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Workers' control isparticipation in the management of factories and other commercial enterprises by the people who work there. It has been variously advocated byanarchists,socialists (notablyTrotskyists),communists,social democrats,distributists andChristian democrats, and has been combined with varioussocialist andmixed economy systems.
Workers' councils are a form of workers' control.Council communism, such as in the earlySoviet Union, advocates workers' control through workers' councils andfactory committees.Syndicalism advocates workers' control throughtrade unions.Guild socialism advocates workers' control through a revival of theguild system.Participatory economics represents a recent variation on the idea of workers' control.
Workers' control can be contrasted to control of the economy via the state, such asnationalization andcentral planning (seestate socialism) versus control of themeans of production by owners, which workers can achieve through employer provided stock purchases, direct stock purchases, etc., as found in capitalism.
During theAlgerian Revolution, peasants and workers took control of factories, farms and offices that were abandoned, with the help ofUGTA militants. Around 1,000 enterprises were placed under workers' control in 1962, with that number climbing to 23,000+ in the following years. TheFLN passed laws in the newly independentAlgeria which partially institutionalized workers' control, creating a bureaucracy around workers' councils that centralized them. This caused massive corruption among new managers as well productivity and enthusiasm in the project to fall, leading to numerous strikes by workers in protest. Following a military coup in 1965, workers' control efforts were sabotaged by the government which began to centralize the economy in the hands of the state, denying workers control.[1]
In 1973, with the end of the self-proclaimedArgentine Revolution, there was a wave of strikes and workplace occupations that rocked the country as the first elections were held, mainly in state-owned industry. 500 occupations of workplaces were taken out overall, with 350 occurring between the 11th and 15 June, mostly of media outlets, health centres and public transport and government administration. These occupations were predominantly done in support ofPeronism, and failed to achieve any long lasting results on the eve of theDirty War.[1]
During theArgentine Great Depression, hundreds of workplaces were occupied and ran according to the principles of workers' control by angered unemployed people. In 2014, around 311 of these were still around, being run as worker cooperatives.[2] Some of the notable examples include:
In NorthernQueensland from 1908 to 1920, theIWW and theAustralasian Meat Industry Employees Union organized a degree of workers' control amongmeat industry workers.[3] From 1971 to 1990, Australia saw a massive wave of workers' control corresponding with strikes all over the country. Some authors have argued that thegreen bans constitute a form of workers' control.[4] Including:
In 2015, workers took over a detergent factory that was on the verge of bankruptcy, running it as a co-operative.[7]
Around 70 bankrupted enterprises have been taken over by about 12,000 workers since 1990 as part of the recovered factories movement, mainly in the industries of metallurgy, textiles, shoemaking, glasswork, ceramics and mining. This has been concentrated in the South and Southeast of Brazil.[8]
In 1981, workers took overBC Telephones' phone exchanges for five days in protest of layoffs and increased deskilling of work.[9]
During the presidency ofSalvador Allende (1970–1973) 31 factories were placed under workers' control in a system calledCordón industrial before being destroyed byAugusto Pinochet.
Workers' control was practiced inGuangzhou in the 1920s[10] and theShinmin Autonomous Region from 1929 to 1931.[11]
From 1968 to 1991, there were several workplace and takeovers (mainly in agriculture) that were repressed by the state. Little knowledge exists of these in English.[12]
Workers' control occurred during thePrague Spring, by January 1969 there were councils in about 120 enterprises, representing more than 800,000 employees, or about one-sixth of the country’s workers. They were banned in May 1970 and subsequently declined.[13]
Before theEgyptian Revolution of 2011, several factories were placed under workers' control.[14]
In 1871, theParis Commune placed 43 enterprises under workers' control as one of the first experiments in modern socialism.[15] Another famous example of workers' control is theLIP clock factory, which was occupied in 1973 and operated as a worker cooperative.
Germany has a history of "Mitbestimmung" (Codetermination) since 1891 (seeCodetermination in Germany). The Weimar Republic required workers' consultative committees in every business employing 20 people, which the Nazi government abolished. Works councils were authorized by the Allied Control Council in 1946 and required by the West German government in 1952; codetermination has been mandatory in all large companies (2,000 employees) since 1976.
In the early 1980s, two textile factories were taken over by their workers after going bankrupt.[16] In the early 2010s, various workers took over a building materials factory,[17] newspaper,[18] radio station[19] and hospital.[20]
During theIndonesian National Revolution, railway, plantation and factory workers acrossJava implemented workers' control from 1945 to 1946, until it was crushed by the new Indonesian Nationalist Government.[21] In 2007, over a thousand workers inJakarta inspired by workers' control in Argentina and Venezuela took over a textile factory in response towage cuts, repression of a recently organized union and efforts to fire and intimidate union organizers.[22]
During theBiennio Rosso, workers, especially in Northern Italy, took control of numerous factories. In 2012, workers took over an office and former car factory, turning it into a recycling plant.[23]
During theAllied Occupation of Japan, around 100,000 workers took over 133 workplaces as a form of industrial dispute calledproduction control. Coal mines, shoe factories, hospitals, government offices, steel works and newspapers were the main sites taken over.[24]
Workers' control had been practiced in Poland during theRevolution of 1905, as workers protested a lack of political freedoms and poor working conditions. Workers' control also occurred in around 100 industries in the aftermath ofWorld War I with around 500,000 participants.[25] Notably in the short-livedRepublic of Tarnobrzeg. AsWorld War II was ending, workers took over abandoned and damaged factories and began running them between 1944 and 1947.
Between theRevolutions in 1917, instruments of worker representation rose up, called the Soviets. On 27 November 1917, theCouncil of People's Commissars (SNK) implemented a decree on workers' control.[26]
The USSR experimented with workers' control with theKuzbass Autonomous Industrial Colony thanks to the influence fromIWW from 1922 to 1926 before being destroyed by the government.[27][better source needed]
During theSpanish Revolution of 1936, workers' control inanarchist-controlled areas was widespread, with workers' control being practiced in factories, farms, docks, ships, utilities, railways, trams and hospitals.
Workers' control was practiced in theCeylon Transport Board from 1958 to 1978 with about 7,000 buses and 50,000 workers.
Workers' control has been practiced in several cities and towns during theSyrian Civil War since 2012 as they maintain agriculture, run hospitals and maintain basic social services in the lack of a state.[28][29] Workers' control is also practiced inRojava, with around a third of all industry being placed under workers' control as of 2015.[30]
Workers' control was practiced in several factories and hotels during a strike wave from 1972 to 1973 over anger at the ineffectiveworkers committees, although the government ofJulius Nyerere initially supported the factory takeovers, it later repressed them, with some analysts arguing it was a form ofco-optation.[31]
Workers' control was practiced by theMakhnovshchina in both factories and farms from 1918 to 1921, when it was crushed by theRed Army.[32]
Workers' control was first practiced by theDiggers, who took over abandoned farm land and formed autonomous collectives during theEnglish Civil War. In the 1970s, around 260 episodes of workers' control were witnessed across the UK,[33] including:
Workers' control was practiced inSeattle in 1919, as workers organized milk deliveries, cafeterias, firefighting and laundry before being suppressed by the government.[34] From 1968 to 1972, General Electric experimented with workers' control inRiver Works, Massachusetts to great success.[35]
InYugoslavia, there was a limited degree of workers' control of industry which was encoded into law in 1950. This occurred due to theTito-Stalin Split and inspiration from theParis Commune. However, the poorly designed, top-down nature of the workers' councils led to corruption, cynicism and inefficiencies until they were destroyed in theYugoslav Wars.[36]