| Yazdegerd II 𐭩𐭦𐭣𐭪𐭥𐭲𐭩 | |
|---|---|
| King of Kings of Iranians and non-Iranians | |
 | |
| Shahanshah of theSasanian Empire | |
| Reign | 438–457 |
| Predecessor | Bahram V |
| Successor | Hormizd III |
| Died | 457 |
| Consort | Denag |
| Issue | |
| House | House of Sasan |
| Father | Bahram V |
| Mother | Sapinud |
| Religion | Zoroastrianism |
Yazdegerd II (also spelledYazdgerd andYazdgird;Middle Persian:𐭩𐭦𐭣𐭪𐭥𐭲𐭩), was theSasanianKing of Kings (shahanshah) ofIran from 438 to 457. He was the successor and son ofBahram V (r. 420–438).
His reign was marked by wars against theEastern Roman Empire in the west and theKidarites in the east, as well as by his efforts and attempts to strengthen royal centralisation in the bureaucracy by imposingZoroastrianism on the non-Zoroastrians within the country, namely theChristians. This backfired inArmenia, culminating in a large-scale rebellion led by the military leaderVardan Mamikonian, who was ultimately defeated and killed at theBattle of Avarayr in 451. Nevertheless, religious freedom was subsequently allowed in the country.
Yazdegerd II was the first Sasanian ruler to assume the title ofkay ("king"), which evidently associates him and the dynasty to the mythicalKayanian dynasty commemorated in theAvesta. His death led to a dynastic struggle between his two sonsHormizd III andPeroz I for the throne, with the latter emerging victorious.
The name of Yazdegerd is a combination of theOld Iranianyazad yazata- "divine being" and-karta "made", and thus stands for "God-made", comparable to IranianBagkart andGreekTheoktistos.[1] The name of Yazdegerd is known in other languages as;PahlaviYazdekert;New PersianYazd(e)gerd;SyriacYazdegerd,Izdegerd, andYazdeger;ArmenianYazkert;TalmudicIzdeger andAzger;ArabicYazdeijerd; GreekIsdigerdes.[1]
In 438, shahBahram V (r. 420–438) died, and was succeeded by Yazdegerd II. His western neighbours, theRomans, had since their peace treaty with Iran in 387 agreed that both empires were obligated to cooperate in the defense of theCaucasus against nomadic attacks.[2] The Romans helped in the defense of the Caucasus by paying the Iranians roughly 500 lbs (226 kg) of gold at irregular intervals.[3] While the Romans saw this payment as political subsidies, the Iranians saw it as tribute, which proved that Rome was the deputy of Iran.[4] The Roman emperorTheodosius II's unwillingness to continue the payment made Yazdegerd IIdeclare war against the Romans,[4][2] which had ultimately little success for either side.[5]
The Romans were invaded in their southern provinces by theVandals, causing Theodosius II to ask for peace and send his commander,Anatolius, personally to Yazdegerd II's camp.[6] In the ensuing negotiations in 440, both empires promised not to build any new fortifications inMesopotamia and that the Sasanian Empire would get some payment in order to protect the Caucasus from incursions.[5]
Since the reign ofShapur II (r. 309–379), Iran had to deal with nomadic invaders in the east known as "Iranian Huns" and made up ofHephthalites,Kidarites,Chionites andAlkhans.[7] They seized Tokharistan andGandhara from Shapur II and his Kushano-Sasanian clients, and eventually Kabul fromShapur III (r. 383–388).[8]Archaeological,numismatic, andsigillographic evidence demonstrates the Huns ruled a realm just as refined as that of the Sasanians. They swiftly adopted Iranian imperial symbolism and titulature.[9] Their coins also imitatedSasanian imperial coinage.[9] The modern historian Richard Payne states: "Far from the destructivexyonan of the Iranian accounts or the marauding barbarians of the Roman historians, the Hun kingdoms of post-Iranian Central Asia were city-based, tax-raising, ideologically innovative states the kings of kings found themselves hard pressed to unseat".[10] Hard-pressed by the Huns, Iran fought an almost uninterrupted war with them on its northern and northeastern marches, notably under Bahram V and Yazdegerd II, who both attempted to regain Tokharistan, but only succeeded in preservingAbarshahr.[11] The Sasanian efforts were disrupted in the early 5th century by the Kidarites, who forcedYazdegerd I (r. 399–420), Bahram V, and/or Yazdegerd II to pay them tribute.[12] Although this did not trouble the Iranian treasury, it was nevertheless humiliating.[13] Yazdegerd II eventually refused to pay tribute.[14]
In 450, he launched an expedition into deep Kidarite territory inCentral Asia, raiding and capturing forts and cities, which resulted in the accumulation of many captives and riches.[15] In 453, he moved his court toNishapur in Abarshahr to face the threat from the Kidarites and left his minister (wuzurg framadar)Mihr Narseh in charge of the Sasanian Empire.[16] He spent many years at war against the Kidarites.[5] His forces initially suffered a severe defeat, but fighting continued.[15] According to theŠahrestānīhā ī Ērānšahr ("The Provincial Capitals of Iran"), Yazdegerd II fortified the city ofDamghan and turned it into a strong border post against the Kidarites.[5] It was sometime during this period that Yazdegerd II created the province ofEran-Khwarrah-Yazdegerd ("Iran, glory of Yazdegerd"), which was in the northern part of theGurgan province.[17] After he managed to secure the eastern portion of his empire against the Kidarite incursions, Yazdegerd II shifted his focus on Armenia andCaucasian Albania to defend the Caucasus with the Romans against the increasingHun threat.[18]
The policies of Yazdegerd II have been a matter of discussion. While theArmenian andSyriac portray him as a religious fanatic,Arabic andPersian portray him as a pious king who clashed with the aristocracy. A large portion of modern historiography has incorporated the former.[19] The unsteadiness of the empire was ever-increasing under Yazdegerd II, who had an uneasy relationship with the aristocracy and was facing a great challenge by the Kidaritess in the east.[19] At the beginning of Yazdegerd II's reign, he suffered several defeats at the hands of the Kidarites, for which he put the blame on the Christians, due to much of his cavalry consisting ofIberians andArmenians.[19] Persecutions of Christians first started in 446 with the Christian nobles ofKarkh in Mesopotamia, and later the Christian aristocracy ofIberia and Armenia.[19] He seems to have mainly targeted the non-Zoroastrian aristocracy.[19]
Yazdegerd II had originally continued his father's policies of appeasing the magnates. However, after some time, he turned away from them and started a policy of his own. When the magnates told him that his new policies had offended the people, he disagreed, saying that: "it is not correct for you to presume that the ways in which my father behaved towards you, maintaining you close to him, and bestowing upon you all that bounty, are incumbent upon all the kings that come after him ... each age has its own customs".[20] Yazdegerd II, however, was still fully aware of the longstanding conflict between the crown and the nobility and priesthood, which had culminated in the murder of several Sasanian monarchs.[21]
Yazdegerd II needed the cooperation of the aristocracy so that he could have an organized government to combat the external and internal issues endangering the empire.[19] His later dismissal of Vasak Siwni in 451 and allowance of religious freedom, according to modern historian Eberhard W. Sauer, is a "position hardly compatible with one taken by a religious zealot."[22] According to another modern historian, Scott McDonough, the Zoroastrian faith was perhaps a "test of personal loyalty" for Yazdegerd II.[23] He also targeted Zoroastrian aristocrats, dismantling their advantage of entry to the court and castrated men in his field armies to generateeunuchs more dutiful to him than to their own families.[24] However, Yazdegerd II's policy of integrating the Christian nobility into the bureaucracy still had problematic consequences; before the appointment of Adhur-Hormizd, Armenia had been plunged into a major rebellion.[19] The cause of the rebellion was the attempt ofMihr Narseh to impose theZurvanite variant of Zoroastrianism in Armenia.[19] His intentions differed from those of Yazdegerd II.[23] As a result, many of the Armenian nobles (but not all) rallied underVardan Mamikonian, the supreme commander (sparapet) of Armenia.[25] The Armenian rebels tried to appeal to the Romans for help, but to no avail.[26] Meanwhile, another faction of Armenians, led by themarzban (governor)Vasak Siwni allied themselves with the Sasanians.[25]
On 2 June 451, the Sasanian and rebel forcesclashed at Avarayr, with the Sasanians emerging victorious.[26] Nine generals, including Vardan Mamikonian, were killed, with a large number of the Armenian nobles and soldiers meeting the same fate.[26] The Sasanians, however, had also suffered heavy losses due to the resolute struggle by the Armenian rebels.[26] Although Yazdegerd II put an end to the persecutions in the country afterward, tensions continued until 510 when a kinsman of Vardan Mamikonian,Vard Mamikonian, was appointedmarzban by Yazdegerd II's grandson,Kavad I (r. 488–531).[27]
Jews were also the subject of persecution under Yazdegerd II; he is said to have issued decrees prohibiting them from observing theSabbath openly,[28] and ordered executions of several Jewish leaders.[5] The Jewish community ofSpahan fought back byflaying two Zoroastrian priests alive, which in turn escalated the persecution they were already facing.[5] This was the only outbreak of persecution directed against the Jews who were generally not persecuted by the Sasanians.[29]
Yazdegerd II was an astute and well-read ruler whose motto was "Question, examine, see. Let us choose and hold that which is best".[30] He is generally praised in Persian sources, and is described as a compassionate and benevolent ruler.[31] He is commended for abandoning his father's overindulgence in hunting, feasting, and having long audience sessions.[32][5] According to the medieval historiansIbn al-Balkhi andHamza al-Isfahani, he was known as "Yazdegerd the Gentle" (Yazdegerd-e Narm).[5] However, the favorable account of Yazdegerd II is due to his policy of persecuting non-Zoroastrians within the empire, which appeased the Iranian aristocracy and especially the Zoroastrian priesthood, which sought to use the Sasanian Empire to impose their authority over the religious and cultural life of its people.[32] This is the opposite of the policy of his grandfather and namesake,Yazdegerd I (known as the "sinner"), who is the subject of hostility in Persian sources due to his tolerant policy towards his non-Zoroastrian subjects, and his refusal to comply with the demands of the aristocracy and priesthood.[33]
In the 440s, Yazdegerd II had a mudbrick defensive systemconstructed atDerbent to fend off incursions from the north.[34] An inscription on one of its walls report that the tribute paid by the Romans was used for the renewal of the fortress.[35] Near the city, he founded the fortified settlement of Shahristan-i Yazdegerd (present-day ruins of Torpakh-kala), which became the main hub of the soldiers stationed in the region, whose leader held the title of "marzban of Chol".[36] According to the New Persian chronicleTarikh-i Yazd ("History of Yazd") of 1441, the city ofYazd in central Iran was refounded by Yazdegerd II.[37]
The reign of Yazdegerd II marks the start of a new inscription on the Sasanian coins;mazdēsn bay kay ("TheMazda-worshipping majesty, the king"), which displays his fondness of the legendaryAvestan dynasty, theKayanians, who also used the title ofkay.[5][38][a] This is due to a shift in the political perspective of the Sasanian Empire−originally disposed towards the West, was now changed to the East.[40] This shift, which had already started under Yazdegerd I and Bahram V, reached its zenith under Yazdegerd II and his son and successorPeroz I (r. 459–484).[40] It may have been triggered due to the advent of hostile tribes on the eastern front of Iran.[40] The war against the Hunnic tribes may have awakened the mythical rivalry existing between theIranian Kayanian rulers and theirTuranian enemies, which is demonstrated in theYounger Avesta.[40] It may have thus been as a result of the conflict between Iran and its eastern enemies, that resulted in the adoption of the title ofkay, used by the very same Iranian mythical kings in their war against the Turanians in the East.[40]
Likewise, it was most likely during this period that legendary and epic texts were collected by the Sasanians, including the legend of the Iranian hero-kingFereydun (Frēdōn in Middle Persian), who split up his kingdom among his three sons; his eldest sonSalm receiving the empire of the West, Rome; the second eldestTur receiving the empire of the East,Turan; and the youngestIraj receiving the heartland of the empire, Iran.[40] Accordingly, influenced by the texts about the Kayanians, Yazdegerd II may believed to be the heir of the Fereydun and Iraj, thus possibly deeming not only Roman domains in West as belonging to Iran, but also the eastern domains of the Huns.[40] Thus the Sasanians may have sought to symbolically assert their rights over those lands by assuming the Kayanian title ofkay.[40] The traditional titulature of "King of Kings" was generally missing from Yazdegerd II's coinage.[41]
A new design also appeared on the reverse of the Sasanian coins, where the traditionalfire altar flanked by two attendants, now imitates them in a more venerated manner.[5] This presumably further demonstrates Yazdegerd II's fealty to Zoroastrianism.[5] The provinces ofAsoristan andKhuzistan provided the most mints for Yazdegerd II in the west, whilst the provinces ofGurgan andMarw provided the most in the east, undoubtedly to support the Sasanians in their wars on the two fronts.[5]
Yazdegerd II died in 457; he had reportedly not designed a successor and instead—according to the medieval historianal-Tha'alibi—entrusted the task to the elite.[20] Civil war soon followed; his eldest sonHormizd III ascended to the throne at the city ofRay in northern Iran, while Peroz fled to the northeastern part of the empire and began raising an army in order to claim the throne for himself.[42] The empire thus fell into a dynastic struggle and became divided. The mother of the two brothers,Denag, temporarily ruled as regent of the empire from its capital,Ctesiphon.[43]
Yazdegerd II Died: 457 | ||
| Preceded by | King of Kings of Iran and non-Iran 438–457 | Succeeded by |
