A movement to fight forwomen's right to vote in theUnited Kingdom finally succeeded throughacts of Parliament in 1918 and 1928.
In 1832, the Representation of the People Act (orFirst Reform Act) had passed into law which extended the franchise to various groups of property owning men, thus legally excluding women.[2]
In 1872 the fight for women's suffrage became a national movement with the formation of theNational Society for Women's Suffrage and later the more influentialNational Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (NUWSS). As well as in England,women's suffrage movements in Wales,Scotland and other parts of the United Kingdom gained momentum. The movements shifted sentiments in favour of woman suffrage by 1906. It was at this point that the militant campaign began with the formation of theWomen's Social and Political Union (WSPU).[3]
The outbreak of theFirst World War in 1914 led to a suspension of party politics, including the militant suffragette campaigns. Lobbying did take place quietly. In 1918 a coalition government passed theRepresentation of the People Act 1918, enfranchising all men over 21, as well as all women over the age of 30 who met minimum property qualifications, in bothBritain and Ireland. This act was the first to include almost all adult men in the political system and began the inclusion of women, extending the franchise by 5.6 million men[4] and 8.4 million women.[5] In 1928 the Conservative government passed theRepresentation of the People (Equal Franchise) Act 1928 equalising the franchise to all persons, male and female, over the age of 21.
Until theGreat Reform Act 1832 specified 'male persons', a few women had been able to vote in parliamentary elections through property ownership, although this was rare.[6] In local government elections, women lost the right to vote under theMunicipal Corporations Act 1835. Unmarried womenratepayers received the right to vote in theMunicipal Franchise Act 1869. This right was confirmed in theLocal Government Act 1894 and extended to include some married women,[7][8][9] making over 729,000 women eligible to vote in local elections in England and Wales. By 1900, more than one million women were registered to vote in local government elections in England.[10] Women were also included in the suffrage on the same terms as men (i.e., all parishioners over 21) in the unique set ofborder polls carried out from 1915 to 1916 under theWelsh Church Act 1914.[11] These were held to determine whether the residents of parishes which straddled thepolitical border between England and Wales wished their ecclesiasticalparishes and churches to remain with theChurch of England or to join the disestablishedChurch in Wales when it was set up. The Welsh Church Act 1914 had required theWelsh Church Commissioners to ascertain the views of the "parishioners", and they decided "to allow a voice to all persons, male or female, of 21 years of age or over".[11] The polls are therefore one of the earliest examples, if not the earliest, of an official poll being carried out in the United Kingdom under a system of universal adult suffrage, though also permitting non-resident ratepayers of either gender to vote.[12]
Both before and after the Reform Act 1832 there were some who advocated that women should have the right to vote in parliamentary elections. After the enactment of the Reform Act 1832, the MPHenry Hunt argued that any woman who was single, a taxpayer and had sufficient property should be allowed to vote. One such wealthy woman, Mary Smith, was used in this speech as an example.
TheChartist Movement, which began in the late 1830s, has also been suggested to have included supporters of female suffrage. There is some evidence to suggestWilliam Lovett, one of the authors of thePeople's Charter wished to include female suffrage as one of the campaign's demands but chose not to on the grounds that this would delay the implementation of the charter. Although there were female Chartists, they largely worked toward universal male suffrage. At this time most women did not have aspirations to gain the vote.
There is a poll book from 1843 that clearly shows thirty women's names among those who voted. These women were playing an active role in the election. On the roll, the wealthiest female elector was Grace Brown, a butcher. Due to the high rates that she paid, Grace Brown was entitled to four votes.[13]
Lilly Maxwell cast a high-profile vote in Britain in 1867 after the Great Reform Act 1832.[14] Maxwell, a shop owner, met the property qualifications that otherwise would have made her eligible to vote had she been male. In error, her name had been added to the election register and on that basis she succeeded in voting in a by-election – her vote was later declared illegal by theCourt of Common Pleas. The case gave women's suffrage campaigners great publicity.
Outside pressure for women's suffrage was at this time diluted by feminist issues in general. Women's rights were becoming increasingly prominent in the 1850s as some women in higher social spheres refused to obey the gender roles dictated to them. Feminist goals at this time included the right to sue an ex-husband after divorce (achieved in 1857) and the right for married women to own property (fully achieved in 1882 after some concession by the government in 1870).
The issue of parliamentary reform declined along with the Chartists after 1848 and only reemerged with the election ofJohn Stuart Mill in 1865. He stood for office showing direct support for female suffrage and was an MP in the run up to the second Reform Act.
In the same year thatJohn Stuart Mill was elected (1865), the first ladies' discussion society,Kensington Society, was formed, debating whether women should be involved in public affairs.[15] Although a society for suffrage was proposed, this was turned down on the grounds that it might be taken over by extremists.
Later that yearLeigh Smith Bodichon formed the first Women's Suffrage Committee and within a fortnight collected nearly 1,500 signatures in favour of female suffrage in advance to the second Reform Bill.[16]
TheManchester Society for Women's Suffrage was founded in February 1867. Its secretary,Lydia Becker, wrote letters both to Prime MinisterBenjamin Disraeli and toThe Spectator. She was also involved with the London group, and organised the collection of more signatures. Lydia Becker reluctantly agreed to exclude married women from the "Married Women's Property Act" reform demand.[17]
In June the London group split, partly a result of party allegiance, and partly the result of tactical issues. Conservative members wished to move slowly to avoid alarming public opinion, while Liberals generally opposed this apparent dilution of political conviction. As a result,Helen Taylor founded the London National Society for Women's Suffrage, which set up strong links withManchester andEdinburgh. In Scotland one of the earliest societies was theEdinburgh National Society for Women's Suffrage.[18]
Although these early splits left the movement divided and sometimes leaderless, it allowed Lydia Becker to have a stronger influence. The suffragists were known as the parliamentarians.
InIreland,Isabella Tod, aScottish-born campaigner for women’s civil and political equality, established the North of Ireland Women's Suffrage Society in 1873 (from 1909, still based in Belfast, the Irish WSS). Determined lobbying by the WSS, and the support of local MPWilliam Johnston, ensured the 1887 Act creating a new municipal franchise for Belfast (a city in which women predominated due to heavy employment in mills) conferred the vote on "persons" rather than men. This was eleven years before women elsewhere Ireland gained the vote in local government elections.[19]
TheDublin Women's Suffrage Association was established in 1874. As well as campaigning for women's suffrage, it sought to advance women's position in local government. In 1898, it changed its name to the Irish Women's Suffrage and Local Government Association.
In 1868,John Stuart Mill brought to Parliament a petition for female suffrage with 21,557 signatures. In 1870, Bright's introduced the Women's Disabilities Removal Bill[20] which would have extended the parliamentary franchise to women on the same terms as men. In May 1871, the bill was defeated in the Commons by a division of 220 to 151.[21] With varying degrees cross-party support,private member's bills caused the subject to be debated in theHouse of Commons again in 1872, 73, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 83, 84 (twice), 86, 92, 97, and 1904.[citation needed]
In 1910, 1911, and 1912, there were three "Conciliation bills" which, suffrage equality,[clarification needed] offered women a more restrictive property-qualified vote. The 1912 bill was defeated by 208 to 222.[22] TheWomen's Social and Political Union blamed Prime MinisterAsquith, as the eight members of the Liberal Government whose votes against the measure sealed its fate.[23]
Although women's political party groups were not formed with the aim to achieve women's suffrage, they did have two key effects. Firstly, they showed women who were members to be competent in the political arena and as this became clear, secondly, it brought the concept of female suffrage closer to acceptance.
ThePrimrose League (1883–2004) was set up to promote Conservative values through social events and supporting the community. As women were able to join, this gave females of all classes the ability to mix with local and national political figures. Many also had important roles such as bringing voters to the polls. This removed segregation and promoted political literacy among women. The League did not promote women's suffrage as one of its objectives.[citation needed]
Although there is evidence to suggest that they were originally formed to promote female franchise (the first being inBristol in 1881), WLAs often did not hold such an agenda. They operated independently from the male groups, and did become more active when they came under the control of theWomen's Liberal Federation, and canvassed all classes for support of women's suffrage and against domination.
There was significant support for woman suffrage in the Liberal Party, which was in power after 1905, but a handful of leaders, especiallyH. H. Asquith, blocked all efforts in Parliament.[24]
The campaign first developed into a national movement in the 1870s. At this point, all campaigners were suffragists, notsuffragettes. Up until 1903, all campaigning took the constitutional approach. It was after the defeat of the first Women's Suffrage Bill that the Manchester and London committees joined together to gain wider support. The main methods of doing so at this time involved lobbying MPs to put forwardPrivate Member's Bills. However such bills rarely pass and so this was an ineffective way of actually achieving the vote.
In 1868, local groups amalgamated to form a series of close-knit groups with the founding of theNational Society for Women's Suffrage (NSWS). This is notable as the first attempt to create a unified front to propose women's suffrage, but had little effect due to several splits, once again weakening the campaign.
Up until 1897, the campaign stayed at this relatively ineffective level. Campaigners came predominantly from the landed classes and joined together on a small scale only. In 1897 theNational Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (NUWSS) was founded byMillicent Fawcett. This society linked smaller groups together and also put pressure on non-supportive MPs using various peaceful methods.
Founded in 1903, theWomen’s Social and Political Union (WSPU) was tightly controlled by the three Pankhursts,Emmeline Pankhurst (1858–1928), and her daughtersChristabel Pankhurst (1880–1958) andSylvia Pankhurst (1882–1960).[25] It specialized in highly visible publicity campaigns such as large parades. This had the effect of energizing all dimensions of the suffrage movement. While there was a majority of support for suffrage in parliament, the ruling Liberal Party refused to allow a vote on the issue; the result of which was an escalation in the suffragette campaign. The WSPU, in contrast to its allies, embarked on a campaign of violence to publicize the issue, even to the detriment of its own aims.[26]
TheCat and Mouse Act was passed by Parliament in an attempt to prevent suffragettes from becoming martyrs in prison. It provided for the release of those whose hunger strikes and forced feeding had brought them sickness, as well as their re-imprisonment once they had recovered. The result was even greater publicity for the cause.[27]
The tactics of the WSPU included shouting down speakers, hunger strikes, stone-throwing, window-smashing,and arson of unoccupied churches and country houses. In Belfast, when in 1914 theUlster Unionist Council appeared to renege on an earlier commitment to women's suffrage,[28] the WSPU'sDorothy Evans (a friend of the Pankhursts) declared an end to "the truce we have held in Ulster." In the months that followed WSPU militants (includingElizabeth Bell, the first woman in Ireland to qualify as a doctor and gynaecologist) were implicated in a series of arson attacks on Unionist-owned buildings and on male recreational and sports facilities.[29] In July 1914, in a plan hatched with Evans,Lillian Metge, who was previously part of a 200-strong deputation that chargedGeorge V as he enteredBuckingham Palace, bombedLisburn Cathedral.[30]
HistorianMartin Pugh says, "militancy clearly damaged the cause."[31] Whitfield says, "the overall effect of the suffragette militancy, was to set back the cause of women's suffrage."[32] Historian Harold Smith, citing historian Sandra Holton, has argued that by 1913 WSPU gave priority to militancy rather than obtaining the vote. Their battle with Liberals had become a "kind of holy war, so important that it could not be called off even if continuing it prevented suffrage reform. This preoccupation with the struggle distinguished the WSPU from that by the NUWSS, which remained focused on obtaining women's suffrage."[33]
Smith concludes:[34]
Although non-historians often assumed the WSPU was primarily responsible for obtaining women's suffrage, historians are much more skeptical about its contribution. It is generally agreed that the WSPU revitalized the suffrage campaign initially, but that its escalation of militancy after 1912 impeded reform. Recent studies have shifted from claiming that the WSPU was responsible for women's suffrage to portraying it as an early form of radical feminism that sought to liberate women from amale-centered gender system.
The greater suffrage efforts halted with the outbreak of World War I. While some activity continued, with the NUWSS continuing to lobby peacefully, Emmeline Pankhurst, convinced that Germany posed a danger to all humanity, persuaded the WSPU to halt all militant suffrage activity.[35] Some notable suffragettes joined theWhite Feather Campaign.[citation needed].
During the war, a select group of parliamentary leaders decided on a policy that would expand the suffrage to all men over the age of 21, and 'propertied women' - women married under law to a man - over the age of 30.[citation needed] Asquith, an opponent, was replaced as prime minister in late 1916 byDavid Lloyd George who had, for his first ten years as an MP, argued against women having the franchise.
During the war there was a serious shortage of able-bodied men and women were able to take on many of the traditionally male roles. With the approval of the trade unions, "dilution" was agreed upon. Complicated factory jobs handled by skilled men were diluted or simplified so that they could be handled by less skilled men and women. The result was a large increase in women workers, concentrated in munitions industries of highest priority to winning the war. This led to an increased societal understanding of what work women were capable of. Some believe that the franchise was partially granted in 1918 because of a decline in anti-suffrage hostility caused by pre-war militant tactics. However, others believe that politicians had to cede at least some women the vote so as to avoid the promised re-resurgence of militant suffrage action. Many of the major women's groups strongly supported the war effort. The Women's Suffrage Federation, based in the east end and led by Sylvia Pankhurst, did not. The federation held a pacifist stance and created co-operative factories and food banks in the East End to support working class women throughout the war. Until this point suffrage was based on occupational qualifications of men. Millions of women were now meeting those occupational qualifications, which in any case were so old-fashioned that the consensus was to remove them. For example, a male voter who joined the Army might lose the right to vote. In early 1916, suffragist organizations privately agreed to downplay their differences, and resolve that any legislation increasing the number of votes should also enfranchise women. Local government officials proposed a simplification of the old system of franchise and registration, and the Labour cabinet member in the new coalition government,Arthur Henderson, called foruniversal suffrage, with an age cutoff of 21 for men and 25 for women. Most male political leaders showed anxiety about having a female majority in the new electorate. Parliament turned over the issue to a new Speakers Conference, a special committee from all parties from both houses, chaired by the Speaker. They began meeting in October 1916, in secret. A majority of 15 to 6 supported votes for some women; by 12 to 10, it agreed on a higher age cut off for women.[36] Women leaders accepted a cutoff age of 30 in order to get the vote for most women.[37]
Finally in 1918, Parliament passed an act granting the vote to women over the age of 30 who were householders, the wives of householders, occupiers of property with an annual rent of £5, and graduates of British universities. About 8.4 million women gained the vote.[38] In November 1918, theParliament (Qualification of Women) Act 1918 was passed, allowing women to be elected into the House of Commons.[38] Thefirst general election in which women could vote took place on 14 December 1918.
By 1928 the consensus was that votes for women had been successful. With the Conservative Party in full control in 1928, it passed theRepresentation of the People (Equal Franchise) Act that extended the voting franchise to all women aged 21, granting women the vote on the same terms as men.[39][40]
Emmeline Pankhurst was a key figure gaining intense media coverage of the women's suffrage movement. Pankhurst, alongside her two daughters, Christabel and Sylvia, founded and led the Women's Social and Political Union, an organisation that was focused on direct action to win the vote. Her husband, Richard Pankhurst, also supported women suffrage ideas since he was the author of the first British woman suffrage bill and the Married Women’s Property Acts in 1870 and 1882. After her husband’s death, Emmeline decided to move to the forefront of the suffrage battle. Along with her two daughters,Christabel Pankhurst andSylvia Pankhurst, she joined theNational Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies (NUWSS). With her experience with this organisation, Emmeline founded theWomen's Franchise League in 1889 and theWomen’s Social and Political Union (WSPU) in 1903.[41] Frustrated with years of government inactivity and false promises, the WSPU adopted a militant stance, which was so influential it was later imported into suffrage struggles worldwide, most notably by Alice Paul in the United States. After many years of struggle and adversity, women finally gained suffrage but Emmeline died shortly after this.[42]
Another key figure wasMillicent Fawcett. She had a peaceful approach to issues presented to the organisations and the way to get points across to society. She supported theMarried Women's Property Act and the social purity campaign. Two events influenced her to become even more involved: her husband’s death and the division of the suffrage movement over the issue of affiliation with political parties. Millicent, who supported staying independent of political parties, made sure that the parts separated came together to become stronger by working together. Because of her actions, she was made president of theNUWSS.[43] In 1910–1912, she supported a bill to give vote rights to single and widowed females of a household. By supporting the British in World War I, she thought women would be recognised as a prominent part of Europe and deserved basic rights such as voting.[44] Millicent Fawcett came from a radical family. Her sister wasElizabeth Garrett Anderson an English physician and feminist, and the first woman to gain a medical qualification in Britain. Elizabeth was elected mayor ofAldeburgh in 1908 and gave speeches for suffrage.[45]
Emily Davies became an editor of a feminist publication,Englishwoman's Journal. She expressed her feminist ideas on paper and was also a major supporter and influential figure during the twentieth century. In addition to suffrage, she supported more rights for women such as access to education. She wrote works and had power with words. She wrote texts such asThoughts on Some Questions Relating to Women in 1910 andHigher Education for Women in 1866. She was a large supporter in the times where organisations were trying to reach people for a change.[46] With her was a friend namedBarbara Bodichon who also published articles and books such asWomen and Work (1857),Enfranchisement of Women (1866), andObjections to the Enfranchisement of Women (1866), andAmerican Diary in 1872.[47]
Mary Gawthorpe was an early suffragette who left teaching to fight for women's voting rights. She was imprisoned after heckling Winston Churchill. She left England after her release, eventually emigrating to the United States and settling in New York. She worked in the trade union movement and in 1920 became a full-time official of the Amalgamated Clothing Workers Union. In 2003, Mary's nieces donated her papers to New York University.[48]
Helena Brownsword Dowson (1866-1964) Leading Suffragist, City Councillor and Magistrate.[49] Lived in Nottingham and was Secretary of the Suffrage Society (1911, Census).[50] Her Mother was Alice Dowson and her aunt was Hilda Dowson, together the women were active in Nottingham Women’s Suffrage.[51] Helena Brownsword Dowson and Jessie Craigen began the campaign for a grand demonstration in the Albert Hall, Nottingham (1880) with a meeting at the Morley club and the previous day Helena was a speaker at the Newark town hall and also on the 22nd., November, 1880 she was a speaker at a drawing room meeting of Mr and Mrs George Cowne.[52][53]
Males were also present in the suffrage movement, including in Parliament and militant groups.[54]
Laurence Housman was a male feminist who devoted himself to the suffrage movement. Most of his contributions were through creating art, such as propaganda, with the intent of helping women in the movement to better express themselves,[55] influencing people to join the movement[56] and informing people about particular suffrage events such as the 1911 Census protest.[57] He and his sister,Clemence Housman, created a studio called theSuffrage Atelier which aimed to createpropaganda for the suffrage movement.[58] This was significant because he produced a space for women to create propaganda to better aid the suffrage movement and, at the same time, earn money by selling the art.[55] Also, he created propaganda such as the Anti-Suffrage Alphabet,[59] and wrote for many women's newspapers.[59] Additionally, he also influenced other men to aid the movement.[56] For example, he formed the Men’s League for Women’s Suffrage withIsrael Zangwill,Henry Nevinson andHenry Brailsford, hoping to inspire other men to participate in the movement.[56]
Whitfield concludes that the militant campaign had some positive effects in terms of attracting enormous publicity, and forcing the moderates to better organise themselves, while also stimulating the organization of theantis. He concludes:[60]
The overall effect of the suffragette militancy, however, was to set back the cause of women's suffrage. For women to gain the right to vote it was necessary to demonstrate that they had public opinion on their side, to build and consolidate a parliamentary majority in favour of women's suffrage and to persuade or pressure the government to introduce its own franchise reform. None of these objectives was achieved.
TheEmmeline and Christabel Pankhurst Memorial in London was first dedicated toEmmeline Pankhurst in 1930, with a plaque added forChristabel Pankhurst in 1958.
To commemorate the 100th anniversary of Women being given the right to vote, astatue of Millicent Fawcett was erected inParliament Square,London in 2018.[61] The photo colouriserTom Marshall released a series of photos to mark the 100th anniversary of the vote, including an image of suffragettes Annie Kenney and Christabel Pankhurst, which appeared onThe Daily Telegraph front page on 6 February 2018.[62]
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