites.
Thebiwa became known as an instrument commonly played at the JapaneseImperial court, wherebiwa players, known asbiwa hōshi, found employment and patronage. However, following the collapse of theRitsuryō state,biwa hōshi employed at the court were faced with the court's reconstruction and sought asylum inBuddhist temples. There, they assumed the role of Buddhist monks and encountered themōsō-biwa. Seeing its relative convenience and portability, the monks combined these features with their large and heavygaku-biwa to create theheike-biwa, which, as indicated by its namesake, was used primarily for recitations ofThe Tale of theHeike.
Through the next several centuries, players of both traditions intersected frequently and developed new music styles and new instruments. By theKamakura period (1185–1333), theheike-biwa had emerged as a more popular instrument, a cross between both thegaku-biwa andmōsō-biwa, retaining the rounded shape of thegaku-biwa and played with a largeplectrum like themōsō-biwa. Theheike-biwa, smaller than themōsō-biwa, was used for similar purposes.
While the modernsatsuma-biwa andchikuzen-biwa both originated from themōsō-biwa, thesatsuma-biwa was used for moral and mental training bysamurai of theSatsuma Domain during theWarring States period, and later for general performances. Thechikuzen-biwa was used by Buddhist monks visiting private residences to perform memorial services, not only for Buddhist rites, but also to accompany the telling of stories and news.
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Though formerly popular, little was written about the performance and practice of thebiwa from roughly the 16th century to the mid-19th century. What is known is that three main streams ofbiwa practice emerged during this time:zato (the lowest level of the state-controlled guild of blindbiwa players),shifu (samurai style), andchofu (urban style). These styles emphasizedbiwa-uta (琵琶歌) – vocalisation withbiwa accompaniment – and formed the foundation foredo-uta (江戸歌) styles of playing, such asshinnai andkota.[2]
From these styles also emerged the two principal survivors of thebiwa tradition:satsuma-biwa andchikuzen-biwa.[3] From roughly theMeiji period (1868–1912) until thePacific War, thesatsuma-biwa andchikuzen-biwa were popular across Japan, and, at the beginning of theShōwa period (1925–1989), thenishiki-biwa was created and gained popularity. Of the remaining post-warbiwa traditions, onlyhigo-biwa remains a style almost solely performed by blind persons. Thehigo-biwa is closely related to theheike-biwa and, similarly, relies on an oral narrative tradition focusing on wars and legends.
By the middle of the Meiji period, improvements had been made to the instruments and easily understandable songs were composed in quantity. In the beginning of theTaishō period (1912–1926), thesatsuma-biwa was modified into thenishiki-biwa, which became popular among female players at the time. With this, thebiwa entered a period of popularity, with songs reflecting not justThe Tale of theHeike, but also theSino-Japanese War and theRusso-Japanese War, with songs such asTakeo Hirose,Hitachimaru andHill 203 gaining popularity.
However, the playing of thebiwa nearly became extinct during the Meiji period following the introduction of Western music and instruments, until players such asTsuruta Kinshi and others revitalized the genre with modern playing styles and collaborations with Western composers.[citation needed]
There are more than seven types ofbiwa, characterised by number of strings, sounds it could produce, the type ofplectrum, and their use. As thebiwa does not play intempered tuning, pitches are approximated to the nearest note.
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Thegagaku biwa (雅楽琵琶), a large and heavybiwa with four strings and four frets, is used exclusively forgagaku. It produces distinctiveichikotsuchō (壱越調) andhyōjō (平調). Its plectrum is small and thin, often rounded, and made from a hard material such asboxwood orivory. It is not used to accompany singing. Like theheike-biwa, it is played held on its side, similar to a guitar, with the player sitting cross-legged. Ingagaku, it is known as thegaku-biwa (楽琵琶).
Thegogen-biwa (五絃琵琶,lit. 'five-stringedbiwa'), aTang variant ofbiwa, can be seen in paintings of court orchestras and was used in the context ofgagaku; however, it was removed with the reforms and standardization made to the court orchestra during the late 10th century. It is assumed that the performance traditions died out by the 10th or 11th century (William P. Malm). This instrument also disappeared in the Chinese court orchestras. Recently, this instrument, much like thekonghou harp, has been revived for historically informed performances and historical reconstructions. Not to be confused with the five-stringed variants of modernbiwa, such aschikuzen-biwa.
Themōsō-biwa (盲僧琵琶), abiwa with four strings, is used to play Buddhistmantras and songs. It is similar in shape to thechikuzen-biwa, but with a much more narrow body. Its plectrum varies in both size and materials. The four fret type is tuned to E, B, E and A, and the five fret type is tuned to B, e, f♯ and f♯. The six fret type is tuned to B♭, E♭, B♭ and b♭.
Theheike-biwa (平家琵琶), abiwa with four strings and five frets, is used to playThe Tale of theHeike. Its plectrum is slightly larger than that of thegagaku-biwa, but the instrument itself is much smaller, comparable to achikuzen-biwa in size. It was originally used by travelingbiwa minstrels, and its small size lent it to indoor play and improved portability. Its tuning is A, c, e, a or A, c-sharp, e, a.
Thesatsuma-biwa (薩摩琵琶), abiwa with four strings and four frets, was popularized during the Edo period inSatsuma Province (present-dayKagoshima) byShimazu Tadayoshi. Modernbiwa used for contemporary compositions often have five or more frets, and some have a doubled fourth string. The frets of thesatsuma-biwa are raised 4 centimetres (1.6 in) from the neck allowing notes to be bent several steps higher, each one producing the instrument's characteristicsawari, or buzzing drone. Its boxwood plectrum is much wider than others, often reaching widths of 25 cm (9.8 in) or more. Its size and construction influences the sound of the instrument as the curved body is often struck percussively with the plectrum during play.
Thesatsuma-biwa is traditionally made fromJapanese mulberry, although other hard woods such asJapanese zelkova are sometimes used in its construction. Due to the slow growth of the Japanese mulberry, the wood must be taken from a tree at least 120 years old and dried for 10 years before construction can begin.
The strings are made of wound silk. Its tuning is A, E, A, B, for traditionalbiwa, G, G, c, g, or G, G, d, g for contemporary compositions, among other tunings, but these are only examples as the instrument is tuned to match the key of the player's voice. The first and second strings are generally tuned to the same note, with the 4th (or doubled 4th) string is tuned one octave higher.
The most eminent 20th centurysatsuma-biwa performer wasTsuruta Kinshi, who developed her own version of the instrument, which she called thetsuruta-biwa. Thisbiwa often has five strings (although it is essentially a 4-string instrument as the 5th string is a doubled 4th that are always played together) and five or more frets, and the construction of the tuning head and frets vary slightly.Ueda Junko andTanaka Yukio, two of Tsuruta's students, continue the tradition of the modernsatsuma-biwa.Carlo Forlivesi's compositionsBoethius (ボエティウス) andNuove Musiche per Biwa (琵琶のための新曲) were both written for performance on thesatsuma-biwa designed by Tsuruta and Tanaka.
These works present a radical departure from the compositional languages usually employed for such an instrument. Also, thanks to the possibility of relying on a level of virtuosity never before attempted in this specific repertory, the composer has sought the renewal of the acoustic and aesthetic profile of thebiwa, bringing out the huge potential in the sound material: attacks and resonance, tempo (conceived not only in the chronometrical but also deliberately empathetical sense), chords, balance and dialogue (with the occasional use of twobiwas inNuove Musiche per Biwa), dynamics and colour.[4]
TheChikuzen-biwa (筑前琵琶), abiwa with four strings and four frets or five strings and five frets, was popularised in the Meiji period by Tachibana Satosada. Most contemporary performers use the five string version. Its plectrum is much smaller than that of thesatsuma-biwa, usually about 13 cm (5.1 in) in width, although its size, shape, and weight depends on the sex of the player. The plectrum is usually made fromrosewood with boxwood or ivory tips for plucking the strings. The instrument itself also varies in size, depending on the player. Male players typically playbiwa that are slightly wider and/or longer than those used by women or children. The body of the instrument is never struck with the plectrum during play, and the five string instrument is played upright, while the four string is played held on its side. The instrument is tuned to match the key of the singer. An example tuning of the four string version is B, e, f♯ and b, and the five string instrument can be tuned to C, G, C, d and g. For the five string version, the first and third strings are tuned the same note, the second string three steps down, the fifth string an octave higher than the second string, and the fourth string a step down from the fifth. So the previously mentioned tuning can be tuned down to B♭, F, B♭, c, d. Asahikai and Tachibanakai are the two major schools ofchikuzen-biwa. Popularly used by femalebiwa players such asUehara Mari.
Thenishiki-biwa (錦琵琶), a modernbiwa with five strings and five frets, was popularised by the 20th-centurybiwa player and composer Suitō Kinjō (水藤錦穣, 1911–1973). Its plectrum is the same as that used for thesatsuma-biwa. Its tuning is C, G, c, g, g.
Thebiwa, considered one of Japan's principal traditional instruments, has both influenced and been influenced by other traditional instruments and compositions throughout its long history; as such, a number of different musical styles played with thebiwa exist.
Generally speaking,biwa have four strings, though modernsatsuma- andchikuzen-biwa may have five strings. The strings on abiwa range in thickness, with the first string being thickest and the fourth string being thinnest; onchikuzen-biwa, the second string is the thickest, with the fourth and fifth strings being the same thickness onchikuzen- andsatsuma-biwa.[8] The varying string thickness creates differenttimbres when stroked from different directions.
Inbiwa,tuning is not fixed. Generaltones andpitches can fluctuate up or down entire steps ormicrotones.[9] When singing in a chorus,biwa singers often stagger their entry and often sing through non-synchronized,heterophony accompaniment.[10] In solo performances, abiwa performer singsmonophonically, withmelismatic emphasis throughout the performance. These monophonic do not follow a set harmony. Instead,biwa singers tend to sing with a flexible pitch without distinguishingsoprano,alto,tenor, orbass roles. This singing style is complemented by thebiwa, whichbiwa players use to produce short glissandi throughout the performance.[11] The style of singing accompanyingbiwa tends to be nasal, particularly when singing vowels, the consonantん, and syllables beginning with "g", such asga (が) andgi (ぎ).Biwa performers also vary the volume of their voice between barely audible to very loud. Sincebiwa pieces were generally performed for small groups, singers did not need to project their voices asopera singers did in Western music tradition.
Biwa music is based on apentatonic scale (sometimes referred to as a five-tone or five-note scale), meaning that eachoctave contains five notes. This scale sometimes includes supplementary notes, but the core remainspentatonic. The rhythm inbiwa performances allows for a broad flexibility of pulse. Songs are not always metered, although more modern collaborations are metered. Notes played on thebiwa usually begin slow and thin and progress through gradual accelerations, increasing and decreasing tempo throughout the performance. The texture ofbiwa singing is often described as "sparse".
Theplectrum also contributes to the texture ofbiwa music. Different sized plectrums produced different textures; for example, the plectrum used on amōsō-biwa was much larger than that used on agaku-biwa, producing a harsher, more vigorous sound.[12] The plectrum is also critical to creating thesawari sound, which is particularly utilized withsatsuma-biwa.[13] What the plectrum is made of also changes the texture, with ivory and plastic plectrums creating a more resilient texture to the wooden plectrum's twangy hum.[14]
Biwa usage in Japan has declined greatly since theHeian period. Outside influence, internal pressures, and socio-political turmoil redefinedbiwa patronage and the image of thebiwa; for example, theŌnin War of theMuromachi period (1338–1573) and the subsequentWarring States period (15th–17th centuries) disrupted the cycle of tutelage forheikyoku[citation needed][a] performers. As a result, younger musicians turned to other instruments and interest inbiwa music decreased. Even thebiwa hōshi transitioned to other instruments such as theshamisen (a three-stringed lute).[15]
Interest in thebiwa was revived during theEdo period (1600–1868), whenTokugawa Ieyasu unified Japan and established theTokugawa shogunate. Ieyasu favoredbiwa music and became a major patron, helping to strengthenbiwa guilds (calledTodo) by financing them and allowing them special privileges.Shamisen players and other musicians found it financially beneficial to switch to thebiwa, bringing new styles ofbiwa music with them. The Edo period proved to be one of the most prolific and artistically creative periods for thebiwa in its long history in Japan.
In 1868, the Tokugawa shogunate collapsed, giving way to theMeiji period and theMeiji Restoration, during which thesamurai class was abolished, and theTodo lost their patronage.Biwa players no longer enjoyed special privileges and were forced to support themselves. At the beginning of the Meiji period, it was estimated that there were at least one hundred traditional court musicians in Tokyo; however, by the 1930s, this number had reduced to just 46 in Tokyo, and a quarter of these musicians later died inWorld War II. Life inpost-war Japan was difficult, and many musicians abandoned their music in favor of more sustainable livelihoods.[16]
While many styles ofbiwa flourished in the early 1900s (such askindai-biwa between 1900 and the 1930s), the cycle of tutelage was broken yet again by the war. In the present day, there are no direct means of studying thebiwa in manybiwa traditions.[17] Evenhigo-biwa players, who were quite popular in the early 20th century, may no longer have a direct means of studying oral composition, as the bearers of the tradition have either died or are no longer able to play.Kindai-biwa still retains a significant number of professional and amateur practitioners, but thezato,heike, andmoso-biwa styles have all but died out.[18]
Asbiwa music declined in post-Pacific War Japan, many Japanese composers and musicians found ways to revitalize interest in it. They recognized that studies inmusic theory andmusic composition in Japan almost entirely consisted in Western theory and instruction. Beginning in the late 1960s, these musicians and composers began to incorporate Japanese music and Japanese instruments into their compositions; for example, one composer,Tōru Takemitsu, collaborated with Western composers and compositions to include the distinctly Asianbiwa. His well-received compositions, such asNovember Steps, which incorporatedbiwa heikyoku with Western orchestral performance, revitalized interest in thebiwa and sparked a series of collaborative efforts by other musician in genres ranging fromJ-Pop andenka toshin-hougaku andgendaigaku.[19]
Other musicians, such as Yamashika Yoshiyuki, considered by most ethnomusicologists to be the last of thebiwa hōshi, preserved scores of songs that were almost lost forever. Yamashika, born in the late Meiji period, continued thebiwa hōshi tradition until his death in 1996. Beginning in the late 1960s to the late 1980s, composers and historians from all over the world visited Yamashika and recorded many of his songs; before this time, thebiwa hōshi tradition had been a completely oral tradition. When Yamashika died in 1996, the era of thebiwa hōshi tutelage died with him, but the music and genius of that era continues thanks to his recordings.[20]
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