The only account of the life of Zhuangzi is a brief sketch in chapter 63 ofSima Qian'sRecords of the Grand Historian,[3] and most of the information it contains seems to have simply been drawn fromanecdotes in theZhuangzi itself.[4] In Sima's biography, he is described as a minor official from the town ofMeng (in modernAnhui) in the state ofSong, living in the time ofKing Hui of Liang andKing Xuan of Qi (late fourth century BC).[5] Sima Qian writes that Zhuangzi was especially influenced byLaozi, and that he turned down a job offer fromKing Wei of Chu, because he valued his personal freedom.[6]
His existence has been questioned by Russell Kirkland, who asserts that "there is no reliable historical data at all" for Zhuang Zhou, and that most of the available information on theZhuangzi comes from its third-century commentator,Guo Xiang.[7]
Zhuangzi is traditionally credited as the author of at least part of the work bearing his name, theZhuangzi.[8] This work, in its current shape consisting of 33 chapters, is traditionally divided into three parts: the first, known as the "Inner Chapters", consists of the first seven chapters; the second, known as the "Outer Chapters", consist of the next 15 chapters; the last, known as the "Mixed Chapters", consist of the remaining 11 chapters. The meaning of these three names is disputed: according to Guo Xiang, the "Inner Chapters" were written by Zhuangzi, the "Outer Chapters" written by his disciples, and the "Mixed Chapters" by other hands; the other interpretation is that the names refer to the origin of the titles of the chapters—the "Inner Chapters" take their titles from phrases inside the chapter, the "Outer Chapters" from the opening words of the chapters, and the "Mixed Chapters" from a mixture of these two sources.[9]
Further study of the text does not provide a clear choice between these alternatives. On the one side, asMartin Palmer points out in the introduction to his translation, two of the three chaptersSima Qian cited in his biography of Zhuangzi, come from the "Outer Chapters" and the third from the "Mixed Chapters". "Neither of these are allowed as authentic Chuang Tzu chapters by certain purists, yet they breathe the very spirit of Chuang Tzu just as much as, for example, the famous 'butterfly passage' of chapter 2."[10] This passage encapsulates Zhuangzi’s radical questioning of reality and identity. As noted in La Pléiade’s edition of "Taoist Philosophies Volume I", its placement at the end of the chapter is noteworthy, given that the tension between dream and reality is introduced earlier (e.g., sections 49–50) and revisited elsewhere in the text (e.g., Chapter 6, 21). The passage emphasises the Zhuangzian solipsistic dilemma: existence is confined to the present moment of self-awareness, yet the self is paradoxically a flux of identities—perceived as fragmented by others but synthesized into a cohesive, multiform, and multitemporal whole.[11]
On the other hand, chapter 33 has been often considered as intrusive, being a survey of the major movements during the "Hundred Schools of Thought" with an emphasis on the philosophy ofHui Shi. Further,A.C. Graham and other critics have subjected the text to a stylistic analysis and identified four strains of thought in the book: a) the ideas of Zhuangzi or his disciples; b) a "primitivist" strain of thinking similar toLaozi in chapters 8–10 and the first half of chapter 11; c) a strain very strongly represented in chapters 28–31 which is attributed to the philosophy ofYang Zhu; and d) a fourth strain which may be related to the philosophical school ofHuang-Lao.[12] In this spirit, Martin Palmer wrote that "trying to read Chuang Tzu sequentially is a mistake. The text is a collection, not a developing argument."[13]
Zhuangzi was renowned for his brilliant wordplay and use an original form ofgōng'àn (Chinese: 公案) orparables to convey messages. His critiques ofConfucian society and historical figures are humorous and at times ironic.
Ames, Roger T. (1991), 'The Mencian Concept of Ren Xing: Does it Mean Human Nature?' in Chinese Texts and Philosophical Contexts, ed. Henry Rosemont, Jr. LaSalle, Ill.: Open Court Press.
Ames, Roger T. (1998) ed. Wandering at Ease in the Zhuangzi. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Bruya, Brian (translator). (2019).Zhuangzi: The Way of Nature. Princeton: Princeton University Press.ISBN978-0-691-17974-2.
Kirkland, Russell (2004).Taoism: The Enduring Tradition. New York: Routledge.ISBN978-0-415-26321-4.
Klein, Esther (2010). "Were there "Inner Chapters" in the Warring States? A New Examination of Evidence about the Zhuangzi".T'oung Pao.96 (4/5). Leiden: Brill:299–369.doi:10.1163/156853210X546509.JSTOR41354706.
Roth, H. D. (1993). "Chuang tzu 莊子". In Loewe, Michael (ed.).Early Chinese Texts: A Bibliographical Guide. Berkeley: Society for the Study of Early China; Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California Berkeley. pp. 56–66.ISBN1-55729-043-1.
Schwartz, Benjamin J. (1985).The World of Thought in Ancient China. Cambridge: Belknap Press.ISBN978-0-674-96191-3.
Ziporyn, Brook (2009).Zhuangzi: The Essential Writings with Selections from Traditional Commentaries Hackett Classics Series. Hackett Publishing.ISBN978-1-60384-435-2.
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