Thewriting systems of pre-Islamic Arabia comprise a diverse group of scripts used across theArabian Peninsula and adjacent regions prior to the rise ofIslam in the 7th century AD. These scripts reflect the position of Arabia as a crossroads between theMediterranean,Mesopotamian,Iranian, andAfrican cultural spheres, and they were employed for a range of functions includingmonumental inscriptions, religious dedications, administrative records,graffiti, and personal names. Most of the known writing systems belong to theSouth Semitic branch of theSemitic script family, though others derive fromAramaic andGreek models.
The study of these writing systems relies primarily onepigraphy, as literary manuscripts frompre-Islamic Arabia have not survived. Inscriptions are attested from at least the early 1st millennium BC until the early Islamic period, with significant regional variation in script, language, and orthographic practices.
Pre-Islamic Arabia did not possess a single unified writing system, althoughPaleo-Arabic, the predecessor of the current Arabic script, begins to be found across the Peninsula inLate Antiquity (fourth to sixth centuries) alongside regional scripts.[1]
Instead, multiple scripts coexisted, often associated with specific regions, polities, or cultural traditions. Broadly, these scripts can be divided into:[2][3]
TheAncient South Arabian (ASA) scripts form a closely related group of consonantal alphabets (abjads) used primarily in the kingdoms ofSouth Arabia from approximately the 9th century BC to the 6th century AD. They are written from right to left, thoughboustrophedon is occasionally attested early on. The scripts consist of 29 distinct (consonantal) letters. ASA was used to write many important languages in thehistory of South Arabia, includingSabaic,Minaic,Qatabanic, andHadramautic.[4]
Ancient North Arabian (ANA) refers to a group of alphabetic scripts used in northern and central Arabia between roughly the 8th century BC and the 4th century AD. Unlike the South Arabian scripts, ANA scripts are more diverse and more often used for graffiti instead of formal monumental inscriptions. The major forms includeSafaitic,Hismaic,Dadanitic,Thamudic (an umbrella term for many unrelated, ungrouped, and poorly understood scripts).[4]
Safaitic is one of the best-attested ANA scripts, with tens of thousands of graffiti found in the basalt deserts of southern Syria, northeastern Jordan, and northern Saudi Arabia. The inscriptions were typically incised by pastoral nomads and record personal names, genealogies, prayers, curses, and accounts of daily life.
Hismaic inscriptions are concentrated in southern Jordan and northwestern Arabia, particularly in the Ḥismā desert. The script is closely related to Safaitic but shows distinct letter forms and conventions. Like Safaitic, Hismaic inscriptions are usually brief and informal.
The labelThamudic was historically applied to a wide range of ANA inscriptions that did not fit neatly into other categories. Modern scholarship recognizes that "Thamudic" is a tenuous collection of distinct scripts, often designated Thamudic A (now known asTaymanitic),B,C,D, E (now known as Hismaic) andThamudic F. Recently, progress has been made towards thedechiperment of Thamudic D.[5]
Dadanitic was used in the oasis of Dadan (modernal-Ula) in northwestern Arabia. It appears in formal inscriptions associated with local kingship, religious dedications, and public works. The script is more standardized than most ANA varieties and reflects a more centralized scribal tradition.
TheNabataean script developed fromImperial Aramaic and was used by theNabataean Kingdom, whose territory included southernJordan, theNegev, and northwestern Arabia. Nabataean inscriptions date from the 2nd century BC to the 4th century AD.
The Arabic script evolved from the Nabataean script through a series of transitions.
Broadly, it is believed that the Nabataean script gave rise toNabataean Aramaic, which transitioned intoNabataean Arabic, intoPaleo-Arabic (in the 5th and 6th centuries AD), and finally, the Arabic script as it is found in the early Islamic era.[6][7]
TheDhofari script is a South Semitic writing system is a group of relatedSouth Semitic scripts used across southern and southeasternArabia, fromDhofar in Oman toAl Mahrah in Yemen and as far asSocotra. In 2025, it wasdeciphered byAhmad Al-Jallad.[12][13]
Greek inscriptions are attested in parts of northwestern Arabia, particularly in areas under Hellenistic and Roman influence. Greek was used mainly for official, dedicatory, or administrative purposes rather than for local vernacular expression.
TheEthiopic (Geʽez) script appears in southern Arabia during periods ofAksumite presence, especially in the 6th century. It was used primarily for royal and religious inscriptions connected with the Kingdom of Aksum.[14]