| Zinfandel | |
|---|---|
| Grape (Vitis) | |
 Zinfandel grapes ripening on the vine | |
| Species | Vitis vinifera |
| Also called | Primitivo, Kratošija, Crljenak Kaštelanski |
| Origin | Croatia |
| Notable regions | California,Apulia,Dalmatia,Skadar Lake Basin, MontenegroVardar River Valley North Macedonia |
| Hazards | Bunch rot, uneven ripening |
| VIVC number | 9703 |
Zinfandel, known asPrimitivo in Italy andCrljenak Kaštelanski orTribidrag in Croatia, and asKratošija (kraˈtɔʃija) in Montenegro, is avariety of black-skinnedwine grape. The variety is grown in over 10 percent ofCalifornia vineyards.[1]
The grape originated inCroatia[citation needed], spread toItaly in the 18th century and to theUnited States in the mid-19th century. This spread brought with it a variety of regional names for the same grape, obscuring its origin. In the 1990s, after a three decade search,DNA analysis revealed an identical genetic identity for these various regional names.[2]
The grapes typically produce a robust redwine, although in the United States, a semi-sweetrosé (blush-style) wine calledWhite Zinfandel has six times the sales of the red wine.[3] The grape's high sugar content can befermented into levels of alcohol exceeding 15 percent.[4]
The taste of the red wine depends on theripeness of the grapes from which it is made. Red berry fruit flavors likeraspberry predominate in wines from cooler areas,[5] whereasblackberry,anise andpepper notes are more common in wines made in warmer areas[5] and in wines made from the earlier-ripening Primitivo clone.
Archaeological evidence indicates that domestication ofVitis vinifera occurred in theCaucasus region around 6000 BC, andwinemaking was discovered shortly after that.[6] Cultivation of the vine subsequently spread to theMediterranean and surrounding regions.
The earliest known mention of this grape dates to 1444 under the nameTribidrag, as attested by don Juraj Radičević, priest of the church of Holy Cross inVodice, in Croatia’sDalmatia region, then part ofVenetian Republic.[7] Another early mention of this variety, under the nameCratosia, is recorded in the medieval Statute of Budva (Statuta civitatis Buduae), chapter 261, which dates to the period 1426–1442[1][2].Budva is a town inMontenegro, where the variety is now known asKratošija. Croatia once had several indigenous varieties related to Zinfandel,[8] which formed the basis of its wine industry in the 19th century. This diversity suggests that the grapes have been grown in Croatia longer than anywhere else.[citation needed].These varieties were almost entirely wiped out, however, by thephylloxera epidemic of the late 19th century. Eventually, when Zinfandel’s DNA match withCrljenak Kaštelanski, contemporary Croatian name for Tribidrag, was discovered in 2001 inKaštela, it’s cultivation experienced rebirth.[8]
However, throughout the 20th century, leading ampelographers from Montenegro, Croatia,Serbia, andNorth Macedonia (the countries of the formerYugoslavia), such as Stojanović (1929)[3], Bulić (1949)[4], Ulićević (1959)[5], Burić (1995)[6], and Maraš (2000)[7], regularly identified Kratošija as an autochthonous Montenegrin variety, noting its likely spread from Montenegro into Dalmatia and Macedonia (present-day North Macedonia). Modern international genetic research also supports that Montenegro holds the most heterogeneous and polymorphic populations of the variety, which indicates long-term cultivation in the area and subsequent dissemination to neighbouring regions. Based on these findings, the authors concluded that Montenegro represents the best candidate for the origin of the cultivar.[8][9].
It is assumed that the grape have been introduced as a distinct clone into Italy'sApulia region in the 18th century, then part ofKingdom of Naples.[9] In the 1790s, Don Francesco Filippo Indellicati, the priest of the church atGioia del Colle nearBari (across the Adriatic Sea from the Montenegrin town ofBar), selected an early ("primo") ripening plant of the Zagarese variety and planted it in Liponti. This clone ripened at the end of August and became widespread throughout northern Apulia.[10] The first documented use of the termPrimitivo appears in Italian governmental publications of the 1870s.[4] The name derives from the termsprimativus orprimaticcio, which refer to the grape's tendency to ripen earlier than other varieties.[9]
The arrival of Zinfandel in the United States may have been via the Imperial Nursery inVienna, Austria, which probably obtained the vines during theHabsburg monarchy's control over theDalmatian territories of the formerRepublic of Venice.[11][12] George Gibbs, a horticulturist onLong Island, received shipments of grapes fromSchönbrunn and elsewhere in Europe between 1820 and 1829.[11] Sullivan suggests that the "Black Zinfardel of Hungary" mentioned byWilliam Robert Prince inA Treatise on the Vine (1830) may have referred to one of Gibbs's 1829 acquisitions. Webster suggests that the name is a modification of the Hungariantzinifándli (czirifandli), which derives from the GermanZierfandler,[13] a white grape (GrünerSylvaner) fromAustria'sThermenregion.
Gibbs visited Boston in 1830, and Samuel Perkins of that city began selling "Zenfendal" soon afterward. In 1830, Gibbs also supplied Prince with "Black St. Peters," a similar variety that may have come from England, where many vines have "St. Peters" in their names. Little is known about this vine, except that the Black St. Peters that arrived in California in the 1850s was the same as what became known as Zinfandel by the 1870s.[11]
By 1835 Charles M. Hovey, Boston's leading nurseryman, was recommending "Zinfindal" as a table grape. It was soon widely grown in heated greenhouses to produce table grapes as early as June. The first reference to making wine from "Zinfindal" appears in John Fisk Allen'sPractical Treatise in the Culture and Treatment of the Grape Vine (1847). Meanwhile, the fad of hothouse cultivation faded in the 1850s as attention turned to theConcord and other grape varieties that could be grown outdoors in Boston.[11]
Prince and other nurserymen, such as Frederick W. Macondray (future son-in-law ofFaxon Atherton), joined theCalifornia Gold Rush in the 1850s and took Zinfandel with them. Prince's notebook records that the grape dried "perfectly to Raisin" and that he believed his Zinfandel was the same as the "Black Sonora" he found in California. When the vine known as "Black St. Peters" arrived in California, it was initially regarded as a distinct variety, but by the 1870s, it was recognized as the same grape as Zinfandel.[11]
Sacramento nurserymanA.P. Smith listed "Black St. Peter's" among the 24 grape varieties he was propagating in a sales catalog in 1856 and he exhibited "Zeinfindall" at the state fair in 1858.[14][15] Joseph W. Osborne planted Zinfandel from Macondray at his Oak Knoll vineyard just north of Napa, and his wine was much praised in 1857.[4] Planting of Zinfandel boomed soon after, and by the end of the 19th century, it was the most widespread variety in California.[16]
These Zinfandelold vines are now treasured for the production of premium red wine, but many were ripped up in the 1920s, during theProhibition years (1920–1933), but not for the obvious reason. Even during the Prohibition, home winemaking remained effectively legal,[17] and some vineyards embraced the sale of grapes for making wine at home. While Zinfandel grapes proved popular among home winemakers living near the vineyards, it was vulnerable to rot on the long journey to East Coast markets.[18] The thick-skinnedAlicante Bouschet was less susceptible to rot, so this and similar varieties were widely planted for the home winemaking market.[18][19] In 1931, 3000 cars – about 38,000 short tons (34,000 t) – of Zinfandel grapes were shipped, compared to 6000 cars of Alicante Bouschet.[18]
By 1930, the wine industry had weakened due to theGreat Depression andProhibition.[20] Many vineyards that survived by supplying the home market were located in California'sCentral Valley, a non-optimal environment for growing quality Zinfandel.[18] Thus, the end of Prohibition left a shortage of quality wine grapes,[18] and Zinfandel sank into obscurity as most was blended into undistinguished fortified wines. However, some producers remained interested in making singlevarietal red wines.
By the middle of the 20th century, the origins of California Zinfandel had been forgotten. In 1972, one British wine writer wrote, "there is a fascinating Californian grape, the zinfandel, said to have come from Hungary, but apparently, acépage now unknown there."[21] In 1974 and 1981, American wine writers described it as "a California original, grown nowhere else"[22] and "California's own red grape".[23]
In 1972, Bob Trinchero of theSutter Home Winery decided to try draining some juice from the vats to impart more tannins and color to his Deaver Vineyard Zinfandel. He vinified this juice as a dry wine, and tried to sell it under the name ofOeil de Perdrix, a Swiss wine made by thissaignée method.[24] TheBureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms insisted on an English translation, so he added "White Zinfandel" to the name, and sold 220 cases.[24] At the time, demand for white wine exceeded the availability of white wine grapes, encouraging other California producers to make "white" wine from red grapes, with minimal skin contact.[25] However, in 1975, Trinchero's wine experienced astuck fermentation, a problem in which theyeast dies off before all the sugar is converted to alcohol.[26] He put the wine aside for two weeks, tasted it, and decided to sell this pinker, sugary wine.[24] Just asMateus Rosé had become a huge success in Europe after World War II, this mediumsweet White Zinfandel became immensely popular.[26] White Zinfandel still accounts for 9.9% of U.S. wine sales by volume (6.3% by value), six times the sales of red Zinfandel.[3] Most white Zinfandel is made from grapes grown for that purpose in California's Central Valley.
Wine critics considered white Zinfandel to be insipid and uninteresting in the 1970s and 1980s, although modern white Zinfandels have more fruit and less cloying sweetness.[4] Nevertheless, the success of thisblush wine saved many old vines in premium areas, which came into their own at the end of the 20th century as red Zinfandel wines came back into fashion. Although the two wines taste dramatically different, both are made from the same (red) grapes but processed differently.
Zinfandel was long considered "America's vine and wine,"[27] but whenUniversity of California, Davis (UCD) professor Austin Goheen visitedItaly in 1967, he noticed how the wine made from Primitivo reminded him of Zinfandel.[28] Others also made the connection about that time.[29] Primitivo was brought to California in 1968, andampelographers declared it identical to Zinfandel in 1972. The first wine made from these California vines in 1975 also seemed identical to Zinfandel.[30] In 1975, Ph.D. student Wade Wolfe showed that the two varieties had identicalisozyme fingerprints.[31]
Dr. Lamberti of Bari had suggested to Goheen in 1976 that Primitivo might be the Croatian varietyPlavac Mali.[28] By 1982, Goheen had confirmed that they were similar but not identical, probably by isozyme analysis.[28] Some Croatians, however, became convinced that Plavac Mali was the same as Zinfandel, among them Croatian-born winemakerMike Grgich. In 1991 Grgich and other producers came together as the Zinfandel Advocates and Producers (ZAP) with the objectives of promoting the varietal and wine and supporting scientific research on Zinfandel.[16] With this support, UCD professorCarole Meredith went to Croatia and collected over 150 samples of Plavac Mali[32] throughoutDalmatia, in collaboration with theUniversity of Zagreb.[28]
In 1993, Meredith used a DNA fingerprinting technique to confirm that Primitivo and Zinfandel were clones of the same variety.[33] Comparative field trials have found that "Primitivo selections were generally superior to those of Zinfandel, having earlier fruit maturity, similar or higher yield, and similar or lower bunch rot susceptibility."[34][35] This is consistent with the theory that Primitivo was selected as an early-ripening clone of a Croatian grape[citation needed].
By 1998, Meredith's team realized that Plavac Mali wasnot Zinfandel, but that one was the parent of the other. In 2000 they discovered that Primitivo/Zinfandel was one parent of Plavac Mali.[32] The other parent of Plavac Mali was determined by Ivan Pejić and Edi Maletić (University of Zagreb) to beDobričić, an ancient variety from the Adriatic island ofŠolta.[32][16]
This discovery narrowed down the search to the central Dalmatian coastal strip and its offshoreislands. Eventually, a matching DNA fingerprint was found among the samples. The match came from a vine sampled in 2001 in the vineyard of Ivica Radunić inKaštel Novi.[32] This Crljenak Kaštelanski ("Kaštela Red") appears to represent Primitivo/Zinfandel in its original home, although some genetic divergence may have occurred since their separation. Meredith now refers to the variety as "ZPC" – Zinfandel / Primitivo / Crljenak Kaštelanski.[36]
This Croatian vineyard contained nine Crljenak Kaštelanski vines mixed with thousands of other vines. In 2002, additional vines, known locally as Pribidrag, were found in the Dalmatian coastal town ofOmiš.[37] Both clones are being propagated in California under the aegis ofRidge Vineyards, although virus infections have delayed their release.[37] The first Croatian ZPC wine was made by Edi Maletić in 2005.[38] Meanwhile, plantings of Primitivo have increased in California, where it seems to grow somewhat less vigorously than its sibling. Its wines are reputed to have more blackberry and spice flavors.[39]
The 2012 bookWine GrapesMasters of wineJancis Robinson andJulia Harding and Swiss grape geneticist Dr.José Vouillamoz detail the search for Zinfandel's origins. After years of research and DNA testing of vines from vineyards across the globe[citation needed], a single 90-year-old grapevine from the garden of an elderly lady inSplit, Croatia provided the evidence to show that Zinfandel was a Croatian grape[citation needed] that had been known asTribidrag since at least the 15th century.[2]
Local wine-labeling regulations are slowly catching up with the DNA evidence, a process that trade disputes have slowed. TheEuropean Union recognized Zinfandel as a synonym for Primitivo in January 1999,[37] meaning that Italian Primitivos can be labeled as Zinfandel in the United States and any other country that recognizes EU labeling laws.[40]Italian winemakers have taken advantage of these rules and shipped Primitivo wines to the United States labeled as Zinfandels,[16] with the approval of theAlcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB).[41]
As of December 2007, the TTB lists both Zinfandel and Primitivo as approved grape varieties for American wines, but they are not listed as synonyms;[42] U.S. producers, therefore, must label a wine according to whether it is Zinfandel or Primitivo.[40] TheBureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) proposed in 2002 that they be recognized as synonyms. In July 2008, the proposed regulation (RIN 1513–AA32, formerly RIN 1512-AC65)[43] was withdrawn.
Zinfandel is grown across the continental United States, although California grows the largest proportion.[44] U.S. producers make wine in styles that range fromlate harvestdessert wines, rosés (White Zinfandel) andBeaujolais-style light reds to big hearty reds andfortified wine in the style ofport. The quality and character of American Zinfandel wines largely depend on the climate, location, and age of the vineyard in which they are grown, as well as the technology employed by the winemaker.
Historically, California Zinfandel vines were planted as afield blend interspersed withDurif (Petite Sirah),Carignan,Grenache,Mourvèdre,Mission andMuscat. While most vineyards are now fully segregated, California winemakers continue to use other grapes (particularly Petite Sirah) in their Zinfandel wines.[44] Zinfandel is grown on approximately 11% of California's vineyard land area.[1] Around 400,000short tons (350,000tonnes) are crushed each year, depending on the harvest, placing Zinfandel third behindChardonnay andCabernet Sauvignon and just ahead ofMerlot.[45]
As of 2019, there were 39,500 acres planted in Zinfandel in California.[46] Of the state's 44 Zinfandel-growing counties, the top 10 hold some 85% of the Zinfandel growing area.[47] However, major producing areas such asSan Joaquin County,Stanislaus County, andMadera County produce Zinfandel primarily for blends orjug wine.
Certain California regions are regarded as "exceptional" for Zinfandel,[48] each with identifiable flavor characteristics:
Most Primitivo is grown inApulia, a coastal region known as the "heel" of Italy, and it is estimated to be the country's 12th most widely planted grape variety.[49] The main three DOC areas arePrimitivo di Manduria, Gioia del Colle Primitivo (Riserva) and Falerno del Massico Primitivo (Riserva o Vecchio).[50] TheManduria DOC covers still red wine as well as sweet (Dolce Naturale) and fortified (Liquoroso Dolce Naturale, Liquoroso Secco) wine.[50] Falerno requires a minimum of 85% Primitivo; the others are 100% Primitivo.[50] Gioia del Colle Rosso and Rosato contain 50–60% Primitivo, and Cilento Rosso/Rosato contains around 15%.[50]
Historically, the grape wasfermented and shipped north toTuscany andPiedmont, where it was used as a blending grape to enhance thebody of thin red wines produced in those areas. When the link between Primitivo and Zinfandel began to emerge, plantings in the region and production of non-blended varietals increased.[49] Today, most Italian Primitivo is made as a rustic, highly alcoholic red wine with up to 16%alcohol by volume (ABV). Some Italian winemakers age the wines in new Americanoak to imitate American-style Zinfandel.[44]
The Croatian form Crljenak Kaštelanski was not bottled in Croatia as a varietal in its own right before the link to Zinfandel was revealed.[37] UCD has since sent clones of both Zinfandel and Primitivo to Professor Maletić in Croatia, which he planted on the island ofHvar.[38] He made his first ZPC wines in Croatia in 2005.[38] There is high demand for red grapes in the country, and the government has supported ongoing research.[38] Figures from the department of viticulture and enology at the University of Zagreb claim that from only 22 vines of Crljenak Kaštelanski in Croatia in 2001, there were about 2,000 vines in 2008.[49]
Zinfandel is cultivated inMontenegro under the name Kratošija, the genotype sameness being discovered in 2008.[51] Old vine Zinfandel plantings dating from the 1930s have been found inBaja California, Mexico.[52] There are also small Zinfandel plantings in Western Australia,Mudgee in New South Wales[53] and theMcLaren Vale area of South Australia.[54] South Africa has a small production of Zinfandel, including one estate rated among the country's Zinfandel producers[55] and winner of an international prize.[56] In France, there is a single hectare of Zinfandel grown in the Côtes de Thongue region, sold by Domaine de l'Arjolle.[57]
Zinfandel vines are quite vigorous and grow best in warm but not too hot climates because grapes may shrivel in hot weather. Zinfandel's thin-skinned grapes grow in large, tight bunches that are sometimes prone tobunch rot. The fruit ripens reasonably early and produces juice with high sugar content. If weather conditions permit, the grapes may belate-harvested to makedessert wine.[54] Zinfandel is often praised for its ability to reflect both itsterroir and its winemaker's style and skill.[44]
The grapes exhibit an uneven pattern of ripening: a single bunch may contain both raisin-like, over-ripe grapes, and green, unripened grapes. Some winemakers choose tovinify the bunches with these varying levels of ripeness, while others hand-harvest the bunches, even by single berries, in multiple passes through the vineyards over several weeks. This extensively laborious practice is one component of the high cost of some Zinfandels.[44]
Red Zinfandel wines have been criticized for being too "hot" (too alcoholic),[4] although modern winemaking techniques have helped make them more approachable. On the other hand, Zinfandel producers such as Joel Peterson of Ravenswood believe that alcohol-removing technologies, such asreverse osmosis andspinning cones, remove a sense ofterroir from the wine. If a wine has the tannins and other components to balance 15% alcohol, Peterson argues, it should be accepted on its terms.[5]
Factors that affect the wine's flavors include the length of fermentation, length of themaceration period with skin contact, the level of oak aging, and thedegrees Brix of the harvested grapes. White Zinfandel is normally harvested early at 20°Bx when the grapes have yet to develop muchvarietal character, though some examples can develop hints of tobacco and apple skin. At 23°Bx (the degree that most red wine is considered "ripe"),strawberry flavors develop.Cherry flavors appear at 24°Bx followed by blackberry notes at 25°Bx.[44]
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