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The belief inwitchcraft in the Middle East has a long history. Belief inwitchcraft asmalevolent magic is attested fromancient Mesopotamia. In ancientJudaism, there existed a complex relationship with magic and witchcraft, with some forms ofdivination accepted by somerabbis, yet most forms were viewed as forbidden orheretical. In the medievalMiddle East, underIslamic andChristian influences, witchcraft's perception fluctuated between healing and heresy, revered by some and condemned by others.[citation needed] Today diverse witchcraft communities have emerged.[citation needed]
The stereotypical witches mentioned in the Mesopotamian sources tended to be sociallymarginalized. Their ranks includedwomen,foreigners,actors, andpeddlers (traveling salesmen).[1] They were opposed by theašipu, a type ofexorcist or incantation-priest.[2] These exorcists were predominantly male representatives of thestate religion.[2]
Magic was an important part ofancient Mesopotamian religion and society, which distinguished between 'good' (helpful) and 'bad' (harmful) rites.[1] In ancientMesopotamia, the main way of thwarting alleged witchcraft (kišpū[3]) was by counter-magic, but the law codes also prescribed the death penalty for those found guilty of witchcraft.[1] A witch (m.kaššāpu, f.kaššāptu[3]) was "usually regarded as an anti-social and illegitimate practitioner of destructive magic ... whose activities were motivated by malice and evil intent and who was opposed by theašipu, an exorcist or incantation-priest".[2] Theseašipu were predominantly male representatives of the state religion, whose main role was to work magic against harmful supernatural forces such asdemons.[2] The stereotypical witch mentioned in the sources tended to be those of low status who were weak or otherwise marginalized, including women, foreigners, actors, and peddlers.[1]
The LawCode of Hammurabi (18th century BCE) allowed someone accused of witchcraft (harmful magic) to undergotrial by ordeal, by jumping into a holy river. If they drowned, they were deemed guilty and the accuser inherited the guilty person's estate. If they survived, theaccuser's estate was handed over instead.[1]
TheMaqlû ("burning") is an ancientAkkadian text, written early in thefirst millennium BCE, which sets out a Mesopotamian anti-witchcraft ritual.[4] This lengthy ritual includes invokingvarious gods, burning an effigy of the witch, then dousing and disposing of the remains.[5]
According to Tzvi Abusch, ancient Mesopotamian ideas about witches and witchcraft shifted over time, and the early stages were "comparable to the archaic shamanistic stage of European witchcraft".[2] Abusch writes that in the earliest times, witches were not necessarily considered evil, but took 'white' and 'black' forms, could help others using magic and medical knowledge, generally lived in rural areas and sometimes exhibited ecstatic behavior.[2]
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Jewish law views witchcraft as beingidolatry and/ornecromancy; both being serious theological and practical offenses inJudaism. AlthoughMaimonides vigorously denied the efficacy of all methods of witchcraft, and claimed that the Biblical prohibitions regarding it were precisely to wean the Israelites from practices related toidolatry.[citation needed] It is acknowledged that while magic exists, it is forbidden to practice it on the basis that it usually involves the worship of other gods.[citation needed]Rabbis of the Talmud also condemned magic when it produced something other than illusion, giving the example of two men who use magic to pick cucumbers.[6] The one who creates the illusion of picking cucumbers should not be condemned, only the one who actually picks the cucumbers through magic.[citation needed]
However, some of the rabbis practiced "magic" themselves or taught the subject. For instance,Rava (amora) created agolem and sent it toRav Zeira, andHanina andHoshaiah studied every Friday together and created a small calf to eat onShabbat.[7] In these cases, the "magic" was seen more as divine miracles (i.e., coming fromGod rather than "unclean" forces) than as witchcraft. Judaism's most famous reference to a medium is undoubtedly theWitch of Endor whomSaul consults, as recounted in1 Samuel 28.
According to the New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia:
In the Holy Scripture references to sorcery are frequent, and the strong condemnations of such practices found there do not seem to be based so much upon the supposition offraud as upon the abomination of the magic in itself.[8]
Verses such asBook of Deuteronomy 18:11-12 andBook of Exodus 22:18 "Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live" provided scriptural justification for Christianwitch-hunters in theearly modern period. The word "witch" is a translation of the Hebrewכָּשַׁףkashaf, "sorcerer". The Hebrew Bible provides some evidence that these commandments were enforced under theHebrew kings:
AndSaul disguised himself, and put on otherraiment, and he went, and two men with him, and they came to the woman by night: and he said, Ipray thee, divine unto me by thefamiliar spirit, and bring me him up, whom I shall name unto thee. And the woman said unto him, Behold, thou knowest what Saul hath done, how he hath cut off those that have familiar spirits, and thewizards, out of the land: wherefore then layest thou a snare for my life, to cause me to die?"[9]
The Hebrew verbהכרית, translated in theKing James Version as "cut off", can also be translated as "kill wholesale" or "exterminate".[10]
TheKing James Version uses the wordswitch,witchcraft, andwitchcrafts to translate theMasoreticכָּשַׁףkāsháf (Hebrew pronunciation:[kɔˈʃaf]) andקֶסֶם (qésem);[11] these same English terms are used to translateφαρμακείαpharmakeia in the GreekNew Testament. Verses such as Deuteronomy 18:11–12[12] and Exodus 22:18 ("Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live"[13]) thus provided scriptural justification for Christianwitch hunters in theearly modern period (seeChristian views on magic).
The precise meaning of the Hebrewכָּשַׁף, usually translated aswitch orsorceress, is uncertain. In theSeptuagint, it was translated aspharmakeía orpharmakous. In the 16th century,Reginald Scot, a prominent critic of the witch trials, translatedכָּשַׁף,φαρμακεία, and theVulgate'sLatin equivalentveneficos as all meaning 'poisoner', and on this basis, claimed thatwitch was an incorrect translation and poisoners were intended.[14] His theory still holds some currency, but is not widely accepted, and in Daniel 2:2[15]כָּשַׁף is listed alongside other magic practitioners who could interpret dreams: magicians, astrologers, and Chaldeans. Suggested derivations ofכָּשַׁף include 'mutterer' (from a single root) orherb user (as a compound word formed from the rootskash, meaning 'herb', andhapaleh, meaning 'using'). The Greekφαρμακεία literally means 'herbalist' or one who uses or administers drugs, but it was used virtually synonymously withmageia andgoeteia as a term for a sorcerer.[16]
In theTanakh, references to witchcraft are frequent, and the strong condemnations of such practices which we read there do not seem to be based so much upon the supposition offraud as upon the "abomination" of belief in the magic in itself. Judaism does make it clear that Jews shall not try to learn about the ways of witches[17] and that witches are to be put to death.[18]
TheNew Testament condemns witchcraft as anabomination, just as theOld Testament had (Epistle to the Galatians 5:20, compared with theBook of Revelation 21:8; 22:15; andActs of the Apostles 8:9; 13:6).
There is some debate, however, as to whether the word used in Galatians and Revelation,Koine Greek:φαρμακείαpharmakeía, is properly translated as "sorcery", as the word was commonly used to describe the malicious use of drugs.[citation needed]
Divination andmagic in Islam encompass a wide range of practices, includingblack magic, warding off theevil eye, the production ofamulets and other magical equipment,evocation,casting lots, andastrology.[19]
Legitimacy of practising magic is disputed. Most Islamic traditions distinguish betweengood magic andblack magic.Miracles belong to licit magic and are considered gifts of God. Magical incantations for healing purposes generally received support as long as they do not contain polytheism.[20]al-Razi andIbn Sina describe that magic is merely a tool and only the outcome determines whether or not the act of magic was legitimate.[21]Al-Ghazali, although admitting the reality of magic, regards learning all sorts of magic as forbidden.[21]Ibn al-Nadim argues that good supernatural powers are received from God after purifying the soul, while sorcerers please devils and commit acts of disobedience and sacrifices to demons.[22]Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya, a disciple ofIbn Taimiyya, the major source forWahhabism, disregards magic, including exorcisms, entirely as superstition.[23]Ibn Khaldun brands sorcery, talismans, and prestidigitation as forbidden and illegal.[24]Tabasi did not subscribe to the rationalized framework of magic of mostAsh'arite theologians, and offered a wide range of rituals to perform sorcery. Yet he agrees that only magic in accordance withsharia is permissible.[21]
The reality of magic is confirmed by the Quran. The Quran itself is said to bestowmagical blessings upon hearers and heal them, based onal-Isra.[25]Solomon had the power to speak with animals and jinn, and command devils, which is only given to him with God's permission.[Quran27:19][26]Surah Al-Falaq is used as a prayer to God to ward off black magic and is, according tohadith-literature, revealed toMuhammad to protect him againstJann, the ancestor of thejinn.[27] The Quran also reports Muhammad being accused of being a magician by his opponents, and denounces these accusations as false.[Quran10:2][28] The idea that devils teach magic is confirmed inAl-Baqara. A pair offallen angels,Harut and Marut, are also mentioned to tempt people into learning sorcery.[Quran2:102]
Scholars of religious history have linked several magical practises in Islam with pre-Islamic Turkish and East African customs. Most notable of these customs is theZār.[29][19]
In the modern Middle East, a complex tapestry of diverse religious and social dynamics unfolds. In the 20th century, the practice of ceremonial trampling and burning the flags of enemy countries emerged, which has been likened to witchcraft as "an attempt to harm the enemy by a kind of sympathetic magic".[30] In June 2015, Yahoo reported: "TheIslamic State group has beheaded two women in Syria on accusations of 'sorcery', the first such executions of female civilians in Syria, the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights said Tuesday."[31]
In Israel,Jewish neopaganism involves exploring forms ofneopagan witchcraft while drawing on ancient Jewish mysticism (Kabbalah) or combining it with other influences.[32] There has been a resurgence of interest in Goddess worship,[33] and this intersects with neopagan witchcraft in certain cases.[34]
Saudi Arabia hascontinued to use thedeath penalty forsorcery and witchcraft.[35] In 2006Fawza Falih Muhammad Ali was condemned to death for practicing witchcraft.[36] There is no legal definition of sorcery in Saudi, but in 2007 an Egyptian pharmacist working there was accused, convicted, and executed. Saudi authorities also pronounced the death penalty on a Lebanese television presenter,Ali Hussain Sibat, while he was performing thehajj (Islamic pilgrimage) in the country.[37] In 2009, the Saudi authorities set up the Anti-Witchcraft Unit of theirCommittee for the Promotion of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice police.[38] In April 2009, a Saudi woman Amina Bint Abdulhalim Nassar was arrested and later sentenced to death for practicing witchcraft and sorcery. In December 2011, she was beheaded.[39] A Saudi man has been beheaded on charges of sorcery and witchcraft in June 2012.[40] A beheading for sorcery occurred in 2014.[41]
In Turkey, a predominantly Muslim country, there has been a mixture of traditional folk practices,[42][43] Sufi mysticism, and New Age spirituality. Some individuals have expressed interest in alternative spiritual practices and forms of neopagan witchcraft, often drawing from local folk traditions, herbalism, and mysticism. However, due to the conservative nature of the country and potential societal pressures, such practices might not be widely visible or openly discussed.[44]