This article is about one of the six Hindu philosophy schools. For the umbrella term "yoga" which includes religion, philosophy, and practices, seeYoga. For other uses, seeYoga (disambiguation).
Yoga philosophy is one of the six major important schools ofHindu philosophy,[1][2] though it is only at the end of the first millennium CE that Yoga is mentioned as a separate school of thought in Indian texts, distinct fromSamkhya.[3][4][web 1] Ancient, medieval and modern literature often simply call Yoga philosophyYoga.[1][5] A systematic collection of ideas of Yoga is found in theYoga Sutras of Patanjali,[6][7] a key text of Yoga[web 1] which has influenced all other schools of Indian philosophy.[8][9]
The metaphysics of Yoga is Samkhya'sdualism,[web 1] in which the universe is conceptualized as composed of two realities:Puruṣa (witness-consciousness) andPrakṛti (nature).Jiva (a living being) is considered as a state in whichpuruṣa is bonded toPrakṛti in some form, in various permutations and combinations of various elements, senses, feelings, activity and mind.[10] During the state of imbalance or ignorance, one or more constituents overwhelm the others, creating a form of bondage. The end of this bondage is called liberation, ormokṣa, by both the Yoga and Samkhya schools of Hinduism,[11] and can be attained by insight and self-restraint.[12][web 1]
The ethical theory of Yoga philosophy is based onYamas andNiyama, as well as elements of theGuṇa theory of Samkhya.[web 1] Theepistemology of Yoga philosophy, like the Sāmkhya school, relies on three of sixPramanas as the means of gaining reliable knowledge.[13] These includePratyakṣa (perception),Anumāṇa (inference) andSabda (Āptavacana, word/testimony of reliable sources).[14][15] Yoga philosophy differs from the closely related non-theistic/atheistic Samkhya school by incorporating the concept of a "personal, yet essentially inactive, deity" or "personal god" (Ishvara).[16][17][18]
Bronze figure of a Kashmiri in Meditation byMalvina Hoffman (1885–1966). The yoga posture shown issiddhasana.
Yoga as a separate school of thought is mentioned in Indian texts from the end of the 1st millennium CE.[3] A collection of practices and some ideas of the Yoga school of Hinduism is found in theYoga Sutras of Patanjali. After its circulation in the first half of the 1st millennium CE, many Indian scholars reviewed it, then published theirBhāṣya (notes and commentary) on it. The commentary by Vyasa may have been written by Patanjali himself, forming an integrated text called thePātañjalayogaśāstra ("The Treatise on Yoga of Patañjali").[6][7] Yoga as a separate school of philosophy has been included as one of the six orthodox schools in medieval era Indian texts;[4] the other schools areSamkhya,Nyaya,Vaisheshika,Mimamsa andVedanta.[19] According to Bryant,
Sāṁkhya and Yoga should not be considered different schools until a very late date: the first reference to Yoga itself as a distinct school seems to be in the writings of Śaṅkara in the 9th century C.E.[web 1]
There are numerous parallels in the concepts in theSamkhya school of Hinduism, Yoga and various strands of Buddhism, particularly from the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century AD, notes Larson.[20] From the Samkhya school of Hinduism, the Yoga Sutras adopt the "reflective discernment" (adhyavasaya) ofprakrti andpurusa (dualism), its metaphysical rationalism, as well its threeepistemic methods to gaining reliable knowledge.[20] From the Buddhist practice ofnirodhasamadhi, argues Larson, the Yoga Sutras adopt the pursuit of an altered state of awareness, but unlike Buddhism, which believes that there is no fixed self, Yoga is physicalist like Samkhya in believing that each individual has a self and soul.[20] The third concept that the Yoga Sutras synthesize into its philosophy is the ancientascetic traditions of isolation, meditation and introspection.[20]
Yoga-philosophy is Samkhya. In both, the foundational concepts include two realities:Purusha andPrakriti.[19] ThePurusha is defined as that reality which is pure consciousness and is untouched by thoughts or qualities. ThePrakriti is the empirical, phenomenal reality which includes matter and also mind, sensory organs and the sense of identity (self, soul).[19] A living being is held in both schools to be the union of matter and mind. The Yoga school differs from the Samkhya school in its views on the ontology ofPurusha, on axiology and on soteriology.[21][22]
The metaphysics of Yoga-Samkhya is a form ofdualism. It considers consciousness and matter, self/soul and body as two different realities.[23]
TheSamkhya-Yoga system espousesdualism between consciousness and matter by postulating two "irreducible, innate and independent realities:Purusha andPrakriti. While thePrakriti is a single entity, the Samkhya-Yoga schools admit a plurality of thePuruṣas in this world. Unintelligent, unmanifest, uncaused, ever-active, imperceptible and eternal Prakriti is alone the final source of the world of objects. ThePuruṣa is considered as the conscious principle, a passive enjoyer (bhokta) and thePrakriti is the enjoyed (bhogya). Samkhya-Yoga believes that thePuruṣa cannot be regarded as the source of inanimate world, because an intelligent principle cannot transform itself into the unconscious world. This metaphysics is a pluralistic spiritualism, a form of realism built on the foundation of dualism.[24]
Yoga-philosophy adopts the theory ofGuṇa from Samkhya.[web 1] Guṇas theory states that threegunas (innate tendency, attributes) are present in different proportions in all beings, and these three aresattva guna (goodness, constructive, harmonious),rajas guna (passion, active, confused), andtamas guna (darkness, destructive, chaotic).[25][26] These three are present in every being but in different proportions, and the fundamental nature and psychological dispositions of beings is a consequence of the relative proportion of these threegunas.[web 1] Whensattva guna predominates an individual, the qualities of lucidity, wisdom, constructiveness, harmonious, and peacefulness manifest themselves; when rajas is predominant, attachment, craving, passion-driven activity and restlessness manifest; and when tamas predominates in an individual, ignorance, delusion, destructive behavior, lethargy, and suffering manifests. The guṇas theory underpins the philosophy of mind in Yoga school of Hinduism.[web 1]
The early scholars of Yoga philosophy, posit that thePuruṣa (consciousness) by its nature is sattva (constructive), whilePrakriti (matter) by its nature is tamas (chaotic).[web 1] They further posit that individuals at birth havebuddhi (intelligence, sattvic). As life progresses and churns thisbuddhi, it createsasmita orahamkara (ego, rajasic). When ego in turn is churned by life,manas (temper, mood, tamasic) is produced. Together,buddhi,ahamkara andmanas interact and constitutecitta (mind) in Yoga school of Hinduism.[web 1] Unrestrained modification ofcitta causes suffering. A way of life that empowers one to become ever more aware of one's consciousness and spirituality innate inbuddhi, is the path to one's highest potential and a more serene, content, liberated life. Patanjali's Yoga sutra begins, in verse 2 of Book 1, by defining Yoga as "restraining theCitta fromVrittis."[27]
Yoga school of Hinduism holds that ignorance is the cause of suffering andsaṁsāra.[web 1] Liberation, like many other schools, is removal of ignorance, which is achieved through discriminative discernment, knowledge and self-awareness. TheYoga Sūtras is Yoga school's treatise on how to accomplish this.[web 1]Samādhi is the state where lucid awareness develops, state Yoga scholars, and this is how one starts the process of becoming aware of Purusa and true Self. It further claims that this awareness is eternal, and once this awareness is achieved, a person cannot ever cease being aware; this ismoksha, thesoteriological goal in Hinduism.[web 1]
Book 3 of Patanjali'sYogasutra is dedicated to the three last limbs of ashtangha yoga, together calledsanyama in verses III.4 to III.5, and calls it the technology for "discerning principle" and mastery ofcitta and self-knowledge.[28][29] In verse III.12, the Yogasutras state that this discerning principle then empowers one to perfectsant (tranquility) andudita (reason) in one's mind and spirit, through intentness. This leads to one's ability to discern the difference betweensabda (word),artha (meaning) andpratyaya (understanding), and this ability empowers one to compassionately comprehend the cry/speech of all living beings.[30][31] Once a yogi reaches this state ofsanyama, it leads to unusual powers, intuition, self-knowledge, freedoms andkaivalya, the soteriological goal of the yogi.[30]
The benefits of Yoga philosophy of Hinduism are then summarized in verses III.46 to III.55 of Yogasutras, stating that the first five limbs leads to bodily perfections such as beauty, loveliness, strength and toughness; while the last three limbs throughsanyama leads to mind and psychological perfections of perceptiveness, one's nature, mastery over egoism, discriminative knowledge of purity, self and soul.[32][33] This knowledge once reached is irreversible, states Yogasutra's Book IV.
Yoga philosophy allows the concept of God, unlike the closely relatedSamkhya school of Hinduism which is non-theistic.[21] Hindu scholars such as the 8th centuryAdi Sankara, as well many modern academic scholars describe the Yoga school as "Samkya school with God."[2][17][22]
TheYoga Sutras of Patanjali use the termIsvara in 11 verses: I.23 through I.29, II.1, II.2, II.32 and II.45. Ever since the Sutras' release, Hindu scholars have debated and commented on who or what isIsvara. These commentaries range from definingIsvara as a "personal god" to a "special self" to "anything that has spiritual significance to the individual".[17][34] Whicher explains that while Patanjali's terse verses can be interpreted both as theistic or non-theistic, Patanjali's concept ofIsvara in Yoga philosophy functions as a "transformative catalyst or guide for aiding the yogin on the path to spiritual emancipation".[35]
Patanjali definesIsvara (Sanskrit: ईश्वर) in verse 24 of Book 1, as "a special Self (पुरुषविशेष,puruṣa-viśeṣa)",[36]
This sutra adds the characteristics ofIsvara as that special Self which is unaffected (अपरामृष्ट,aparamrsta) by one's obstacles/hardships (क्लेश,klesha), one's circumstances created by the past or by one's current actions (कर्म,karma), one's life fruits (विपाक,vipâka), and one's psychological dispositions or intentions (आशय, ashaya).[37][38]
Preparatory ethical rules in the texts of Yoga school of Hindu philosophy include both a theory of values through the observances of positive values and avoidance of negative, as well as an aesthetic theory on bliss from intrinsic and extrinsic perspectives.[39][40] The values to be observed are calledNiyamas, while those to be avoided are referred in theYamas in Yoga philosophy.
Over sixty different ancient and medieval era texts of Yoga philosophy discussYamas andNiyamas.[41][42] The specific theory and list of values varies between the texts, however,Ahimsa,Satya,Asteya,Svādhyāya,Kșhamā, andDayā are among the predominantly discussed ethical concepts by majority of these texts.[41]
The five yamas listed byPatañjali inYogasūtra 2.30 are:[43]
Ahiṃsā (अहिंसा): Nonviolence, non-harming other living beings[44]
Patanjali, in Book 2, explains how and why each of the above self restraints help in the personal growth of an individual. For example, in verse II.35, Patanjali states that the virtue of nonviolence and non-injury to others (Ahimsa) leads to the abandonment of enmity, a state that leads the yogi to the perfection of inner and outer amity with everyone, everything.[46][47] Other texts of the Yoga school of Hinduism includeKṣamā (क्षमा, forgiveness),[48]Dhṛti (धृति, fortitude, non-giving up in adversity),Dayā (दया, compassion),[48]Ārjava (आर्जव, non-hypocrisy)[49] andMitāhāra (मितहार, measured diet).[50]
TheNiyamas part of theory of values in the Yoga school include virtuous habits, behaviors and observances.[51][52] The Yogasutra lists the niyamas as:[53]
Śauca: purity, clearness of mind, speech and body[54]
Santoṣa: contentment, acceptance of others, acceptance of one's circumstances as they are in order to get past or change them, optimism for self[55]
Svādhyāya: study of Vedas (seeSabda in epistemology section), study of self, self-reflection, introspection of self's thoughts, speeches and actions[57][58]
As withYamas, Patanjali explains how and why each of the aboveNiyamas help in the personal growth of an individual. For example, in verse II.42, Patanjali states that the virtue of contentment and acceptance of others as they are (Santoṣa) leads to the state where inner sources of joy matter most, and the craving for external sources of pleasant ceases.[60] Other texts of the Yoga school expanded the list of values underNiyamas, to include behaviors such asĀstika (आस्तिक, belief in personal God, faith in Self, conviction that there is knowledge in Vedas/Upanishads),Dāna (दान, charity, sharing with others),[61]Hrī (ह्री, remorse and acceptance of one's past/mistakes/ignorance, modesty)[62]Mati (मति, think and reflect, reconcile conflicting ideas)[63] andVrata (व्रत, resolutions and vows, fast, pious observances).[64][65][66]
The Yoga school considers perception, inference and reliable testimony as three reliable means to knowledge.[14][15]
The Yoga school accepts the samepramanas, or valid means of knowledge, as the Samkhya school:Pratyakṣa orDṛṣṭam (direct sense perception),Anumāna (inference), andŚabda orĀptavacana (verbal testimony of the sages or shāstras).[14] Unlike few other schools of Hinduism such asAdvaita Vedanta, Yoga did not adopt the following threePramanas:Upamāṇa (comparison and analogy),Arthāpatti (postulation, deriving from circumstances) orAnupalabdi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof).[15]
Pratyakṣa (प्रत्यक्ष) means perception. It is of two types in Hindu texts: external and internal. External perception is described as that arising from the interaction of the five senses and worldly objects, while internal perception is described by this school as that of the inner sense, the mind.[67][68] The ancient and medieval Indian texts identify four requirements for correct perception:[69]Indriyarthasannikarsa (direct experience by one's sensory organ/s with the object, whatever is being studied),Avyapadesya (non-verbal; correct perception is not throughhearsay, according to ancient Indian scholars, where one's sensory organ relies on accepting or rejecting someone else's perception),Avyabhicara (without wandering; correct perception is without change, nor is it the result of deception because one's sensory organ or means of observation is drifting, defective, suspect) andVyavasayatmaka (definite; correct perception excludes judgments of doubt, either because of one's failure to observe all the details, or because one is mixing inference with observation and observing what one wants to observe, or not observing what one does not want to observe).[69] Some ancient scholars proposed "unusual perception" aspramana and called it internal perception, a proposal contested by other Indian scholars. The internal perception concepts includedpratibha (intuition),samanyalaksanapratyaksa (a form of induction from perceived specifics to a universal), andjnanalaksanapratyaksa (a form of perception of prior processes and previous states of a 'topic of study' by observing its current state).[70] Further, some schools of Hinduism considered and refined rules of accepting uncertain knowledge fromPratyakṣa-pranama, so as to contrastnirnaya (definite judgment, conclusion) fromanadhyavasaya (indefinite judgment).[71]
Anumāṇa (अनुमान) means inference. It is described as reaching a new conclusion and truth from one or more observations and previous truths by applying reason.[72] Observing smoke and inferring fire is an example ofAnumana.[67] In all except one of the Hindu philosophies,[73] this is a valid and useful means to knowledge. The method of inference is explained by Indian texts as consisting of three parts:pratijna (hypothesis),hetu (a reason), anddrshtanta (examples).[74] The hypothesis must further be broken down into two parts, state the ancient Indian scholars:sadhya (that idea which needs to be proven or disproven) andpaksha (the object on which thesadhya is predicated). The inference is conditionally true ifsapaksha (positive examples as evidence) are present, and ifvipaksha (negative examples as counter-evidence) are absent. For rigor, the Indian philosophies also state further epistemic steps. For example, they demandVyapti – the requirement that thehetu (reason) must necessarily and separately account for the inference in "all" cases, in bothsapaksha andvipaksha.[74][75] A conditionally proven hypothesis is called anigamana (conclusion).[76]
Śabda (शब्द) means relying on word, testimony of past or present reliable experts.[77][78] Hiriyanna explainsSabda-pramana as a concept which means reliable expert testimony. The schools of Hinduism which consider it epistemically valid suggest that a human being needs to know numerous facts, and with the limited time and energy available, he can learn only a fraction of those facts and truths directly.[79] He must cooperate with others to rapidly acquire and share knowledge and thereby enrich each other's lives. This means of gaining proper knowledge is neither spoken or written, but throughSabda (sound).[79] The reliability of the source is important, and legitimate knowledge can only come from theSabda of reliable sources.[77][79] The disagreement between the schools of Hinduism has been on how to establish reliability. Some schools, such asCarvaka, state that this is never possible, and thereforeSabda is not a properpramana. Other schools debate means to establish reliability.[80]
References to the teachings of the Yoga school of Hinduism abound in ancient Indian texts of other orthodox schools of Hinduism, for example, verse 5.2.17[82] ofVaisheshika Sutra by Kanada, belonging to theVaisheshika school of Hinduism and dated to be from the 1st millennium BCE,[83] states[84]
Pleasure and pain results from contact of soul, sense, mind and object. Non-origination of that follows when the mind becomes steady in the soul. After it, there is non-existence of pain in the embodied soul.This is that Yoga.
TheNyāya Sūtras by Akshapada variously dated to be from 4th to 2nd century BCE,[83] and belonging to theNyaya school of Hinduism, in chapter 4.2 discusses the importance of Yoga as follows,[3]
We are instructed to practice meditation in such places as a forest, a cave or a sand-bank. Such possibilities [the opponent claims] may occur even in release. It is, we reply, not so, because knowledge must spring up only in a body already in the state of formation. And there is absence of a body in our release. For that purpose, there should be a purifying of our soul by abstinence from evil, and observance of certain virtues, as well as by following thespiritual injunctions gleaned from Yoga. To secure release [moksha], it is necessary to study and follow this treatise on knowledge [Yoga], as well as to hold discussions with those learned in that treatise.
TheBrahma Sutras byBadarayana, estimated to have been completed in its surviving form in approx. 400–450 CE,[86] while the original version might be ancient and composed between 500 BCE and 200 BCE,[87][83] belonging to theVedanta school of Hinduism, in chapter 2 assumes the existence of a text called Yoga Smriti. Scholars contest whether this text was a precursor or the same as Patanjali's Yogasutra, but either premise is uncertain.[3] The verses of Brahma Sutras assert that dualism of the prevailing Yoga philosophy is refuted, as the value of Yoga is as a means to realization of the Self, not in propositions about Self that is in conflict with the Vedic texts. Radhakrishnan translates the text as follows,
If it is said that there will result the defect of not allowing room for certain Smritis, we say not so, because there will result the defect of not allowing room for some other smritis [further knowledge], and on account of the non-perception of others. Thereby [pradhāna theory of]the Yoga Smriti is refuted.
TheYoga Vasistha is a syncretic text on Yoga philosophy, variously dated to be from 6th- to 14th-century CE.[90] It is structured as a dialogue between sage Vasistha of the Vedic era and the philosopher-kingRama of the Hindu epicRamayana.[91] The text synthesizes elements ofVedanta,Jainism,Yoga,Samkhya,Saiva Siddhanta andMahayana Buddhism.[91] Among other things, the text discusses Yoga philosophy in its various chapters. In section 6.1,Yoga Vasistha introduces Yoga as follows,[92]
Yoga is the utter transcendence of the mind and is of two types. Self-knowledge is one type, another is the restraint of the life-force of self limitations and psychological conditioning. Yoga has come to mean only the latter, yet both the methods lead to the same result. To some, Self-knowledge through inquiry is difficult, to others Yoga is difficult. But my conviction is that the path of inquiry is easy for all, because Self-knowledge is the ever-present truth. I shall now describe to you the method of Yoga.
^abDavid Lawrence (2014), in The Bloomsbury Companion to Hindu Studies (Editor: Jessica Frazier), Bloomsbury Academic,ISBN978-1-4725-1151-5, pages 137-150
^Mikel Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga – An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge,ISBN978-0-415-64887-5, pages 43-46 and Introduction chapter
^Roy Perrett, Indian Ethics: Classical traditions and contemporary challenges, Volume 1 (Editor: P Bilimoria et al), Ashgate,ISBN978-0-7546-3301-3, pages 149-158
^John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press,ISBN978-0-7914-3067-5, page 238
^abc* Eliott Deutsche (2000), in Philosophy of Religion : Indian Philosophy Vol 4 (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge,ISBN978-0-8153-3611-2, pages 245-248;
John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press,ISBN978-0-7914-3067-5, page 238
^abcLloyd Pflueger, Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN978-81-208-3232-9, pages 38-39
^Kovoor T. Behanan (2002), Yoga: Its Scientific Basis, Dover,ISBN978-0-486-41792-9, pages 56-58
^abcJessica Frazier (2014), in The Bloomsbury Companion to Hindu Studies (Editor: Jessica Frazier), Bloomsbury Academic,ISBN978-1-4725-1151-5, pages 24-25
^The Yoga Philosophy TR Tatya (Translator), with Bhojaraja commentary; Harvard University Archives, pages 132-139
^* Hariharānanda Āraṇya (2007), Parabhaktisutra, Aporisms on Sublime Devotion, (Translator: A Chatterjee), in Divine Hymns with Supreme Devotional Aphorisms, Kapil Math Press, Kolkata, pages 55-93;
Hariharānanda Āraṇya (2007), Eternally Liberated Isvara and Purusa Principle, in Divine Hymns with Supreme Devotional Aphorisms, Kapil Math Press, Kolkata, pages 126-129
^Ian Whicher (1999),The Integrity of the Yoga Darsana: A Reconsideration of Classical Yoga, State University of New York Press,ISBN978-0-7914-3815-2, page 86
^* Sanskrit Original withTranslation 1:The Yoga Philosophy TR Tatya (Translator), with Bhojaraja commentary; Harvard University Archives;
^Lloyd Pflueger (2008),Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN978-81-208-3232-9, pages 31-45
^Robert S. Hartman (2002), The Knowledge of Good: Critique of Axiological Reason, Rodopi,ISBN978-90-420-1220-2, pages 224-225
^Howard Coward (2002), Yoga and Psychology: Language, Memory, and Mysticism, State University of New York Press,ISBN978-0-7914-5500-5, pages 42-46, 88-89, 109-110
^abSV Bharti (2001),Yoga Sutras of Patanjali: With the Exposition of Vyasa, Motilal Banarsidas,ISBN978-81-208-1825-5, Appendix I, pages 672-691
^Jean Varenne and Coltman Derek (1977), Yoga and the Hindu Tradition, University Of Chicago Press,ISBN978-0-226-85116-7, pages 197-202
^abcArti Dhand (2002), The dharma of ethics, the ethics of dharma: Quizzing the ideals of Hinduism, Journal of Religious Ethics, 30(3), pages 347-372
^The Yoga Philosophy TR Tatya (Translator), with Bhojaraja commentary; Harvard University Archives, page 80
^Jan E. M. Houben and Karel Rijk van Kooij (1999), Violence Denied: Violence, Non-Violence and the Rationalization of Violence in South Asian Cultural History, Brill Academic,ISBN978-90-04-11344-2, page 5
^abStuart Sovatsky (1998), Words from the Soul: Time East/West Spirituality and Psychotherapeutic Narrative, State University of New York,ISBN978-0-7914-3949-4, page 21
^SV Bharti (2001), Yoga Sutras of Patanjali: With the Exposition of Vyasa, Motilal Banarsidas,ISBN978-81-208-1825-5, Appendix I, pages 680-691
^Mikel Burley (2000), Haṭha-Yoga: Its Context, Theory, and Practice, Motilal Banarsidas,ISBN978-81-208-1706-7, pages 190-191
^Hartmut Scharfe, Handbook of Oriental Studies – Education in Ancient India, Brill,ISBN978-90-04-12556-8, pages 217-222
^abMM Kamal (1998), "The Epistemology of the Carvaka Philosophy",Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies, 46(2): 13-16
^B Matilal (1992),Perception: An Essay in Indian Theories of Knowledge, Oxford University Press,ISBN978-0-19-823976-5
^abKarl Potter (1977),Meaning and Truth, in Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 2, Princeton University Press, Reprinted in 1995 by Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN81-208-0309-4, pages 160-168
^Karl Potter (1977),Meaning and Truth, in Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 2, Princeton University Press, Reprinted in 1995 by Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN81-208-0309-4, pages 168-169
^Karl Potter (1977),Meaning and Truth, in Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 2, Princeton University Press, Reprinted in 1995 by Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN81-208-0309-4, pages 170-172
^W Halbfass (1991), Tradition and Reflection, State University of New York Press,ISBN0-7914-0362-9, page 26-27
^Karl Potter (2002), Presuppositions of India's Philosophies, Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN81-208-0779-0
^Monier Williams (1893),Indian Wisdom – Religious, Philosophical and Ethical Doctrines of the Hindus, Luzac & Co, London, page 61
^ab* Eliott Deutsche (2000), in Philosophy of Religion : Indian Philosophy Vol 4 (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge,ISBN978-0-8153-3611-2, pages 245-248;
John A. Grimes,A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press,ISBN978-0-7914-3067-5, page 238
^Original Sanskrit and Translation:The Nyaya Sutras of Gotama SC Vidyabhusana (Translator), The Bhuvaneswari Ashrama, University of Toronto Archives
^Hajime Nakamura (1989).A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy: Part 1. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 436.ISBN81-208-0651-4.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link),Quote: "...we can take it that 400-450 is the period during which theBrahma Sūtras was compiled in its extant form."
^Oliver Leaman (1999), Key Concepts in Eastern Philosophy, Routledge,ISBN978-0-415-17363-6, page xiv
^For a more recent translation of the same verse, see Jan E. M. Houben and Karel Rijk van Kooij (1999), Violence Denied, Brill Academic,ISBN978-90-04-11344-2, page 149
^S Venkatesananda (Author) and CK Chapelle (Editor, 1985), The Concise Yoga Vasistha, State University of New York Press,ISBN978-0-87395-954-4, page x
^abS Venkatesananda (Author) and CK Chapelle (Editor, 1985), The Concise Yoga Vasistha, State University of New York Press,ISBN978-0-87395-954-4, pages xi-xii
^abS Venkatesananda (Author) and CK Chapelle (Editor, 1985), The Concise Yoga Vasistha, State University of New York Press,ISBN978-0-87395-954-4, pages 275, also 239-246, 272-277
Olson, Carl (2007)The Many Colors of Hinduism: A Thematic-historical Introduction, Rutgers University Press,ISBN978-0-8135-4068-9, Chapter 5.
Potter, Karl (2009)Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies Vol. 1: Bibliography,ISBN978-81-208-0308-4, "Bibliography on Yoga school of Hinduism", pages 1073–1093.
