As ananimal fiber, wool consists of protein together with a small percentage oflipids. This makes it chemically quite distinct from cotton and other plant fibers, which are mainly cellulose.[1]
Wool is produced byfollicles which are small cells located in the skin. These follicles are located in the upper layer of the skin called theepidermis and push down into the second skin layer called thedermis as the wool fibers grow. Follicles can be classed as either primary or secondary follicles. Primary follicles produce three types of fiber:kemp, medullated fibers, and true wool fibers. Secondary follicles only produce true wool fibers. Medullated fibers share nearly identical characteristics to hair and are long but lack crimp and elasticity. Kemp fibers are very coarse and shed out.[2]
Fleece of fine New ZealandMerino wool and combed wool top on a wool table
Wool's crimp refers to the strong natural wave present in each wool fiber as it is presented on the animal. Wool's crimp, and to a lesser degree scales, make it easier tospin the fleece by helping the individual fibers attach, so they stay together. Because of the crimp, wool fabrics have greater bulk than other textiles, and they hold air, which causes the fabric to retain heat. Wool has a highspecific thermal resistance, so it impedes heat transfer in general. This effect has benefited desert peoples, asBedouins andTuaregs use wool clothes for insulation.
The felting of wool occurs upon hammering or other mechanical agitation as the microscopic barbs on the surface of wool fibers hook together. Felting generally comes under two main areas, dry felting and wet felting. Wet felting occurs when water and a lubricant (especially an alkali such as soap) are applied to the wool which is then agitated until the fibers mix and bond together. Temperature shock while damp or wet accentuates the felting process. Some natural felting can occur on the animal's back.
Wool has several qualities that distinguish it from hair or fur: it iscrimped andelastic.[3]
The amount of crimp corresponds to the fineness of the wool fibers. A fine wool likeMerino may have up to 40 crimps per centimetre (100 crimps per inch), while coarser wool likekarakul may have less than one (one or two crimps per inch). In contrast, hair has little if anyscale and no crimp, and little ability to bind intoyarn. On sheep, the hair part of the fleece is calledkemp. The relative amounts of kemp to wool vary from breed to breed and make some fleeces more desirable forspinning,felting, orcarding intobatts for quilts or other insulating products, including the famoustweed cloth ofScotland.
Wool fibersreadily absorb moisture, but are not hollow. Wool can absorb almost one-third of its own weight in water.[4]Wool absorbs sound like many other fabrics. It is generally a creamy white color, although some breeds of sheep produce natural colors, such as black, brown, silver, and random mixes.
Wool ignites at a higher temperature than cotton and somesynthetic fibers. It has a lower rate offlame spread, a lower rate of heat release, a lowerheat of combustion, and does not melt or drip;[5] it forms a char that is insulating and self-extinguishing, and it contributes less to toxic gases and smoke than other flooring products when used in carpets.[6] Wool carpets are specified for high safety environments, such as trains and aircraft. Wool is usually specified forgarments for firefighters, soldiers, and others in occupations where they are exposed to the likelihood of fire.[6]
Sheep shearing is the process in which a worker (ashearer) cuts off the woollen fleece of a sheep. After shearing,wool-classers separate the wool into four main categories:
fleece (which makes up the vast bulk)
broken
bellies
locks
The quality of fleeces is determined by a technique known aswool classing, whereby a qualified person, called a wool classer, groups wools of similar grading together to maximize the return for the farmer or sheep owner. In Australia, before being auctioned, all Merino fleece wool is objectively measured for average diameter (micron), yield (including the amount ofvegetable matter),staple length, staple strength, and sometimes color and comfort factor.
Wool straight off a sheep is known as "raw wool", "greasy wool"[8] or "wool in the grease". This wool contains a high level of valuablelanolin, as well as the sheep's dead skin and sweat residue, and generally also contains pesticides and vegetable matter from the animal's environment. Before the wool can be used for commercial purposes, it must be scoured, a process of cleaning the greasy wool. Scouring may be as simple as a bath in warm water or as complicated as an industrial process usingdetergent andalkali in specialized equipment.[9]Innorth west England, specialpotash pits were constructed to producepotash used in the manufacture of a soft soap for scouring locally produced white wool.
Vegetable matter in commercial wool is often removed by chemicalcarbonization.[10]In less-processed wools, vegetable matter may be removed by hand and some of the lanolin left intact through the use of gentler detergents. This semigrease wool can be worked into yarn and knitted into particularly water-resistant mittens or sweaters, such as those of theAran Island fishermen. Lanolin removed from wool is widely used incosmetic products such ashand creams.
Raw wool has many impurities; vegetable matter, sand, dirt and yolk which is a mixture of suint (sweat), grease, urine stains and dung locks. The sheep's body yields many types of wool with differing strengths, thicknesses, length of staple and impurities. The raw wool (greasy) is processed into 'top'. 'Worsted top' requires strong straight and parallel fibres.
Various types and natural colors of wool, and a picture made from wool
The quality of wool is determined by its fiber diameter,crimp, yield, color, and staple strength. Fiber diameter is the single most important wool characteristic determining quality and price.
Merino wool is typically 90–115 mm (3.5–4.5 in) in length and is very fine (between 12 and 24 microns).[12] The finest and most valuable wool comes fromMerinohoggets. Wool taken from sheep produced for meat is typically coarser, and has fibers 40–150 mm (1.5–6 in) in length. Damage or breaks in the wool can occur if the sheep is stressed while it is growing its fleece, resulting in a thin spot where the fleece is likely to break.[13]
Wool is also separated into grades based on the measurement of the wool's diameter in microns and also its style. These grades may vary depending on the breed or purpose of the wool. For example:
Any wool finer than 25 microns can be used for garments, while coarser grades are used for outerwear or rugs. The finer the wool, the softer it is, while coarser grades are more durable and less prone topilling.
The finest Australian and New Zealand Merino wools are known as 1PP, which is the industry benchmark of excellence for Merino wool 16.9 microns and finer. This style represents the top level of fineness, character, color, and style as determined on the basis of a series of parameters in accordance with the original dictates of British wool as applied by the Australian Wool Exchange (AWEX) Council. Only a few dozen of the millions of bales auctioned every year can be classified and marked 1PP.[15]
In the United States, three classifications of wool are named in theWool Products Labeling Act of 1939.[16] Wool is "the fiber from the fleece of the sheep or lamb or hair of the Angora or Cashmere goat (and may include the so-called specialty fibers from the hair of the camel, alpaca, llama, and vicuna) which has never been reclaimed from any woven or felted wool product".[16] "Virgin wool" and "new wool" are also used to refer to such never used wool. There are two categories ofrecycled wool (also called reclaimed or shoddy wool). "Reprocessed wool" identifies "wool which has been woven or felted into a wool product and subsequently reduced to a fibrous state without having been used by the ultimate consumer".[16] "Reused wool" refers to such wool thathas been used by the ultimate consumer.[16]
A 1905 illustration of a Tibetan man spinning wool
Wild sheep were more hairy than woolly. Although sheep were domesticated some 9,000 to 11,000 years ago, archaeological evidence fromstatuary found at sites inIran suggests selection for woolly sheep may have begun around 6000 BC,[17][18] with the earliest known woven wool garments having only been dated to two to three thousand years later.[19] Woolly sheep were introduced into Europe from the Near East in the early part of the 4th millennium BC. The oldest known European wool textile,c. 1500 BC, was preserved in aDanish bog.[20] Prior to the invention of shears—probably in theIron Age — wool was plucked out by hand or withbronze combs. InRoman times, wool,linen, and leather clothed the European population; cotton from India was a curiosity of which only naturalists had heard, and silks, imported along theSilk Road from China, were extravagantluxury-goods.Pliny the Elder records in hisNatural History that the reputation for producing the finest wool was enjoyed byTarentum, where selective breeding had produced sheep with superior fleeces, but which required special care.
In medieval times, as trade connections expanded, theChampagne fairs revolved around the production of wool cloth in small centers such asProvins. The network developed by the annual fairs meant that the woolens of Provins might find their way toNaples, Sicily,Cyprus,Mallorca, Spain, and evenConstantinople.[21] The wool trade developed into serious undertaking, a generator of capital.[22] In the 13th century, the wool trade became the economic engine of theLow Countries and central Italy. By the end of the 14th century, Italy predominated.[21] The Florentine woolguild,Arte della Lana, sent imported English wool to the San Martinoconvent for processing. Italian wool fromAbruzzo and Spanish merino wools were processed atGarbo workshops. Abruzzo wool had once been the most accessible for the Florentine guild, until improved relations with merchants inIberia made merino wool more available. In the 15th century Pisa established a factory "which would export its cloths to the Crimea in exchange for Russian furs".[23]By the 16th century Italian wool exports to the Levant had declined, eventually replaced by silk production.[21][24]
The value of exports of English raw wool were rivaled only by the 15th-centurysheepwalks ofCastile and were a significant source of income to the English crown, which in 1275 had imposed an export tax on wool called the "Great Custom". The importance of wool to the English economy can be seen in the fact that since the 14th century, the presiding officer of theHouse of Lords has sat on the "Woolsack", a chair stuffed with wool.
Economies of scale were instituted in theCistercian houses, which had accumulated great tracts of land during the 12th and early 13th centuries, when land prices were low and labor still scarce. Raw wool was baled and shipped fromNorth Sea ports to the textile cities ofFlanders, notablyYpres andGhent, where it was dyed and worked up as cloth. At the time of theBlack Death (1346-1353), English textile industries consumed about 10% of English wool production. The English textile trade grew during the 15th century, to the point where the export of wool was discouraged. Over the centuries, various British laws controlled the wool trade or required the use of wool even in burials. The smuggling of wool out of the country, known asowling, was at one time punishable by the cutting off of a hand. After theRestoration of 1660, fine English woolens began to compete with silks in the international market, partly aided by theNavigation Acts; in 1699, the English Crown forbade its American colonies to trade wool with anyone but England herself.
A great deal of the value of woollen textiles was in thedyeing andfinishing of the woven product. In each of the centers of the textile trade, the manufacturing process came to be subdivided into a collection of trades, overseen by anentrepreneur in a system called by the English the "putting-out" system, or "cottage industry", and theVerlagssystem by the Germans. In this system of producing wool cloth, once perpetuated in the production ofHarris tweeds, the entrepreneur provides the raw materials and an advance, the remainder being paid upon delivery of the product. Written contracts bound the artisans to specified terms.Fernand Braudel traces the appearance of the system in the 13th-century economic boom, quoting a document of 1275.[21] The system effectively bypassed theguilds' restrictions.
Before the flowering of theRenaissance, theMedici and other great banking houses of Florence had built their wealth and banking system on their textile industry based on wool, overseen by theArte della Lana, the wool guild: wool-textile interests guided Florentine policies.Francesco Datini, the "merchant of Prato", established in 1383 anArte della Lana for that small Tuscan city. The sheepwalks ofCastile were controlled by theMesta union of sheep-owners.They shaped the landscape and the fortunes of themeseta that lies in the heart of the Iberian peninsula; in the 16th century, a unified Spain allowed export ofmerino lambs only with royal permission. The German wool-market – based on sheep of Spanish origin – did not overtake British wool until comparatively late. Later, theIndustrial Revolution introduced mass-production technology into wool- and wool-cloth-manufacturing. Australia's colonial economy came to depend on sheep-raising, and the Australian wool trade eventually overtook that of the Germans by 1845, furnishing wool forBradford, which developed as the heart of industrialized woolens production.
Due to decreasing demand for wool with increased use of synthetic fibers, wool production is much less than what it was in the past. The collapse in the price of wool began in late 1966 with a 40% drop; with occasional interruptions, the price has tended down. The result has been sharply reduced production and the movement of resources into production of other commodities, in the case of sheep growers, to production of meat.[25][26][27]
Superwash wool (or washable wool) technology first appeared in the early 1970s, producing wool that has been specially treated so it is machine washable and may be tumble-dried. This wool is produced using an acid bath that removes the "scales" from the fiber, or by coating the fiber with a polymer that prevents the scales from attaching to each other and causing shrinkage. This process results in a fiber that holds longevity and durability better than synthetic materials, while retaining garment shape.[28]
In December 2004, a bale of the then world's finest wool, averaging 11.8 microns, sold for AU$3,000 per kilogram at auction inMelbourne. This fleece wool tested with an average yield of 74.5%, 68 mm (2.7 in) long, and had 40 newtons perkilotex strength. The result was A$279,000 for the bale.[29]The finest bale of wool everauctioned was sold for a seasonal record of AU$2690 per kilo during June 2008. This bale was produced by the Hillcreston Pinehill Partnership and measured 11.6 microns, 72.1% yield, and had a 43 newtons per kilotex strength measurement. The bale realized $247,480 and was exported to India.[30]
In 2007, a new wool suit was developed and sold in Japan which can be washed in the shower, and which dries off ready to wear within hours with no ironing required. The suit, developed using Australian merino wool, enables woven products made from wool, such as suits, trousers, and skirts, to be cleaned using a domestic shower.[31]
Global wool production is about 2 million tonnes (2.2 million short tons) per year, of which 60% goes into apparel. Wool comprises ca 3% of the global textile market, but its value is higher owing to dyeing and other modifications of the material.[1] Australia is a leading producer of wool which is mostly from Merino sheep but has been eclipsed by China in terms of total weight.[32] New Zealand (2016) is the third-largest producer of wool, and the largest producer of crossbred wool. Breeds such asLincoln,Romney,Drysdale, andElliotdale produce coarser fibers, and wool from these sheep is usually used for making carpets.
In the United States,Texas,New Mexico, andColorado have large commercial sheep flocks and their mainstay is theRambouillet (or French Merino). Also, a thriving home-flock contingent of small-scale farmers raise small hobby flocks of specialty sheep for the hand-spinning market. These small-scale farmers offer a wide selection of fleece. Global woolclip (total amount of wool shorn) 2020[33]
^percent of global wool-clip (334 million kilograms [740 million pounds] greasy, 2020)
Organic wool has gained in popularity. This wool is limited in supply and much of it comes from New Zealand and Australia.[34] Organic wool has become easier to find in clothing and other products, but these products often carry a higher price.
Wool is environmentally preferable (as compared to petroleum-based nylon orpolypropylene) as a material forcarpets, as well, in particular when combined with a natural binding and the use offormaldehyde-free glues.
Animal rights groups have noted issues with the production of wool, such asmulesing.
"Wool: Fibre of the gods, created – not man-made"CSIRO marketing poster describing the benefits of woolMerino wool samples for sale byauction, Newcastle,New South Wales
About 85% of wool sold in Australia is sold by open cryauction.[35]
Wool received by Australian brokers and dealers (tonnes/quarter) since 1973Wool buyers' room at a wool auction, Newcastle, New South Wales
TheBritish Wool Marketing Board operates a central marketing system for UK fleece wool with the aim of achieving the best possible net returns for farmers.
Less than half of New Zealand's wool is sold at auction, while around 45% of farmers sell wool directly to private buyers and end-users.[36]
United States sheep producers market wool with private or cooperative wool warehouses, but wool pools are common in many states. In some cases, wool is pooled in a local market area, but sold through a wool warehouse. Wool offered with objective measurement test results is preferred. Imported apparel wool and carpet wool goes directly to central markets, where it is handled by the large merchants and manufacturers.[37]
Shoddy or recycled wool is made by cutting or tearing apart existing wool fabric and respinning the resulting fibers.[38] As this process makes the wool fibers shorter, the remanufactured fabric is inferior to the original. The recycled wool may be mixed with raw wool, woolnoil, or another fiber such as cotton to increase the average fiber length. Suchyarns are typically used asweft yarns with a cottonwarp. This process was invented in theHeavy Woollen District ofWest Yorkshire and created a microeconomy in this area for many years.[39]
Woolen is a soft, short-staple,carded wool yarn typically used for knitting.[38] In traditional weaving, woolen weft yarn (for softness and warmth) is frequently combined with a worsted warp yarn for strength on the loom.[40]
In addition to clothing, wool has been used forblankets,suits,horse rugs, saddle cloths,carpeting, insulation and upholstery. Dyed wool can be used to create other forms of art such as wet and needle felting. Wool felt covers piano hammers, and it is used to absorb odors and noise in heavy machinery and stereo speakers. Ancient Greeks lined their helmets with felt, and Roman legionnaires used breastplates made of wool felt.
Wool as well as cotton has also been traditionally used forcloth diapers.[41] Wool fiber exteriors are hydrophobic (repel water) and the interior of the wool fiber ishygroscopic (attracts water); this makes a wool garment suitable cover for a wet diaper by inhibiting wicking, so outer garments remain dry. Wool felted and treated withlanolin is water resistant, air permeable, and slightly antibacterial, so it resists the buildup of odor. Some modern cloth diapers use felted wool fabric for covers, and there are several modern commercial knitting patterns for wool diaper covers.
Initial studies of woollen underwear have found it prevented heat and sweat rashes because it more readily absorbs the moisture than other fibers.[42]
As an animal protein, wool can be used as a soil fertilizer, being a slow-release source of nitrogen.
Researchers at theRoyal Melbourne Institute of Technology school of fashion and textiles have discovered a blend of wool andKevlar, the synthetic fiber widely used in body armor, was lighter, cheaper and worked better in damp conditions than Kevlar alone. Kevlar, when used alone, loses about 20% of its effectiveness when wet, so required an expensive waterproofing process. Wool increased friction in a vest with 28–30 layers of fabric, to provide the same level of bullet resistance as 36 layers of Kevlar alone.[43]
A buyer ofMerino wool,Ermenegildo Zegna, has offered awards for Australian wool producers. In 1963, the first Ermenegildo Zegna Perpetual Trophy was presented in Tasmania for growers of "Superfine skirted Merino fleece". In 1980, a national award, the Ermenegildo Zegna Trophy for Extrafine Wool Production, was launched. In 2004, this award became known as the Ermenegildo Zegna Unprotected Wool Trophy. In 1998, an Ermenegildo Zegna Protected Wool Trophy was launched for fleece from sheep coated for around nine months of the year.
In 2002, the Ermenegildo Zegna Vellus Aureum Trophy was launched for wool that is 13.9 microns or finer. Wool from Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, and South Africa may enter, and a winner is named from each country.[44] In April 2008, New Zealand won the Ermenegildo Zegna Vellus Aureum Trophy for the first time with a fleece that measured 10.8 microns. This contest awards the winning fleece weight with the same weight in gold as a prize, hence the name.
In 2010, an ultrafine, 10-micron fleece, from Windradeen, near Pyramul, New South Wales, won the Ermenegildo Zegna Vellus Aureum International Trophy.[45]
Since 2000,Loro Piana has awarded a cup for the world's finest bale of wool that produces just enough fabric for 50 tailor-made suits. The prize is awarded to an Australian or New Zealand wool grower who produces the year's finest bale.[46]
TheNew England Merino Field days which display local studs, wool, and sheep are held during January, in even numbered years around theWalcha, New South Wales district. The Annual Wool Fashion Awards, which showcase the use of Merino wool by fashion designers, are hosted by the city ofArmidale,New South Wales, in March each year. This event encourages young and established fashion designers to display their talents. During each May, Armidale hosts the annual New England Wool Expo to display wool fashions, handicrafts, demonstrations, shearing competitions, yard dog trials, and more.[1]
In July, the annual Australian Sheep and Wool Show is held inBendigo,Victoria. This is the largest sheep and wool show in the world, with goats and alpacas, as well as woolcraft competitions and displays, fleece competitions, sheepdog trials, shearing, and wool handling. The largest competition in the world for objectively measured fleeces is the Australian Fleece Competition, which is held annually at Bendigo. In 2008, 475 entries came from all states of Australia, with first and second prizes going to theNorthern Tablelands fleeces.[47]
^abThe Land, Merinos – Going for Green and Gold, p.46, US use flame resistance, 21 August 2008
^Admani, Shehla; Jacob, Sharon E. (2014-04-01). "Allergic contact dermatitis in children: review of the past decade".Current Allergy and Asthma Reports.14 (4): 421.doi:10.1007/s11882-014-0421-0.PMID24504525.S2CID33537360.
^abcdePreparation of Australian Wool Clips, Code of Practice 2010–2012, Australian Wool Exchange (AWEX), 2010
^Wu Zhao (1987).A study of wool carbonizing (PhD). University of New South Wales. School of Fibre Science and Technology. Archived fromthe original on 30 October 2014.
^Ensminger, M. E.; R. O. Parker (1986).Sheep and Goat Science, Fifth Edition. Danville, Illinois: The Interstate Printers and Publishers Inc.ISBN0-8134-2464-X.
^Weaver, Sue (2005).Sheep: small-scale sheep keeping for pleasure and profit. Irvine, CA: Hobby Farm Press, an imprint of BowTie Press, a division of BowTie Inc.ISBN1-931993-49-1.
^Smith, Barbara; Kennedy, Gerald; Aseltine, Mark (1997).Beginning Shepherd's Manual, Second Edition. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press.ISBN0-8138-2799-X.
^Parks, George Bruner (1954).The English Traveler to Italy. Storia e letteratura, volume 46. Vol. 1. Rome: Edizioni di Storia e Letteratura. p. 407. Retrieved1 February 2025.[...] the establishment at Pisa of a factory [...] which would export its cloths to the Crimea in exchange for Russian furs. [...] Portinari thought of making Pisa a wool centre for the Mediterranean, whence English wool might be dispatched to Florence, Genoa, and Milan for manufacture, and Spanish wool be manufactured in Pisa for export to the east
^"Sheep 101".Archived from the original on 28 November 2016. Retrieved17 September 2016. According to this chart, US production is around 10,000 tonnes (11,000 short tons), hugely at variance with the percentage list, and way outside year-to-year variability.
^"FAOSTAT".FAOSTAT (Food And Agriculture Organization Of The United Nations Statistics). RetrievedMay 17, 2020.
^Østergård, Else (2004).Woven into the Earth: Textiles from Norse Greenland. Aarhus University Press. p. 50.ISBN87-7288-935-7.
^Snodgrass, Mary Ellen (2015).World Clothing and Fashion : an Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Social Influence. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis. pp. 49–51.ISBN978-1-317-45167-9.OCLC910448387.
