Thewolverine (/ˈwʊlvəriːn/WUUL-və-reen,US also/ˌwʊlvəˈriːn/WUUL-və-REEN;[4]Gulo gulo), also called thecarcajou orquickhatch (fromEast Cree,kwiihkwahaacheew), is the largest land-dwellingmember of the familyMustelidae. It is a muscularcarnivore and asolitary animal.[2] The wolverine has a reputation for ferocity and strength out of proportion to its size, with the documented ability to kill prey many times larger than itself.
The wolverine's questionable reputation as an insatiable glutton (reflected in its Latin genus nameGulo, meaning "glutton") may be in part due to afalse etymology. The less common name for the animal inNorwegian,fjellfross, meaning "mountain cat", is thought to have worked its way into German asVielfraß,[5] which means "glutton" (literally "devours much"). Its name in other West Germanic languages is similar (e.g.Dutch:veelvraat).
The Finnish name isahma, derived fromahmatti, which is translated as "glutton". Similarly, theEstonian name isahm, with the equivalent meaning to the Finnish name. InLithuanian, it isernis; inLatvian,tinis orāmrija.
TheEastern Slavic росомаха (rosomakha) and the Polish andCzech namerosomák seem to be borrowed from the Finnishrasva-maha (fat belly). Similarly, the Hungarian name isrozsomák ortorkosborz which means "gluttonous badger".[citation needed]
In French-speaking parts of Canada, the wolverine is referred to ascarcajou, borrowed from theInnu-aimun orMontagnaiskuàkuàtsheu.[6] However, in France, the wolverine's name isglouton (glutton).
Purported gluttony is reflected neither in the English namewolverine nor in the names used inNorth Germanic languages. The English word wolverine (alteration of the earlier form, wolvering, of uncertain origin) probably implies "a little wolf". The name inProto-Norse,erafaz andOld Norse,jarfr, lives on in the regularIcelandic namejarfi, regular Norwegian namejerv, regular Swedish namejärv and regular Danish namejærv.
Genetic evidence suggests that the wolverine is most closely related to thetayra andmartens, all of which shared a Eurasian ancestor.[7]
There are twosubspecies: theOld World form,Gulo gulo gulo, and theNew World form,G. g. luscus. Some authors had described as many as four additional North American subspecies, including ones limited toVancouver Island (G. g. vancouverensis) and theKenai Peninsula in Alaska (G. g. katschemakensis). However, the most currently accepted taxonomy recognizes either the two continentalsubspecies orG. gulo as a singleHolarctic taxon.[2][8]
Evolution
Recently compiled genetic evidence suggests most of North America's wolverines are descended from a single source, likely originating fromBeringia during the last glaciation and rapidly expanding thereafter, though considerable uncertainty to this conclusion is due to the difficulty of collecting samples in the extremely depleted southern extent of the range.[8]
Physical characteristics
Skull
Skeleton
Anatomically, the wolverine is an elongated animal that is low to the ground. With strong limbs, broad and rounded head, small eyes and short rounded ears, it most closely resembles a largefisher. Though its legs are short, its large, five-toed paws with crampon-like claws andplantigrade posture enable it to climb up and over steep cliffs, trees and snow-covered peaks with relative ease.[9]
The adult wolverine is about the size of a medium dog, with a body length ranging from 65–109 cm (26–43 in); standing 36–45 cm (14–18 in) at the shoulder; and a tail length of 17–26 cm (6+1⁄2–10 in). Weight is usually 11–18 kg (24–40 lb) in males, and in females 8–12 kg (18–26 lb).[10][11][12][13][14] Exceptionally large males of as much as 32 kg (71 lb) are referenced in Soviet literature, though such weights are deemed inMammals of the Soviet Union to be improbable.[15][16][17] The males are often 10–15% larger than the females in linear measurements and can be 30–40% greater in weight. According to some sources, Eurasian wolverines are claimed to be larger and heavier than those in North America, with weights of up to 20 kg (44 lb). However, this may refer more specifically to areas such asSiberia, as data fromFennoscandian wolverines shows they are typically around the same size as their American counterparts.[16][18][19][20][21] It is the largest of terrestrialmustelids; only the marine-dwellingsea otter, thegiant otter of the Amazon basin and the semi-aquaticAfrican clawless otter are larger—while theEuropean badger may reach a similar body mass, especially in autumn.
Wolverines have thick, dark, oily fur which is highlyhydrophobic, making it resistant to frost. This has led to its traditional popularity among hunters and trappers as a lining in jackets andparkas in Arctic conditions. A light-silvery facial mask is distinct in some individuals, and a pale buff stripe runs laterally from the shoulders along the side and crossing the rump just above a 25–35 cm (10–14 in) bushy tail. Some individuals display prominent white hair patches on their throats or chests.[9]
Like many other mustelids, it has potentanal scent glands used formarking territory and sexual signaling. The pungent odor has given rise to the nicknames "skunk bear" and "nasty cat." The anal gland secretion for the samples obtained from six animal's secretion was complex and variable: 123 compounds were detected in total, with the number per animal ranging from 45 to 71 compounds. Only six compounds were common to all extracts: 3-methylbutanoic acid, 2-methylbutanoic acid, phenylacetic acid, alpha-tocopherol, cholesterol, and a compound tentatively identified as 2-methyldecanoic acid. The highly odoriferous thietanes and dithiolanes found in anal gland secretions of some members of the Mustelinae [ferrets, mink, stoats, and weasels (Mustela spp.) and zorillas (Ictonyx spp.)] were not observed. The composition of the wolverine's anal gland secretion is similar to that of two other members of the Mustelinae, the pine and beech marten (Martes spp.)[22]
Wolverines, like other mustelids, possess a special upper molar in the back of the mouth that is rotated 90 degrees, towards the inside of the mouth. This special characteristic allows wolverines to tear off meat from prey or carrion that has been frozen solid.[23][24]
Wolverine remains have been found inUkraine, but they are extirpated there today and it is unclear whether the wolverines would have formed sustainable populations.[30]
Unique records of encounters with wolverines have been noted inLatvia, the most recent one being in late July 2022 (although it can be disputed because of the unclear footage); the population was widespread in the 16th and 17th centuries, but nowadays it is not native to the area.[31]
MostNew World wolverines live in Canada and Alaska.[32] However, wolverines were once recorded as also being present in Colorado,[33] areas of thesouthwestern United States (Arizona and New Mexico); the Midwest (Indiana, Nebraska, North and South Dakota, Ohio, Minnesota, and Wisconsin);New England (Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, and Massachusetts); and in New York[34] and Pennsylvania.[35]
In theSierra Nevada, wolverines were sighted near Winnemucca Lake in spring 1995 and at Toe Jam Lake north of the Yosemite border in 1996; and later photographed by baited cameras, including in 2008 and 2009, nearLake Tahoe.[36][37][38][39] According to a 2014U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service publication, "wolverines are found in theNorth Cascades in Washington and the Northern Rocky Mountains in Idaho, Montana, Oregon (Wallowa Range), and Wyoming. Individual wolverines have also moved into historic range in the Sierra Nevada Mountains of California and the Southern Rocky Mountains of Colorado, but have not established breeding populations in these areas".[40] In 2022,Colorado Parks and Wildlife considered plans to reintroduce the wolverine to the state.[41]
Wolverines are also found in Utah but are very rarely seen, with only six confirmed sightings since the first confirmed sighting in 1979. Three of these six confirmed Utah sightings have been caught on video.[42] A wolverine, a male, was finally captured and tagged in Utah in 2022 before being released back into the wild to better understand the animal's range.[43][44]
In August 2020, theNational Park Service reported that wolverines had been sighted atMount Rainier,Washington, for the first time in more than a century. The sighting was of a reproductive female and her two offspring.[45]
Wolverines are primarilyscavengers.[48] Most of their food iscarrion, especially in winter and early spring. They may find carrion themselves, feed on it after the predator (often, awolf pack) has finished, or simply take it from another predator. Wolverines are known to follow wolf andlynx trails to scavenge the remains of their kills. Whether eating live prey or carrion, the wolverine's feeding style appears voracious, leading to the nickname of "glutton" (also the basis of the scientific name). However, this feeding style is believed to be an adaptation to food scarcity, especially in winter.[49]
The wolverine is also a powerful and versatile predator. Its prey mainly consists of small to medium-sized mammals, but wolverines have been recorded killing prey many times larger than thenselves, such as adult deer. Prey species includeporcupines,squirrels,chipmunks,beavers,marmots,moles,gophers,rabbits,voles, mice, rats,shrews,lemmings,caribou,roe deer,white-tailed deer,mule deer, sheep, goats, cattle,bison,moose,[50] andelk.[51] Smaller predators are occasionally preyed on, includingmartens,mink, foxes,Eurasian lynx,[52]weasels,[52]coyote, andwolf pups. Wolverines have also been known to killCanada lynx in theYukon of Canada.[53] Wolverines often pursue live prey that are relatively easy to obtain, including animals caught in traps, newborn mammals, and deer (including adult moose and elk) when they are weakened by winter or immobilized by heavy snow. Their diets are sometimes supplemented by birds' eggs, birds (especiallygeese),roots,seeds, insect larvae, andberries. Adult wolverines appear to be one of the few conspecific mammal carnivores to pose an active threat togolden eagles. Wolverines were observed to prey on nestling golden eagles inDenali National Park.[54] During incubation in Northern Sweden, an incubating adult golden eagle was killed in its nest by a wolverine.[55]
Wolverines inhabiting theOld World (specifically,Fennoscandia) hunt more actively than their North American relatives.[56] This may be because competing predator populations in Eurasia are less dense, making it more practical for the wolverine to hunt for itself than to wait for another animal to make a kill and then try to snatch it. They often feed on carrion left by wolves, so changes in wolf populations may affect the population of wolverines.[57] They are also known on occasion to eat plant material.[32]
Wolverines oftencache their food during times of plenty. This is of particular importance tolactating females in the winter and early spring, a time when food is scarce.[58]
Reproduction
Wolverines areinduced ovulators.[59] Successful males will form lifetime relationships with two or three females, which they will visit occasionally, while other males are left without a mate.[60] Mating season is in the summer, but the actual implantation of the embryo (blastocyst) in theuterus isstayed until early winter, delaying the development of thefetus. Females will often not produce young if food is scarce. The gestation period is 30–50 days, and litters of typically two or three young ("kits") are born in the spring. Kits develop rapidly, reaching adult size within the first year. The typical longevity of a wolverine in captivity is around 15 to 17 years, but in the wild the average lifespan is more likely between 8 and 10 years.[61]: 676 Fathers make visits to their offspring until they are weaned at 10 weeks of age; also, once the young are about six months old, some reconnect with their fathers and travel together for a time.[60]
Interspecies interactions
Wolves,American black bears,brown bears andcougars are capable of killing adult wolverines, while smaller predators (likegolden eagles) can kill young and inexperienced individuals.[62] Wolves are thought to be the wolverine's most important natural predator, with the arrival of wolves to a wolverine's territory presumably leading the latter to abandon the area.[63] Armed with powerful jaws, sharp claws, and a thick hide,[64] wolverines, like mostmustelids, are remarkably strong for their size. They may defend against larger or more numerouspredators such as wolves or bears.[65] By far, their most serious predator is thegrey wolf, with an extensive record of wolverine fatalities attributed to wolves in both North America and Eurasia.[66][67][68][69] In North America, another (less frequent) predator is thecougar.[70] At least one account reported a wolverine's apparent attempt to steal a kill from ablack bear, although the bear won what was ultimately a fatal contest for the wolverine.[71] There are a few accounts ofbrown bears killing and consuming wolverines as well and, although also reported at times to be chased off prey, in some areas such asDenali National Park, wolverines seemed to try to actively avoid encounters with grizzly bears as they have been reported in areas where wolves start hunting them.[72][73]
Urine scent marking
Wolverines have been observed to use urine as a scent-marking behavior. Headspace analysis of the volatiles emanating from urine samples identified 19 potentialsemiochemicals. The major classes of identified chemicals are the ketones: 2-heptanone, 4-heptanone and 4-nonanone and the monoterpenes: alpha-pinene, beta-pinene, limonene, linalool and geraniol. In other mammals, the excretion of these terpenes is unusual. The conifer needles that are found in wolverine scat are likely the source of these monoterpenes.[74]
Threats and conservation
The world's total wolverine population is not known. The animal exhibits a low population density and requires a very large home range.[57] The wolverine is listed by the IUCN as Least Concern because of its "wide distribution, remaining large populations, and the unlikelihood that it is in decline at a rate fast enough to trigger even Near Threatened".[2]
The range of a male wolverine can be more than 620 km2 (240 sq mi), encompassing the ranges of several females which have smaller home ranges of roughly 130–260 km2 (50–100 mi2). Adult wolverines try for the most part to keep nonoverlapping ranges with adults of the same sex.[24] Radio tracking suggests an animal can range hundreds of miles in a few months.
Female wolverines burrow into snow in February to create a den, which is used until weaning in mid-May. Areas inhabited nonseasonally by wolverines are thus restricted to zones with late-springsnowmelts. This fact has led to concern thatglobal warming will shrink the ranges of wolverine populations.[60]
TheWildlife Conservation Society reported in June 2009 that a wolverine researchers had been tracking for almost three months had crossed into northernColorado. Society officials had tagged the young male wolverine inWyoming nearGrand Teton National Park, and it had traveled southward for about 500 miles (800 km). It was the first wolverine seen in Colorado since 1919, and its appearance was also confirmed by theColorado Division of Wildlife.[78] In May 2016 the same wolverine was killed by a cattle ranch-hand in North Dakota, ending a greater-than-800-mile (1,300 km) trip by this lone male wolverine, dubbed M-56. This was the first verified sighting of a Wolverine in North Dakota in 150 years.[79] In February 2014, a wolverine was seen in Utah, the first confirmed sighting in that state in 30 years.[80]
Around a hundred wolverines are held in zoos across North America and Europe, and they have been bred in captivity, but only with difficulty and high infant mortality.[89]
Many North American cities,sports teams, and organizations use the wolverine as a mascot. For example, the US state ofMichigan is, by tradition, known as "the Wolverine State", and theUniversity of Michigan takes the animal as its mascot. There have also been professionalbaseball andfootball clubs called the "Wolverines". The association is well and long established: for example, many Detroiters volunteered to fight during theAmerican Civil War andGeorge Armstrong Custer, who led theMichigan Brigade, called them the "Wolverines". The origins of this association are obscure; it may derive from a busy trade in wolverine furs inSault Ste. Marie in the 18th century or may recall a disparagement intended to compare early settlers in Michigan with the vicious mammal. Wolverines are, however, extremely rare in Michigan. A sighting in February 2004 nearUbly was the first confirmed sighting in Michigan in 200 years.[90] The animal was found dead in 2010.[91]
TheMarvel Comics superheroJames "Logan" Howlett was given the nickname "Wolverine" whilecage fighting because of his skill, short stature, keen animal senses, ferocity, and most notably, claws that retract from both sets of knuckles.[92][93]
The wolverine is prevalent in stories and oral history from variousAlgonquian tribes and figures prominently in the mythology of theInnu people of easternQuebec andLabrador.[94] The wolverine is known as Kuekuatsheu, a conniving trickster who created the world. The story of the formation of the Innu world begins long ago when Kuekuatsheu built a big boat similar toNoah's Ark and put all the various animal species in it. There was a great deal of rain, and the land was flooded. Kuekuatsheu told amink todive into the water to retrieve some mud and rocks which he mixed together to create an island, which is the world that is presently inhabited along with all the animals.[95] Many tales of Kuekuatsheu are often humorous and irreverent and include crude references to bodily functions.[96] Some Northeastern tribes, such as theMiꞌkmaq andPassamaquoddy, refer to the wolverine as Lox, who usually appears in tales as a trickster and thief (although generally more dangerous than its Innu counterpart) and is often depicted as a companion to thewolf.[97] Similarly, theDené, a group of theAthabaskan-speaking natives of northwestern Canada, have many stories of the wolverine as a trickster and cultural transformer much like thecoyote in theNavajo tradition orraven inNorthwest Coast traditions.[98]
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