As of 2019[update], around 250 million people in Eurasia use Cyrillic as the official script for their national languages, withRussia accounting for about half of them.[5] With theaccession of Bulgaria to the European Union on 1 January 2007, Cyrillic became the third official script of theEuropean Union, following theLatin andGreek alphabets.[6]
Since the script was conceived and popularised by the followers ofCyril and Methodius in Bulgaria, rather than by Cyril and Methodius themselves,[11] its name denotes homage rather than authorship.[12]
Unlike the Churchmen in Ohrid, Preslav scholars were much more dependent upon Greek models and quickly abandoned theGlagolitic scripts in favor of an adaptation of the Greekuncial to the needs of Slavic, which is now known as the Cyrillic alphabet.[9]
A number of prominent Bulgarian writers and scholars worked at the school, includingNaum of Preslav until 893;Constantine of Preslav;Joan Ekzarh (also transcr. John the Exarch); andChernorizets Hrabar, among others. The school was also a center of translation, mostly ofByzantine authors. The Cyrillic script is derived from theGreek uncial script letters, augmented byligatures and consonants from the older Glagolitic alphabet for sounds not found in Greek. Glagolitic and Cyrillic were formalized by the ByzantineSaints Cyril and Methodius and their Bulgarian disciples, such as SaintsNaum,Clement,Angelar, andSava. They spread and taught Christianity in the whole of Bulgaria.[15][16][17][18] Paul Cubberley posits that although Cyril may have codified and expanded Glagolitic, it was his students in the First Bulgarian Empire under TsarSimeon the Great that developed Cyrillic from the Greek letters in the 890s as a more suitable script for church books.[14]
Cyrillic spread among other Slavic peoples, as well as among non-SlavicRomanians. The earliest datable Cyrillic inscriptions have been found in the area ofPreslav, in the medieval city itself and at nearbyPatleina Monastery, both in present-dayShumen Province, as well as in theRavna Monastery and in theVarna Monastery. The new script became the basis ofalphabets used in various languages inOrthodox Church-dominated Eastern Europe, both Slavic and non-Slavic languages (such asRomanian, until the 1860s). For centuries, Cyrillic was also used by Catholic and Muslim Slavs.
Cyrillic and Glagolitic were used for theChurch Slavonic language, especially theOld Church Slavonic variant. Hence expressions such as "И is the tenth Cyrillic letter" typically refer to the order of the Church Slavonic alphabet; not every Cyrillic alphabet uses every letter available in the script. The Cyrillic script came to dominate Glagolitic in the 12th century.
The literature produced in Old Church Slavonic soon spread north from Bulgaria and became thelingua franca of the Balkans and Eastern Europe.[19][20][21][22][23]
Cyrillic in modern-day Bosnia[24][25] is an extinct and disputed variant of theCyrillic alphabet that originated inmedieval period. Paleographers consider the earliest features of script had likely begun to appear between the 10th or 11th century, with theHumac tablet to be the first such document using this type of script and is believed to date from this period.[26] It was used continuously until the 18th century, with sporadic usage extending into the 20th century.[27]
In 1708–10, the Cyrillic script used in Russia was heavily reformed byPeter the Great, who had recently returned from hisGrand Embassy inWestern Europe. The new letterforms, called theCivil script, became closer to those of the Latin alphabet; several archaic letters were abolished and several new letters were introduced designed by Peter himself. Letters became distinguished between upper and lower case. West European typography culture was also adopted.[28] The pre-reform letterforms, calledpoluustav (Russian:полуустав), were notably retained in Church Slavonic and are sometimes used in Russian even today, especially if one wants to give a text a 'Slavic' or 'archaic' feel.
The alphabet used for the modern Church Slavonic language in Eastern Orthodox andEastern Catholic rites still resembles early Cyrillic. However, over the course of the following millennium, Cyrillic adapted to changes in spoken language, developed regional variations to suit the features of national languages, and was subjected to academic reform and political decrees. A notable example of such linguistic reform can be attributed toVuk Stefanović Karadžić, who updated theSerbian Cyrillic alphabet by removing certain graphemes no longer represented in the vernacular and introducing graphemes specific to Serbian (i.e., Љ Њ Ђ Ћ Џ Ј), distancing it from the Church Slavonic alphabet in use prior to the reform. Today,many languages in theBalkans, Eastern Europe, andnorthern Eurasia are written in Cyrillic alphabets.
Example of the Cyrillic script. Excerpt from the manuscript "Bdinski Zbornik". Written in 1360.[29]
Cyrillic script spread throughout the East Slavic and some South Slavic territories, being adopted for writing local languages, such asOld East Slavic. Its adaptation to local languages produced a number of Cyrillic alphabets, discussed below.
Yeri (Ы) was originally aligature of Yer and I (Ъ +І =Ы).Iotation was indicated by ligatures formed with the letter І:Ꙗ (not an ancestor of modern Ya, Я, which is derived fromѦ),Ѥ,Ю (ligature ofІ andОУ),Ѩ,Ѭ. Sometimes different letters were used interchangeably, for exampleИ =І =Ї, as were typographical variants likeО =Ѻ. There were also commonly used ligatures likeѠТ =Ѿ.
Computer fonts for early Cyrillic alphabets are not routinely provided. Many of the letterforms differ from those of modern Cyrillic, varied a great deal betweenmanuscripts, and changed over time. In accordance withUnicode policy, the standard does not include letterform variations orligatures found in manuscript sources unless they can be shown to conform to the Unicode definition of a character: this aspect is the responsibility of the typeface designer.
The Unicode 5.1 standard, released on 4 April 2008, greatly improved computer support for the early Cyrillic and the modernChurch Slavonic language. In Microsoft Windows, theSegoe UI user interface font is notable for having complete support for the archaic Cyrillic letters since Windows 8.[citation needed]
The development of Cyrillicletter forms passed directly from themedieval stage to the lateBaroque, without aRenaissance phase as inWestern Europe. Late Medieval Cyrillic letters (categorized asvyaz' and still found on manyicon inscriptions today) show a marked tendency to be very tall and narrow, with strokes often shared between adjacent letters.
Peter the Great, Tsar of Russia, mandated the use ofwesternized letter forms (ru) in the early 18th century.[citation needed] Over time, these were largely adopted in the other languages that use the script. Thus, unlike the majority of modern Greek typefaces that retained their own set of design principles for lower-case letters (such as the placement ofserifs, the shapes of stroke ends, and stroke-thickness rules, although Greek capital letters do use Latin design principles), modern Cyrillictypes are much the same as modern Latin types of the same typeface family. The development of some Cyrilliccomputer fonts from Latin ones has also contributed to a visual Latinization of Cyrillic type.
LettersGe,De,I,Short I,Em,Te,Tse,Be andVe in upright (printed) and cursive (handwritten) variants. (Top is set in Georgia type, bottom in Odesa Script.)
Cyrillicuppercase andlowercase letter forms are not as differentiated as in Latin typography. Upright Cyrillic lowercase letters are essentiallysmall capitals (with exceptions: Cyrillic⟨а⟩,⟨е⟩,⟨і⟩,⟨ј⟩,⟨р⟩, and⟨у⟩ adopted Latin lowercase shapes, lowercase⟨ф⟩ is typically based on⟨p⟩ from Latin typefaces, lowercase⟨б⟩,⟨ђ⟩ and⟨ћ⟩ are traditional handwritten forms), although a good-quality Cyrillic typeface will still include separate small-caps glyphs.[33]
Cyrillic typefaces, as well as Latin ones, haveroman anditalic forms (practically all popular modern computer fonts include parallel sets of Latin and Cyrillic letters, where many glyphs, uppercase as well as lowercase, are shared by both). However, the native typeface terminology in most Slavic languages (for example, in Russian) does not use the words "roman" and "italic" in this sense.[w] Instead, the nomenclature follows German naming patterns:[citation needed]
Alternative variants of lowercase (cursive) Cyrillic letters: Б/б, Д/д, Г/г, И/и, П/п, Т/т, Ш/ш.
Default Russian (Eastern) forms on the left.
Alternate Bulgarian (Western) upright forms in the middle.
Alternate Serbian/Macedonian (Southern) italic forms on the right.
See also:
Roman type is calledpryamoy shrift ("upright type") – compare withNormalschrift ("regular type") in German
Italic type is calledkursiv ("cursive") orkursivniy shrift ("cursive type") – from the German wordKursive, meaning italic typefaces and not cursive writing
Cursive handwriting isrukopisniy shrift ("handwritten type") – in German:Kurrentschrift orLaufschrift, both meaning literally 'running type'
A (mechanically) sloped oblique type ofsans-serif faces isnaklonniy shrift ("sloped" or "slanted type").
A boldfaced type is calledpoluzhirniy shrift ("semi-bold type"), because there existed fully boldfaced shapes that have been out of use since the beginning of the 20th century.
Similarly to Latin typefaces, italic and cursive forms of many Cyrillic letters (typically lowercase; uppercase only for handwritten or stylish types) are very different from their upright roman types. In certain cases, the correspondence between uppercase and lowercase glyphs does not coincide in Latin and Cyrillic types: for example, italic Cyrillic⟨т⟩ is the lowercase counterpart of⟨Т⟩ not of⟨М⟩.
Differences between upright and italic Cyrillic letters of theRussian alphabet; italic forms significantly different from their upright analogues, or especially confusing to users of a Latin alphabet, are highlighted; also available as agraphical image.
upright
а
б
в
г
д
е
ё
ж
з
и
й
к
л
м
н
о
п
р
с
т
у
ф
х
ц
ч
ш
щ
ъ
ы
ь
э
ю
я
italic
а
б
в
г
д
е
ё
ж
з
и
й
к
л
м
н
о
п
р
с
т
у
ф
х
ц
ч
ш
щ
ъ
ы
ь
э
ю
я
Note: in some typefaces or styles,⟨д⟩, i.e. the lowercase italic Cyrillic⟨д⟩, may look like Latin⟨g⟩, and⟨т⟩, i.e. lowercase italic Cyrillic⟨т⟩, may look like small-capital italic⟨T⟩.
In Standard Serbian, as well as in Macedonian,[34] some italic and cursive letters are allowed to be different, to more closely resemble the handwritten letters. The regular (upright) shapes are generally standardized insmall caps form.[35]
Mandatory (blue) and optional (green) italic lowercase variants, alongside unique letters (red), in South-European orthography
Russian
а
б
в
г
д
—
е
ж
з
и
й
—
к
л
—
м
н
—
о
п
р
с
т
—
у
ф
х
ц
ч
—
ш
щ
ъ
ы
ь
э
ю
я
Serbian
а
б
в
г
д
ђ
е
ж
з
и
—
ј
к
л
љ
м
н
њ
о
п
р
с
т
ћ
у
ф
х
ц
ч
џ
ш
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
Simulation
а
δ
в
ī
ɡ
ђ
е
ж
з
и
—
ј
к
л
љ
м
н
њ
о
ū
р
с
ш̄
ћ
у
ф
х
ц
ч
џ
ш̱
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
Notes: Depending on fonts available, the Serbian row may appear identical to the Russian row. Unicode approximations are used in thefaux row to ensure it can be rendered properly across all systems.
In theBulgarian alphabet, many lowercase letterforms may more closely resemble the cursive forms on the one hand and Latin glyphs on the other hand, e.g. by having an ascender or descender or by using rounded arcs instead of sharp corners.[36] Sometimes, uppercase letters may have a different shape as well, e.g. more triangular, Д and Л, like Greek delta Δ and lambda Λ.
Differences between Russian and Bulgarian glyphs of upright Cyrillic lowercase letters; Bulgarian glyphs significantly different from their Russian analogues or different from their italic form are highlighted
default
а
б
в
г
д
е
ж
з
и
й
к
л
м
н
о
п
р
с
т
у
ф
х
ц
ч
ш
щ
ъ
ь
ю
я
Bulgarian
а
б
в
г
д
е
ж
з
и
й
к
л
м
н
о
п
р
с
т
у
ф
х
ц
ч
ш
щ
ъ
ь
ю
я
Simulation
а
б
ϐ
ƨ
ɡ
е
жl
ȝ
u
ŭ
k
ʌ
м
н
o
n
р
с
m
у
ɸ
х
u̡
ч
ɯ
ɯ̡
ъ
ƅ
lo
я
Notes: Depending on fonts available, the Bulgarian row may appear identical to the Russian row. Unicode approximations are used in thefaux row to ensure it can be rendered properly across all systems; in some cases, such as ж withk-like ascender, no such approximation exists.
Computer fonts typically default to the Central/Eastern, Russian letterforms, and require the use ofOpenTypeLayout (OTL) features to display the Western, Bulgarian or Southern, Serbian/Macedonian forms. Depending on the choices made by the (computer) font designer, they may either be automatically activated by thelocal variantlocl feature for text tagged with an appropriatelanguage code, or the author needs to opt-in by activating astylistic setss## orcharacter variantcv## feature. These solutions only enjoy partial support and may render with default glyphs in certain software configurations, and the reader may not see the same result as the author intended.[37]
A number of languages written in a Cyrillic alphabet have also been written in aLatin alphabet, such asAzerbaijani,Uzbek,Serbian, andRomanian (in theMoldavian SSR until 1989 and in theDanubian Principalities throughout the 19th century). After the disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1991, some of the former republics officially shifted from Cyrillic to Latin. The transition is complete in most of Moldova (except the breakaway region ofTransnistria, whereMoldovan Cyrillic is official),Turkmenistan, andAzerbaijan.Uzbekistan still uses both systems, andKazakhstan has officially begun a transition from Cyrillic to Latin (scheduled to be complete by 2025). TheRussian government has mandated that Cyrillic must be used for all public communications in allfederal subjects of Russia, to promote closer ties across the federation. This act was controversial for speakers of many Slavic languages; for others, such asChechen andIngush speakers, the law had political ramifications. For example, the separatist Chechen government mandated a Latin script which is still used by many Chechens.[citation needed]
Countries with widespread use of the Cyrillic script:
Sole official script
Co-official with another script (either because the official language is biscriptal, or the state is bilingual)
Being replaced with Latin, but is still in official use
Legacy script for the official language, or large minority use
StandardSerbian usesboth the Cyrillic and Latin scripts. Cyrillic is nominally the official script of Serbia's administration according to the Serbian constitution;[43] however, the law does not regulate scripts in standard language, or standard language itself by any means. In practice the scripts are equal, with Latin being used more often in a less official capacity.[44]
TheZhuang alphabet, used between the 1950s and 1980s in portions of the People's Republic of China, used a mixture of Latin, phonetic, numeral-based, and Cyrillic letters. The non-Latin letters, including Cyrillic, were removed from the alphabet in 1982 and replaced with Latin letters that closely resembled the letters they replaced.[45]
The Working Group on Romanization Systems[46] of theUnited Nations recommends different systems for specific languages. These are the most commonly used around the world.
ISO 9:1995, from the International Organization for Standardization.
American Library Association and Library of Congress Romanization tables for Slavic alphabets (ALA-LC Romanization), used in North American libraries.
BGN/PCGN Romanization (1947), United States Board on Geographic Names & Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use).
GOST 16876, a now defunct Soviet transliteration standard. Replaced byGOST 7.79-2000, which is based on ISO 9.
Various informal romanizations of Cyrillic, which adapt the Cyrillic script to Latin and sometimes Greek glyphs for compatibility with small character sets.
Ё in Russian is usually spelled asЕ;Ё is typically printed in texts for learners and in dictionaries, and in word pairs which are differentiated only by that letter (все –всё).[47]
The characters in the range U+0400 to U+045F are essentially the characters fromISO 8859-5 moved upward by 864 positions. The characters in the range U+0460 to U+0489 are historic letters, not used now. The characters in the range U+048A to U+052F are additional letters for various languages that are written with Cyrillic script.
Unicode as a general rule does not include accented Cyrillic letters. A few exceptions include:
combinations that are considered as separate letters of respective alphabets, likeЙ,Ў,Ё,Ї,Ѓ,Ќ (as well as many letters of non-Slavic alphabets);
two most frequent combinations orthographically required to distinguishhomonyms in Bulgarian and Macedonian:Ѐ,Ѝ;
a few Old and New Church Slavonic combinations:Ѷ,Ѿ,Ѽ.
To indicate stressed or long vowels,combining diacritical marks can be used after the respective letter (for example,U+0301◌́COMBINING ACUTE ACCENT: е́ у́ э́ etc.).
Unicode 5.1, released on 4 April 2008, introduces major changes to the Cyrillic blocks. Revisions to the existing Cyrillic blocks, and the addition of Cyrillic Extended A (2DE0 ... 2DFF) and Cyrillic Extended B (A640 ... A69F), significantly improve support for theearly Cyrillic alphabet,Abkhaz,Aleut,Chuvash,Kurdish, andMoksha.[48]
CP866 – 8-bit Cyrillic character encoding established byMicrosoft for use inMS-DOS also known as GOST-alternative. Cyrillic characters go in their native order, with a "window" for pseudographic characters.
KOI8-R – 8-bit native Russian character encoding. Invented in the USSR for use on Soviet clones of American IBM and DEC computers. The Cyrillic characters go in the order of their Latin counterparts, which allowed the text to remain readable after transmission via a 7-bit line that removed themost significant bit from each byte – the result became a very rough, but readable, Latin transliteration of Cyrillic. Standard encoding of early 1990s forUnix systems and the first Russian Internet encoding.
KOI8-U – KOI8-R with addition of Ukrainian letters.
MIK – 8-bit native Bulgarian character encoding for use inDOS.
Windows-1251 – 8-bit Cyrillic character encoding established by Microsoft for use inMicrosoft Windows. The simplest 8-bit Cyrillic encoding – 32 capital chars in native order at 0xc0–0xdf, 32 usual chars at 0xe0–0xff, with rarely used "YO" characters somewhere else. No pseudographics. Former standard encoding in someLinux distributions for Belarusian and Bulgarian, but currently displaced byUTF-8.
GOST-main.
GB 2312 – Principally simplified Chinese encodings, but there are also the basic 33 Russian Cyrillic letters (in upper- and lower-case).
JIS andShift JIS – Principally Japanese encodings, but there are also the basic 33 Russian Cyrillic letters (in upper- and lower-case).
Each language has its own standardkeyboard layout, adopted from traditional nationaltypewriters. With the flexibility of computer input methods, there are also transliterating or phonetic/homophonic keyboard layouts made for typists who are more familiar with other layouts, like the common EnglishQWERTY keyboard. When practical Cyrillic keyboard layouts are unavailable, computer users sometimes use transliteration (translit) or look-alike (volapuk encoding) to type in languages that are normally written with the Cyrillic alphabet. Potentially, these proxy versions could be transformed programmatically into Cyrillic at a later date.
^Two of the three official languages in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bosnian and Serbian, can be written in Cyrillic.
^Serbian, one of the two official languages in Kosovo, can be written in Cyrillic.
^Kazakh language will be transitioned to a Latin script from 2023 to 2031. Russian, the co-official language in Kazakhstan, will continue to be written in Cyrillic.
^The Montenegrin language, the official language of Montenegro, is written in Latin and Cyrillic.
^North Macedonia has two official languages, Macedonian, which is written in Cyrillic, and Albanian, written in Latin.
^The Serbian language can be written in both Cyrillic and Latin script. Only Cyrillic script is used in official documents.
^Turkmenistan has one official language, Turkmen, which is written in Latin. The daily official newspaper is published in both Turkmen (Türkmenistan)[2] and Russian(Нейтральный Туркменистан).[3]
^The Russian nameital'yanskiy shrift (Italian type) refers to a particular typeface family, whereasrimskiy shrift (roman type) is just a synonym for Latin type, Latin alphabet.
^Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001–05, s.v. "Cyril and Methodius, Saints";Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica Incorporated, Warren E. Preece – 1972, p. 846, s.v., "Cyril and Methodius, Saints" and "Eastern Orthodoxy, Missions ancient and modern";Encyclopedia of World Cultures, David H. Levinson, 1991, p. 239, s.v., "Social Science"; Eric M. Meyers,The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East, p. 151, 1997; Lunt,Slavic Review, June 1964, p. 216; Roman Jakobson,Crucial problems of Cyrillo-Methodian Studies; Leonid Ivan Strakhovsky,A Handbook of Slavic Studies, p. 98; V. Bogdanovich,History of the ancient Serbian literature, Belgrade, 1980, p. 119.
^Dvornik, Francis (1956).The Slavs: Their Early History and Civilization. Boston: American Academy of Arts and Sciences. p. 179.The Psalter and the Book of Prophets were adapted or "modernized" with special regard to their use in Bulgarian churches and it was in this school that theGlagolitic script was replaced by the so-called Cyrillic writing, which was more akin to the Greek uncial, simplified matters considerably and is still used by the Orthodox Slavs.
^Bidwell, Charles Everett (1967).Alphabets of the Modern Slavic Languages. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh. p. 4.Cyrillic was apparently adopted by the followers of Cyril and Methodius in Bulgaria (where they had retired at the invitation of the Czar of the Bulgars as a more favorable field for their activities, after encountering opposition from western oriented missionaries in Moravia).
^MacCulloch, Diarmaid (2020).A History of Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years. London: The Folio Society.Cyrillic ... in reference to the monastic name he adopted right at the end of his life, Cyril. That was an adroit piece of homage ...
^"Провежда се международна конференция в гр. Опака за св. Антоний от Крепчанския манастир" [An international conference is being held in the town of Opaka for St. Anthony of the Krepchan Monastery]. 15 October 2021.Another inscription found by Popkonstantinov during the survey of the monastery speaks of the time of its creation. It consists of nine lines and has come down to us much damaged. 59 letters are saved. The first three lines are readable. What is preserved of him reads: "In the year 921, in the month of October, the servant of God Anton died..."
^abPaul Cubberley (1996) "The Slavic Alphabets". In Daniels and Bright, eds.The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press.ISBN0-19-507993-0.
^Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001–05, s.v. "Cyril and Methodius, Saints";Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica Incorporated, Warren E. Preece – 1972, p. 846, s.v., "Cyril and Methodius, Saints" and "Eastern Orthodoxy, Missions ancient and modern";Encyclopedia of World Cultures, David H. Levinson, 1991, p. 239, s.v., "Social Science"; Eric M. Meyers,The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East, p. 151, 1997; Lunt,Slavic Review, June, 1964, p. 216; Roman Jakobson,Crucial problems of Cyrillo-Methodian Studies; Leonid Ivan Strakhovsky,A Handbook of Slavic Studies, p. 98; V. Bogdanovich,History of the ancient Serbian literature, Belgrade, 1980, p. 119.
^The Columbia Encyclopaedia, Sixth Edition. 2001–05, O.Ed. Saints Cyril and Methodius "Cyril and Methodius, Saints) 869 and 884, respectively, "Greek missionaries, brothers, called Apostles to the Slavs and fathers of Slavonic literature."
^Encyclopædia Britannica,Major alphabets of the world, Cyrillic and Glagolitic alphabets, 2008, O.Ed. "The two early Slavic alphabets, the Cyrillic and the Glagolitic, were invented by St. Cyril, or Constantine (c. 827–869), and St. Methodii (c. 825–884). These men from Thessaloniki who became apostles to the southern Slavs, whom they converted to Christianity."
^Hollingsworth, P. A. (1991). "Constantine the Philosopher". InKazhdan, Alexander (ed.).The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. p. 507.ISBN0-19-504652-8.Constantine (Cyril) and his brother Methodius were the sons of the droungarios Leo and Maria, who may have been a Slav.
^Lunt, Horace G. (January 1987). "On the relationship of old Church Slavonic to the written language of early Rus".Russian Linguistics.11 (2):133–162.doi:10.1007/BF00242073.S2CID166319427.
^Schenker, Alexander (1995).The Dawn of Slavic. Yale University Press. pp. 185–186,189–190.
^Wien, Lysaght (1983).Old Church Slavonic (Old Bulgarian)-Middle Greek-Modern English dictionary. Verlag Bruder Hollinek.
^Benjamin W. Fortson.Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction, p. 374.
^Balić, Smail (1978).Die Kultur der Bosniaken, Supplement I: Inventar des bosnischen literarischen Erbes in orientalischen Sprachen. Vienna: Adolf Holzhausens, Vienna. pp. 49–50, 111.
^Algar, Hamid (1995).The Literature of the Bosnian Muslims: a Quadrilingual Heritage. Kuala Lumpur: Nadwah Ketakwaan Melalui Kreativiti. pp. 254–268.
^Yefimov, Vladimir (2002)."Civil Type and Kis Cyrillic". In Berry, John D. (ed.).Language Culture Type: International Type Design in the Age of Unicode. New York City: Graphis Press.ISBN978-1932026016.Archived from the original on 8 December 2016. Retrieved2 January 2017.
^Lunt, Horace G.Old Church Slavonic Grammar, Seventh Edition, 2001.
^Bringhurst (2002) writes: "in Cyrillic, the difference between normal lower case and small caps is more subtle than it is in the Latin or Greek alphabets" (p. 32) and "in most Cyrillic faces, the lower case is close in color and shape to Latin small caps" (p. 107).
^Лопатин, В. В., ed. (2009)."Употребление буквыё в текстах разного назначения" [Rules of Russian orthography and punctuation online. Usage of the letterё in texts of varied purposes].Правила русской орфографии и пунктуации онлайн (in Russian). Retrieved4 September 2023.
Isailović, Neven G.; Krstić, Aleksandar R. (2015). "Serbian Language and Cyrillic Script as a Means of Diplomatic Literacy in South Eastern Europe in 15th and 16th Centuries".Literacy Experiences concerning Medieval and Early Modern Transylvania. Cluj-Napoca: George Bariţiu Institute of History. pp. 185–195.
Nezirović, M. (1992).Jevrejsko-španjolska književnost [Jewish-Spanish literature]. Sarajevo: Svjetlost. [cited in Šmid, 2002]
1 Also considered a dialect ofBulgarian.2 Considered to be a part of the transitionalTorlak dialect and as a subdialect of Bulgarian, Macedonian, andSerbo-Croatian.
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