Movatterモバイル変換

[0]ホーム

Jump to content

Zuni language

Edit links

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Language indigenous to New Mexico

This article has multiple issues. Please helpimprove it or discuss these issues on thetalk page.(Learn how and when to remove these messages)

This article'slead sectionmay need to be rewritten. Please review thelead guide and helpimprove the lead of this article if you can.(September 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

This article includes a list ofgeneral references, butit lacks sufficient correspondinginline citations. Please help toimprove this article byintroducing more precise citations.(February 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

(Learn how and when to remove this message)

Zuni
Shiwiʼma
Pronunciation	[ˈʃiwiʔma]
Native to	U.S.
Region	WesternNew Mexico
Ethnicity	Zuni
Native speakers	9,620 (2015)^[1]
Language family	Language isolate
Language codes
ISO 639-2	`zun`
ISO 639-3	`zun`
Glottolog	`zuni1245`
ELP	Zuni
Pre-European contact distribution of Zuni
This article containsIPA phonetic symbols. Without properrendering support, you may seequestion marks, boxes, or other symbols instead ofUnicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, seeHelp:IPA.

Zuni (/ˈzuːni/ZOO-nee;endonym:Shiwiʼma) is a language of theZuni people, indigenous to westernNew Mexico and easternArizona in theUnited States. It is spoken by around 9,500 people, especially in the vicinity ofZuni Pueblo,New Mexico, and much smaller numbers in parts ofArizona.

Unlike most indigenous languages in the United States, Zuni is still spoken by a significant number of children and, thus, is comparatively less threatened withlanguage endangerment. Edmund Ladd reported in 1994 that Zuni is still the main language of communication in the pueblo and is used in the home (Newman 1996).^[2]

The Zuni name for their own language,Shiwiʼma (shiwi "Zuni" +-ʼma "vernacular"; pronounced[ˈʃiwiʔma]) can be translated as "Zuni way", whereas its speakers are collectively known asʼA:shiwi (ʼa:(w)- "plural" +shiwi "Zuni").

Classification

[edit]

Zuni is considered alanguage isolate. The Zuni have, however, borrowed a number of words fromKeres,Hopi, andO’odham pertaining to religion and religious observances.^[3]

A number of possible relationships of Zuni to other languages have been proposed by various researchers, although none of these have gained general acceptance. The main hypothetical proposals have been connections withPenutian (and Penutioid and Macro-Penutian),Tanoan, andHokan phyla, and also theKeresan languages.

The most clearly articulated hypothesis is Newman's (1964) connection to Penutian, but even this was considered by Newman (according toMichael Silverstein) to be a tongue-in-cheek work due to the inherently problematic nature of the methodology used in Penutian studies (Goddard 1996). Newman's cognate sets suffered from common problems incomparative linguistics, such as comparing commonly borrowed forms (e.g. "tobacco"), forms with large semantic differences (e.g. "bad" and "garbage", "horse" and "hoof"), nursery forms, and onomatopoetic forms (Campbell 1997). Zuni was also included underMorris Swadesh's Penutioid proposal andJoseph Greenberg's very inclusive Penutian sub-grouping – both without convincing arguments (Campbell 1997).

Zuni was included as being part of the Aztec-Tanoan language family withinEdward Sapir's heuristic1929 classification (without supporting evidence). Later discussions of the Aztec-Tanoan hypothesis usually excluded Zuni (Foster 1996).

Karl-Heinz Gursky published problematic unconvincing evidence for a Keresan-Zuni grouping.J. P. Harrington wrote one unpublished paper with the title "Zuñi Discovered to be Hokan" (Campbell 1997).

Language contact

[edit]

As Zuni is a language in thePueblo linguistic area, it shares a number of features withHopi, Keresan, andTanoan (and to a lesser extentNavajo) that are probably due tolanguage contact. The development ofejective consonants in Zuni may be due to contact with Keresan and Tanoan languages which have complete series of ejectives. Likewise,aspirated consonants may have diffused into Zuni. Other shared traits include: final devoicing of vowels andsonorant consonants,dual number, ceremonial vocabulary, and the presence of alabialized velar[kʷ] (Campbell 1997).

Phonology

[edit]

Main article:Zuni phonology

The 16 consonants of Zuni (withIPA phonetic symbol when different from the orthography) are the following:

	Bilabial	Dental/Alveolar		Post- alveolar	Palatal	Velar		Glottal
	Bilabial	median	lateral	Post- alveolar	Palatal	plain	labial	Glottal
Nasal	m	n
Plosive	p	t				k⟨k, ky⟩	kʷ⟨kw⟩	ʔ⟨ʼ⟩
Affricate		ts		tʃ⟨ch⟩
Fricative		s	ɬ⟨ł⟩	ʃ⟨sh⟩				h
Approximant			l		j⟨y⟩		w

The vowels are the following:

	Front	back
High	i	u
Mid	e	o
Low	a

Zunisyllables have the following specification:

C(C)V(ː)(C)(C)

Morphology

[edit]

Word order in Zuni is fairly free with a tendency toward SOV. There is no case-marking on nouns. Verbs are complex, compared to nouns, with loose incorporation. Like other languages in the Southwest, Zuni employsswitch-reference.

Newman (1965, 1996) classifies Zuni words according to their structuralmorphological properties (namely the presence and type of inflectional suffixes), not according to their associated syntactic frames. His terms,noun andsubstantive, are therefore not synonymous.

Pronouns

[edit]

Zuni uses overt pronouns for first and second persons. There are no third person pronouns.^[4] The pronouns distinguish three numbers (singular, dual and plural) and three cases (subject, object and possessive). In addition, some subject and possessive pronouns have different forms depending on whether they appear utterance-medially or utterance-finally (object pronouns do not occur utterance-medially). All pronoun forms are shown in the following table:

		Subject		Object	Possessive
		Medial	Final	Object	Medial	Final
1st person	singular	hoʼ	ho:ʼo	hom	hom	homma
	dual	hon	hoʼno	hoʼnaʼ	hoʼnaʼ	hoʼnaʼ
	plural	hon	hoʼno	hoʼnaʼ	hoʼnʼa:wan	hoʼnʼa:wan
2nd person	singular	doʼ	do:ʼo	dom	dom	domma
	dual	don	doʼno	doʼnaʼ	doʼnaʼ	doʼnaʼ
	plural	don	doʼno	doʼnaʼ	doʼnʼa:wan	doʼnʼa:wan

There is syncretism between dual and plural non-possessive forms in the first and second persons. Utterances with these pronouns are typically disambiguated by the fact that plural pronouns agree with plural-marked verb forms.

Sociolinguistics

[edit]

This sectionneeds expansion. You can help byadding missing information.(June 2008)

storytelling (Delapna:we) – Tedlock (1972)
ceremonial speech – Newman (1955)
slang – Newman (1955)

Names

[edit]

Zuni adults are often known after the relationship between that adult and a child. For example, a person might be called "father of so-and-so", etc. The circumlocution is used to avoid using adult names, which have religious meanings and are very personal.^[5]

Orthography

[edit]

There are twenty letters in the Zuni alphabet.

Uppercase

’

Lowercase

’

Double consonants indicate geminate (long) sounds, for instance the⟨nn⟩ inshiwayanne "car", is pronounced/nː/.
Long vowels are indicated with acolon⟨:⟩ following the vowel as the[aː] inwa'ma:we "animals".
⟨c⟩ is not part of the alphabet, although the digraph⟨ch⟩ is. There are also other two-letter combination sounds (like⟨sh⟩).
⟨c, r, g, v, z, x, q, f, j⟩ are not used to write Zuni, except for the occasional borrowed word.
⟨ł⟩ indicates IPA/ɬ/ (avoiceless alveolar lateral fricative, pronounced roughly likeh andl together).
⟨ʼ⟩ indicates IPA/ʔ/ (aglottal stop) – it is written medially and finally but not word-initially.

This orthography was largely worked out by Curtis Cook.

Old orthographies

[edit]

Linguists and anthropologists have created and used their own writing system for Zuni before the alphabet was standardized. One was developed for Zuni by linguist Stanley Newman (Newman 1954). This practicalorthography essentially followedAmericanist phonetic notation with the substitution of some uncommon letters with other letters or digraphs (two-letter combinations). A further revised orthography is used in Dennis Tedlock's transcriptions of oralnarratives.

See the table below for a comparison of the systems.

Tedlock	Newman	Americanist	Current orthography	IPA
ʼ	/	ʔ	ʼ	/ʔ/
ʼʼ	//	ʔʔ	ʼʼ	/ʔː/
a	a	a	a	/a/
aa	a:	aˑ	a:	/aː/
ch	ch	č	ch	/tʃ/
cch	chch	čč	chh	/tʃː/
e	e	e	e	/e/
ee	e:	eˑ	e:	/eː/
i	i	i	i	/i/
ii	i:	iˑ	i:	/iː/
h	j	h	h	/h/
hh	jj	hh	hh	/hː/
k	k	k	k	/k/
kk	kk	kk	kk	/kː/
kw	q	kʷ	kw	/kʷ/
kkw	qq	kʷkʷ	kkw	/kʷː/
l	l	l	l	/l/
ll	ll	ll	ll	/lː/
lh	lh	ł	ł	/ɬ/
llh	lhlh	łł	łł	/ɬː/
m	m	m	m	/m/

Tedlock	Newman	Americanist	Current orthography	IPA
mm	mm	mm	mm	/mː/
n	n	n	n	/n/
nn	nn	nn	nn	/nː/
o	o	o	o	/o/
oo	o:	oˑ	o:	/oː/
p	p	p	p	/p/
pp	pp	pp	pp	/pː/
s	s	s	s	/s/
ss	ss	ss	ss	/sː/
sh	sh	š	sh	/ʃ/
ssh	shsh	šš	shh	/ʃː/
t	t	t	t	/t/
tt	tt	tt	tt	/tː/
ts	z	c	ts	/ts/
tts	zz	cc	tts	/tsː/
u	u	u	u	/u/
uu	u:	uˑ	u:	/uː/
w	w	w	w	/w/
ww	ww	ww	ww	/wː/
y	y	y	y	/j/
yy	yy	yy	yy	/jː/

In Newman's orthography (used in his dictionary, Newman 1958), the symbols,⟨ch, j, lh, q, sh, z, /, :⟩ replaced Americanist⟨č, h, ł, kʷ, š, c, ʔ,ˑ⟩ (used in Newman's grammar, Newman 1965).

Tedlock's orthography uses⟨ʼ⟩ instead of Newman's⟨/⟩ except at the beginning of words where it is not written. Additionally, in Tedlock's system, long vowels are written doubled instead of with a length mark⟨:⟩ as in Newman's system (e.g.⟨aa⟩ instead of⟨a:⟩) and⟨h⟩ and⟨kw⟩ are used instead of⟨j⟩ and⟨q⟩. Finally, Tedlock writes the following long consonants –⟨cch, llh, ssh, tts⟩ – with a doubled initial letter instead of Newman's doubling of the digraphs –⟨chch⟩,⟨lhlh⟩,⟨shsh⟩ – and⟨kkw⟩ and⟨tts⟩ are used instead of Newman's⟨qq⟩ and⟨zz⟩.

Notes

[edit]

^Zuni atEthnologue (19th ed., 2016)
^From "Pueblo of Zuni Head Start Program FY 2018 Annual Report" available on the Zuni Pueblo web site:The Zuni Language and Culture Through the years, the Zuni Head Start Program has seen a decline of the native language spoken by children and their parents The parents of our children are young and speak mostly the English language. The lack of the native language spoken in the home is the primary reason our children do not speak their native language. Most parents are able to understand the native language but unable to speak the language fluently. Families who live with elders such as grandparents, aunts or uncles speak more of their native language and are fluent speakers. The percentage of children speaking their native language has declined over the last 29 years; therefore the Zuni Head Start Program has taken an active stance to incorporate the daily use of the Zuni language in the classrooms, which include the teaching of the Zuni culture. There is a lot of encouragement for everyone in the center to speak the Zuni language in social conversations so that our children will hear the language and become to be [sic] comfortable to speak [sic] their language. Language use of the children enrolled in Head Start:137 Children spoke English as their primary language15 Children spoke Zuni as their primary language.This indicates only 16 percent of the Zuni children are able to understand and speak their native language.
^Hill, Jane H. "Zunian as a Language Isolate."American Southwest Vol. 22, No. 2, Spring 2008, p. 3
^Nichols, Lynn (1997).Topics in Zuni Syntax. Harvard University. p. 35.
^Kroeber, Albert L. (1917). Zuñi kin and clan. Anthropological papers of the American Museum of Natural History (Vol. 18, Pt. 2). New York: The Trustees. (Online: digitallibrary.amnh.org/dspace/handle/2246/97).

References

[edit]

Bunzel, Ruth L. (1932a). Zuñi origin myths. In47th annual report of the Bureau of American Ethnology for the years 1929–1930 (pp. 545–609). Washington.
Bunzel, Ruth L. (1932b). Zuñi ritual poetry. In47th annual report of the Bureau of American Ethnology for the years 1929–1930 (pp. 611–835). Washington.
Bunzel, Ruth L. (1933).Zuni texts. Publications of the American Ethnological Society (No. 15). New York: G.E. Steckert & Co.ISBN 0-404-58165-X
Bunzel, Ruth L. (1934). Zuni. InHandbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 3, pp. 383–515). Gluckstadt: J. J. Augustin.
Campbell, Lyle. (1997).American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press.ISBN 0-19-509427-1.
Cannell, Joseph R. (2007).On the Language Family Classifications of Zuni [Online] Available: www.josephcannell.yahoo.com [2007, April 15]
Condie, Carol. (1973). Problems of a Chomskyan analysis of Zuni transitivity.International Journal of American Linguistics,39, 207-223.
Cook, Curtis D. (1975). Nucleus and margin of Zuni clause types.Linguistics,13 5-37.
Cushing, Frank Hamilton. (1975).Zuni breadstuff. Indian notes and monographs (Vol. 8). AMS Press.ISBN 0-404-11835-6
Davis, Nancy Yaw. (2000).The Zuni enigma. Norton.ISBN 0-393-04788-1
Davis, Irvine. (1966). [Review ofZuni grammar by Stanley Newman].International Journal of American Linguistics,32, 82-84.
Dutton, Bertha P. (1983).American Indians of the Southwest. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.
Foster, Michael K. (1996). Language and the culture history of North America. In I. Goddard (Ed.) Handbook of North American Indians: Languages (Vol. 17, pp. 64–110). Washington: Smithsonian Institution.
Goddard, Ives. (1996). The classification of the native languages of North America. In I. Goddard (Ed.)Handbook of North American Indians: Languages (Vol. 17, pp. 290–323). Washington: Smithsonian Institution.
Granberry, Julian. (1967).Zuni syntax. (Doctoral dissertation, SUNY Buffalo).
Hickerson, Nancy P. (1975). Two studies of color: Implications for cross-cultural comparability of semantic categories. In M. D. Kinkade, K. Hale, & O. Werner (Eds.),Linguistics and anthropology: In honor of C. F. Voegelin (pp. 317–330). The Peter De Ridder Press.
Hymes, Dell H. (1957). Some Penutian elements and the Penutian hypothesis.Southwestern Journal of Anthropology,13, 69-87.
Kroeber, Albert L. (1917).Zuñi kin and clan. Anthropological papers of the American Museum of Natural History (Vol. 18, Pt. 2). New York: The Trustees.
Miller, Wick R. (1996). The ethnography of speaking. In I. Goddard (Ed.)Handbook of North American Indians: Languages (Vol. 17, pp. 222–243). Washington: Smithsonian Institution.
Miner, Kenneth L. (1986). Noun stripping and loose incorporation in Zuni.International Journal of American Linguistics,52, 242-254.
Mithun, Marianne (Ed.). (1999).The languages of native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Newman, Stanley. (1954). A practical Zuni orthography. In J. Roberts & W. Smith (Eds.),Zuni law: A field of values (pp. 163–170). Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology (Vol. 43, No. 1). Cambridge, MA: Peabody Museum, Harvard University.ISBN 0-527-01312-9
Newman, Stanley. (1955). Vocabulary levels: Zuni sacred and slang usage.Southwestern Journal of Anthropology,11, 345-354.
Newman, Stanley. (1958).Zuni dictionary. Indiana University research center publications (No. 6). Bloomington: Indiana University.
Newman, Stanley. (1964). Comparison of Zuni and California Penutian.International Journal of American Linguistics,30, 1-13.
Newman, Stanley. (1965).Zuni grammar. University of New Mexico publications in anthropology (No. 14). Albuquerque: University of New Mexico.
Newman, Stanley. (1967). Zuni grammar: Alternative solutions versus weaknesses.International Journal of American Linguistics,33, 187-192.
Newman, Stanley. (1967). The Zuni verb 'to be'. In J. W. Verhaar (Ed.),Foundations of language, supplemental series (Vol. 1). The Humanities Press.
Newman, Stanley. (1996). Sketch of the Zuni language. In I. Goddard (Ed.)Handbook of North American Indians: Languages (Vol. 17, pp. 483–506). Washington: Smithsonian Institution.
Nichols, Lynn. (1990). Direct quotation and switch reference in Zuni. InProceedings of the Berkeley Linguistics Society (No. 16, pp. 90–100).
Nichols, Lynn. (1993). Recovering Zuni auxiliaries and their role in event classification.Harvard Studies in Linguistics,3, 92-108.
Nichols, Lynn. (1998).Topics in Zuni syntax. (Doctoral dissertation, Harvard).
Parsons, Elsie Clews. (1927). Zuñi names and naming practices.The Journal of American Folklore,36 (140), 171-176.
Stout, Carol. (1972).Zuni transitivity: A generative approach. (Doctoral dissertation, University of New Mexico).
Tedlock, Dennis. (1972).Finding the center: Narrative poetry of the Zuni Indians. New York: Dial.
Tedlock, Dennis. (1978). Coyote and Junco. In W. Bright (Ed.),Coyote stories (pp. 171–177). Chicago: The Chicago University Press.
Tedlock, Dennis. (1983).The spoken word and the work of interpretation. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania.
Tedlock, Dennis. (1999).Finding the center: The art of the Zuni storyteller (2nd ed.). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Walker, Willard. (1964).Reference, taxonomy and inflection in Zuni. (Doctoral dissertation, Cornell University).
Walker, Willard. (1966). [Review ofZuni grammar by Stanley Newman].Language,42 (1), 176-180.
Walker, Willard. (1966). Inflection and taxonomic structure in Zuni.International Journal of American Linguistics,32 (3), 217-227.
Walker, Willard. (1979). Zuni semantic categories. In A. Ortiz (Ed.),Handbook of North American Indians: Southwest (Vol. 9, pp. 509–513). Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.
Walker, Willard. (1983). What Zuni is really like. In F. Agard, G. Kelley, A. Makkai, V. B. Makkai (Eds.),Essays in honor of Charles F. Hockett (pp. 551–562). Leiden: E. J. Brill.
Watts, Linda. (1992).Relational terminology at Zuni Pueblo: A social semiotic case study. (Doctoral dissertation, Arizona State University).
Yumitani, Yukihiro. (1987).A comparative sketch of Pueblo languages: Phonology Archived 2007-06-11 at theWayback Machine. InKansas working papers in linguistics (No. 12, pp. 119–139). University of Kansas.

External links

[edit]

Zuni language test ofWikipedia atWikimedia Incubator

Zuni World View Archived 2013-06-04 at theWayback Machine "Linguistic and Ontological Implications of the Conceptual Presuppositions of the Zuni Worldview", HTML and PDF.
English-Zuni Word list
English-Zuni Conversational phrases
Zuni Bible Portions
Zuni (Intercontinental Dictionary Series)

Languages of New Mexico

Indigenous

Tanoan	Jemez Picuris †Piro Southern Tiwa Taos Tewa
Na-Dene	Jicarilla Mescalero-Chiricahua Navajo
Isolate	Keresan Zuni

European

Sign languages

Category

Languages of Arizona

Indigenous

Athabaskan	Mescalero-Chiricahua Navajo Western Apache
Tanoan	Tewa
Uto-Aztecan	Hopi Oʼodham Southern Paiute Yaqui
Yuman-Cochimí	Cocopah †Halchidhoma Havasupai-Hualapai Maricopa Mojave Quechan Yavapai
Language isolates	Zuni

Non-Indigenous

Indo-European	English Spanish

Category

Primary language families

Africa

Afroasiatic Austronesian Khoe–Kwadi Kxʼa Niger–Congo? Atlantic–Congo Dogon Ijoid Katloid Kru Lafofa Mande Rashad Siamou Talodi–Heiban? Ubangian? Nilo-Saharan? Berta Bʼaga Central Sudanic Daju Eastern Jebel Furan Kadu Koman Gule Kresh Kuliak Kunama Nara Nilotic Nubian Nyima Maban Mimi of Decorse Saharan Songhay Surmic Taman Temein Tuu
Isolates	Bangime Hadza Jalaa Laal Meroitic? Ongota Sandawe Shabo

Eurasia
(Europe
andAsia)

Afroasiatic
Ainu
Austroasiatic
Austronesian
Chukotko-Kamchatkan
Dravidian
Eskaleut
Great Andamanese
Hmong–Mien
Hurro-Urartian
Indo-European
Japonic
Kartvelian
Koreanic
Kra–Dai
Mongolic
Nivkh
Northeast Caucasian
Northwest Caucasian
Ongan
Sino-Tibetan
Tungusic
Turkic
Tyrsenian
Uralic
Xiongnu
Yeniseian
Yukaghir
Arunachal?
- Digaro?
- Kho-Bwa?
- Mijiic?
- Miju?
- Siangic?

Isolates

New Guinea
andthe Pacific

Isolates

Australia

Bunuban Eastern Daly Eastern Tasmanian Garawan Gunwinyguan Iwaidjan Jarrakan Maningrida Mirndi Northeastern Tasmanian Northern Tasmanian Nyulnyulan Pama–Nyungan Southern Daly Tangkic Wagaydyic (Northern Daly?) Western Daly Western Tasmanian Worrorran Arnhem/Macro-Gunwinyguan? Darwin Region? Marrku–Wurrugu? Yangmanic–Wagiman?
Isolates	Giimbiyu Malak-Malak (Northern Daly?) Tiwi Wagiman Wardaman Gaagudju? Kungarakany?

North
America

Algic Caddoan Chimakuan Chinookan Chumashan Comecrudan Coosan Eskaleut Iroquoian Kalapuyan Maiduan Muskogean Na-Dene Palaihnihan Plateau Penutian Pomoan Salishan Shastan Siouan Tanoan Tsimshianic Utian Uto-Aztecan Wakashan Wintuan Yuki–Wappo Yuman–Cochimí
Isolates	Alsea Atakapa Cayuse Chimariko Chitimacha Coahuilteco Cotoname Esselen Haida Karuk Kutenai Natchez Salinan Seri Siuslaw Takelma Timucua Tonkawa Tunica Waikuri Washo Yana Yuchi Zuni Keres? Yokuts?

Mesoamerica

Arawakan Chibchan Jicaquean Lencan Mayan Misumalpan Mixe–Zoque Oto-Manguean Tequistlatecan Totonacan Uto-Aztecan Xincan
Isolates	Cuitlatec Huave Purépecha

South
America

Isolates

Sign
languages

Arab Australian Aboriginal BANZSL Chinese Francosign Germanosign Hand Talk Indo-Pakistani Japanese Mayan Original Thai Swedish Paraguay–Uruguay? Providencia–Cayman? Sudanese? Tanzanian? Vietnamese?
Isolates	Seelist of sign languages Village sign languages