Wisdom, also known assapience, is the ability to applyknowledge,experience, and goodjudgment to navigate life’s complexities. It is often associated withinsight, discernment, andethics in decision-making. Throughout history, wisdom has been regarded as a keyvirtue inphilosophy,religion, andpsychology, representing the ability to understand and respond to reality in a balanced and thoughtful manner. Unlikeintelligence, which primarily concerns problem-solving and reasoning, wisdom involves a deeper comprehension ofhuman nature,moral principles, and the long-term consequences of actions.
Philosophically, wisdom has been explored by thinkers fromAncient Greece to modern times.Socrates famously equated wisdom with recognizing one’s own ignorance, whileAristotle saw it as practical reasoning (phronesis) and deep contemplation (sophia). Eastern traditions, such asConfucianism andBuddhism, emphasize wisdom as a form of enlightened understanding that leads toethical living andinner peace. Across cultures, wisdom is often linked to virtues likehumility,patience, andcompassion, suggesting that it is not just about knowing what is right but also acting upon it.
The English word wisdom originates from the Old English wīsdōm, which is derived from wīs ("wise") and dōm ("judgment, decision, law").[1] TheProto-Germanic root wis- ("to see, to know") connects wisdom to perception and insight. Related terms appear inOld High German (wīssag, "prophetic"),Old Norse (vísdómr), andGothic (weisdumbs).[2]
In Ancient Greek, wisdom is expressed as σοφία (sophia), often referring to both practical skill and philosophical insight. The term was central to Greek philosophy, particularly in Plato's and Aristotle's discussions on virtue.[3] The Latin equivalent,sapientia, derives fromsapere ("to taste, to discern"), emphasizing wisdom as discerning between right and wrong.[4]
Similar concepts exist in non-Indo-European languages:
Sanskrit:Jñāna (ज्ञान) andviveka (विवेक) refer to intellectual and spiritual wisdom in Hindu thought.[5]
Chinese: Zhì (智) represents wisdom as practical intelligence, central to Confucian ethics.[6]
Hebrew: Chokhmah (חָכְמָה) in the Hebrew Bible is linked to divine and moral wisdom.[7]
Wisdom has been a central concept in philosophy, religion, and literature across ancient civilizations.
The earliest wisdom literature comes fromSumerian andEgyptian texts. In Sumerian tradition, wisdom (me) was considered a divine principle given by the gods, recorded inproverbs andmyths.[8] Egyptian wisdom texts, such as theMaxims of Ptahhotep (c. 2400 BCE), emphasized moral conduct and social harmony.[9]
Wisdom became a major theme in Greek philosophy. Socrates equated wisdom with knowing one's own ignorance, while Plato argued that wisdom was the highest form of knowledge.[10] Aristotle distinguished between practical wisdom (phronesis) and theoretical wisdom (sophia), defining wisdom as the ability to deliberate well about the good life.[11]
In Roman philosophy, wisdom (sapientia) was regarded as the virtue of theStoic sage.Cicero andSeneca viewed wisdom as self-discipline and rational living, essential for achieving inner tranquility (ataraxia).[12]
Wisdom also developed as a spiritual concept in various traditions:
Biblical wisdom literature: Books likeProverbs,Ecclesiastes, andJob depict wisdom as both divine and practical, often contrasting human knowledge with divine omniscience.[13]
Buddhism: Wisdom (prajñā) is one of thethreefold trainings leading to enlightenment, developed through meditation and ethical conduct.[14]
Islamic philosophy: The Arabic termhikmah (حكمة) refers to wisdom as both divine insight and rational philosophy, deeply influenced by Aristotle,Avicenna, andAl-Farabi.[15]
Philosophers have explored wisdom as a fundamental concept for millennia, debating its nature, acquisition, and role in ethical and intellectual life. Some traditions emphasize wisdom as practical decision-making, while others frame it as deep contemplation or spiritual insight. Broadly, wisdom has been categorized into theoretical wisdom (sophia), practical wisdom (phronesis), and moral wisdom, with varying interpretations across different philosophical traditions.
According toPlato andXenophon, the Pythia of the Delphic Oracle answered the question "who is the wisest man in Greece?" by stating Socrates was the wisest.[16] According to Plato'sApology,Socrates (469–399 BCE) decided to investigate the people who might be considered wiser than him, concluding they lacked true knowledge. He argued that true wisdom involves questioning and refining beliefs rather than assuming certainty:
I am wiser than this man; for neither of us really knows anything fine and good, but this man thinks he knows something when he does not, whereas I, as I do not know anything, do not think I do either.
Aristotle (384–322 BCE), inMetaphysics, defined wisdom as understanding why things are a certain way (causality), which is deeper than merely knowing things are a certain way. was the first to differentiate between two types of wisdom:
Theoretical wisdom (sophia), which involves deep contemplation of universal truths.
Practical wisdom (phronesis), which is the ability to make sound decisions in everyday life.
Aristotle sawphronesis as essential for ethical living, arguing that virtuous actions require both knowledge and experience. This concept of practical wisdom later influencedvirtue ethics and modern discussions of decision-making.[19]
In theMedieval period, wisdom was often linked todivine revelation and theology.Augustine of Hippo (354–430 CE) viewed wisdom as knowledge aligned with God's eternal truth, distinguishing it from mere worldly intelligence.[20] He argued that true wisdom (sapientia) comes from knowing and loving God, contrasting it with human knowledge (scientia), which concerns temporal matters.[21]
Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) built uponAristotle's distinction between theoretical and practical wisdom, incorporating it intoChristian theology. He argued that wisdom (sapientia) is the highest intellectual virtue, guidingreason toward ultimate truth and divine understanding.[22] Aquinas distinguished between natural wisdom, which humans acquire through reason, and supernatural wisdom, which comes through divine revelation.[23]
During theRenaissance, humanist thinkers such asErasmus (1466–1536) andMontaigne (1533–1592) emphasized the role of self-reflection and skepticism in wisdom, challenging dogmatic reliance on authority.[24] Montaigne, in hisEssays, proposed that true wisdom lies in acknowledging uncertainty and maintaining intellectual humility.[25] The Renaissance emphasis on human reason and critical inquiry laid the groundwork for early modern philosophical discussions of wisdom.
In theAge of Enlightenment, the concept of wisdom shifted from religious and metaphysical frameworks to one rooted in rationality and moral duty.Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) argued that wisdom involves the application of practical reason to align one’s actions with universal moral principles.[26] He distinguished between theoretical reason, which seeks knowledge for its own sake, and practical reason, which applies knowledge ethically. Kantian wisdom involves making decisions that conform to the categorical imperative, a moral law derived from reason.
During the 19th century, romanticism and existentialism challenged the rationalist foundations of wisdom.Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) criticized traditional views of wisdom as passive contemplation and obedience to moral codes. Instead, he championed "life-affirming wisdom", emphasizing personal growth through struggle and self-overcoming.[27] Nietzsche rejected the pursuit of static truths, instead advocating for a dynamic and self-created form of wisdom.
Existentialist philosophers further expanded this critique.Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980) viewed wisdom as a confrontation with the absurd condition of life and the freedom to create meaning in a world devoid of inherent purpose.[28]Albert Camus (1913–1960) echoed these ideas inThe Myth of Sisyphus, arguing that wisdom lies in accepting life's absurdity and choosing to live meaningfully despite its challenges.[29]
In the 20th century, pragmatist philosophers likeJohn Dewey (1859–1952) argued for a form of wisdom based on adaptability and practical decision-making. Dewey rejected fixed moral absolutes in favor of wisdom as a constantly evolving process of inquiry and experimentation.[30] Pragmatic wisdom, according to Dewey, emerges from ongoing reflection on experience and the ability to adapt principles to changing contexts.
Meanwhile,virtue ethicists such asMartha Nussbaum argue that wisdom is tied toemotional intelligence andempathy. In her works onAristotelian ethics, Nussbaum writes that wise individuals understand the complexities of human emotions and integrate them into moral reasoning.[31] This perspective sees wisdom not merely as intellectual discernment but as the capacity to recognize the emotional and contextual dimensions of moral life.
Postmodern philosophers challenge the notion of wisdom as a universal concept.Michel Foucault (1926–1984) argued that ideas of wisdom are shaped by power structures and are inherently subjective, often serving to reinforce dominant ideologies.[32] Postmodern perspectives emphasize cultural relativism and the diversity of wisdom across historical and social contexts rather than a singular definition.
Today, contemporary discussions of wisdom draw from cognitive science and social philosophy. Philosophers likePhilip Kitcher focus on practical wisdom as collaborative decision-making in democratic societies.[33] This view holds that wisdom is not an individual trait but a collective process involving diverse perspectives. As such, modern philosophy views wisdom as dynamic, context-dependent, and shaped by emotional, social, and cognitive factors.
In Confucian thought, wisdom (zhi, 智) is closely linked to ethical living and social harmony.Confucius (551–479 BCE) taught that wisdom is not merely intelligence but the ability to act virtuously in relationships and governance.[34] It involves self-cultivation, learning from the past, and practicing benevolence (ren, 仁), which Confucius regarded as a foundational virtue.[35]
Wisdom in Confucianism is practical and moral, requiring individuals to cultivate righteousness (yi, 義) and ritual propriety (li, 禮) in order to contribute to a stable society.[36] The ideal wise person, or "superior person" (junzi, 君子), embodies wisdom by continuously refining their character and aligning their actions with ethical principles.[37]
Later Confucian thinkers expanded on this concept.Mencius (372–289 BCE) emphasized compassion and moral intuition as sources of wisdom, arguing that humans are naturally inclined toward goodness but must develop wisdom through education and reflection.[38]Xunzi (c. 310–235 BCE), by contrast, saw wisdom as the product of strict discipline and adherence to ritual, believing that human nature is inherently flawed and must be shaped through deliberate effort.[39]
The Confucian approach to wisdom remains influential inEast Asian ethics, education, and leadership philosophy, continuing to shape modern discussions on morality and governance.[40]
Shakyamuni Buddha flanked by Chenrezig and Manjushri
In Buddhist philosophy, wisdom (prajñā, प्रज्ञा) is one of the threefold training principles (along with ethics and meditation). It involves seeing reality as it truly is, free from delusions. InMahayana Buddhism, wisdom is often personified by the BodhisattvaManjushri, who wields a sword to cut through ignorance.Zen traditions emphasizesatori (悟り), a sudden flash of wisdom or enlightenment. InTheravāda Buddhism, wisdom is developed throughvipassanā (insight meditation), leading to the realization ofimpermanence (anicca), suffering (duḥkha), and non-self (anattā). Buddhist religious traditions provide comprehensive guidance on how to develop wisdom.[41][42]
The termPrajñā was translatedinto Chinese as智慧 (pinyinzhìhuì, characters智 "knowledge" and慧 "bright, intelligent"). In Chinese Buddhism, the idea of wisdom is closely linked to its Indian equivalent as it appears for instance in certain conceptual continuities that exist betweenAsanga,Vasubandhu andXuanzang.[further explanation needed][43]
Developing wisdom is of central importance inBuddhist traditions, where the ultimate aim is often presented as "seeing things as they are" or as gaining a "penetrative understanding of all phenomena", which in turn is described as ultimately leading to the "complete freedom from suffering".[41][42] In Buddhism, developing wisdom is accomplished through an understanding of what are known as theFour Noble Truths and by following theNoble Eightfold Path.[41][42] This path listsmindfulness as one of eight required components for cultivating wisdom.[41]
Buddhist scriptures teach that wise people conduct themselves well.[44] A wise person does actions that are unpleasant to do but give good results, and does not do actions that are pleasant to do but give bad results.[45] Wisdom is theantidote to thepoison ofignorance. TheBuddha has much to say on the subject of wisdom including:
He who arbitrates a case by force does not thereby become just (established inDhamma). But the wise man is he who carefully discriminates between right and wrong.[46]
He who leads others by nonviolence, righteously and equitably, is indeed a guardian of justice, wise and righteous.[47]
One is not wise merely because he talks much. But he who is calm, free from hatred and fear, is verily called a wise man.[48]
By quietude alone one does not become asage (muni) if he is foolish and ignorant. But he who, as if holding a pair of scales, takes the good and shuns the evil, is a wise man; he is indeed amuni by that very reason. He who understands both good and evil as they really are, is called a true sage.[49]
To recover the original supreme wisdom of self-nature (Buddha-nature orTathagata) concealed by the self-imposed three dusty poisons (thekleshas: greed, anger, ignorance), Buddha taught to his students the threefold training by turning greed into generosity and discipline, anger into kindness and meditation, ignorance into wisdom.[citation needed]
In Hindu philosophy, wisdom (jñāna, ज्ञान) is closely associated withself-realization and spiritual knowledge. Unlike the empirical knowledge (vidyā, विद्या) gained through sensory experience, wisdom in Hinduism involves insight into the ultimate nature of reality (Brahman, ब्रह्मन्) and the self (Ātman, आत्मन्).[50] TheUpanishads, foundational texts of Hindu thought, describe wisdom as the realization that all worldly distinctions are illusions (maya, माया), and that the self is one with the infinite consciousness of Brahman.[51]
WithinVedanta philosophy, wisdom is considered the path to liberation (mokṣa, मोक्ष).Adi Shankaracharya (c. 8th century CE) argued that true wisdom (jnana yoga) arises through discrimination (viveka, विवेक) between the real and the unreal.[52] He taught that ignorance (avidyā, अविद्या) binds individuals to the cycle ofsamsara (rebirth), and wisdom is the means to overcome illusion and attain self-realization.[53] In contrast,Dvaita Vedanta, founded byMadhvacharya (13th century CE), holds that wisdom involves recognizing the eternal distinction between the self and God, rather than dissolving all distinctions.[54]
Wisdom is also a core element in Hindu sacred texts, including theBhagavad Gita, whereKrishna teachesArjuna that true wisdom transcends personal desires and emotions.[55] The Gita outlines three paths to wisdom:
Jnana yoga – the path of intellectual discernment and self-inquiry.
Bhakti yoga – the path of devotion to a personal deity as a means to wisdom.
Karma yoga – the path of selfless action leading to enlightened understanding.[56]
Hindu wisdom traditions remain deeply influential in both spiritual practice and philosophical inquiry, with modern thinkers likeSwami Vivekananda andAurobindo Ghose integrating ancient wisdom concepts with contemporary thought.[57]Medha is a goddess of wisdom found in theGaruda Purana.[58]
Bagua diagram from Zhao Huiqian's (趙撝謙)Liushu benyi (六書本義,c. 1370s)
Taoist views of wisdom (wu wei, 無為) emphasizes effortless action, aligning with the natural flow of the universe (Tao). While early Confucianism values social harmony and structured virtue, Taoist wisdom often embraces paradox and non-conformity. TheZhuangzi text, attributed toZhuang Zhou (c. 4th century BCE), presents wisdom as a state of effortless flow (wu wei), where one aligns with the spontaneous patterns of nature rather than imposing human will.[59] This contrasts with Confucian ideals of ritual and duty, as Taoist wisdom values freedom from rigid thinking and acceptance of change.[60]
Taoist wisdom also includes cosmological insight, recognizing that all things emerge from theTao (道), the fundamental force of existence.[61] InTao Te Ching (道德經), attributed toLaozi (6th century BCE), wisdom is described as yielding like water, able to overcome obstacles through gentleness rather than force.[62] This perspective aligns with Taoist ethics, which discourage aggression and rigid control, instead promoting a harmonious existence in sync with nature’s rhythms.[63] He also describes wisdom as understanding the balance of opposites (Yin and Yang) and acting in harmony with nature rather than imposing force.[62]
Unlike Western views, Taoist wisdom often involves paradox and non-action, valuing spontaneity over rigid rules. Taoist sages are often depicted as detached from worldly concerns, seeking a deeper, wordless understanding of existence that transcends conventional logic.[64]
The three major psychological categories for wisdom arepersonality,development, andexpertise.[65]
Psychologists have begun to gather data on commonly held beliefs or folk theories about wisdom.[66] Initial analyses indicate that although "there is an overlap of the implicit theory of wisdom with intelligence, perceptiveness, spirituality, and shrewdness, it is evident that wisdom is an expertise in dealing with difficult questions of life and adaptation to the complex requirements."[67]
The field of psychology has also developed explicit theories and empirical research on the psychological processes underlying wisdom.[68][69] Opinions on the psychological definition of wisdom vary,[69] but there is some consensus that critical to wisdom are certainmeta-cognitive processes that afford life reflection and judgment about critical life matters.[70][71] These processes include recognizing the limits of one's own knowledge, acknowledging uncertainty and change, attention to context and the bigger picture, and integrating different perspectives of a situation.[72] Cognitive scientists suggest that wisdom requires coordinating such reasoning processes for insight into managing one's life.[73] Reasoning of this sort is both theoretically and empirically distinct from general (fluid or crystallized) intelligence.[74] Researchers have shown empirically that wise reasoning is distinct fromIQ.[75]
Baltes and colleagues defined wisdom as "the ability to deal with the contradictions of a specific situation and to assess the consequences of an action for themselves and for others. It is achieved when in a concrete situation, a balance between intrapersonal, interpersonal and institutional interests can be prepared".[76] Balance appears to be a critical criterion of wisdom. Empirical research provides some support for this idea, showing that wisdom-related reasoning is associated with achieving balance between intrapersonal and interpersonal interests when facing personal life challenges, and when setting goals for managing interpersonal conflicts.[77][78]
Researchers also explore the role of emotions in wisdom.[79] Most agree that emotions and emotion regulation are key to effectively managing the kinds of complex and arousing situations that most call for wisdom. Much empirical research has focused on the cognitive or meta-cognitive aspects of wisdom, assuming that an ability to reason through difficult situations is paramount. So although emotions likely play a role in how wisdom plays out in real events (and in reflecting on past events), empirical studies were late to develop on how emotions affect a person's ability to deal wisely with complex events. One study found a positive relationship between diversity of emotional experience and wise reasoning, irrespective of emotional intensity.[80]
Awise-person fantasy is an awareness intervention, where one poses a question, thinks on it for a few minutes, and thenrole-plays a fantasized wise person to answer that same question.[81]
Grossmann and colleagues summarized prior psychological literature to conclude that wisdom involves certain cognitive processes that affordunbiased, soundjudgment in the face of ill-defined life situations:
intellectual humility, or recognition of limits of own knowledge
appreciation of perspectives broader than the issue at hand
sensitivity to the possibility of change in social relations
compromise or integration of different perspectives[82][83]
Grossmann found thathabitually speaking and thinking of oneself in the third person increases these characteristics, which means that such a habit makes a person wiser.[84] Grossmann says contextual factors – such as culture, experiences, and social situations – influence the understanding, development, and propensity of wisdom, with implications for training and educational practice.[71][82] These contextual factors are the focus of continuing research. For instance, Grossmann and Kross identified a phenomenon they called "the Solomon's paradox": that people reflect more wisely on other people's problems than on their own. (It is named afterKing Solomon, who had legendary sagacity when making judgments about other people's dilemmas but lacked insight when it came to important decisions in his own life.)[85]
A researcher will measure wisdom differently depending on their theoretical position about the nature of wisdom. For example, some view wisdom as a stable personality trait, others as a context-bound process.[86] Those wedded to the former approach often use single-shot questionnaires, which are prone tobiased[clarification needed] responses,[77][87] something that is antithetical to the wisdom construct[88] and fails to study wisdom in the contexts where it is most relevant: complex life challenges. In contrast, researchers who prefer the latter approach measure wisdom-related features of cognition, motivation, and emotion in the context of a specific situation.[89][86] Such state-level measures provide less-biased responses as well as greater power in explaining meaningful psychological processes.[77] Also, a focus on the situation allows wisdom researchers to develop a fuller understanding of the role of context in producing wisdom.[86] For example, studies have shown evidence of cross-cultural[90] and within-cultural variability,[91] and systematic variability in reasoning wisely across contexts[77][85] and in daily life.[92]
Many, but not all, studies find that adults' self-ratings of perspective and wisdom do not depend on age.[93][94][95] This conflicts with the popular notion that wisdom increases with age.[94] The answer to whether age and wisdom correlate depends on how one defines wisdom and one's experimental technique. The answer to this question also depends on the domain studied, and the role of experience in that domain, with some contexts favoring older adults, others favoring younger adults, and some not differentiating age groups.[86] Rigorous longitudinal work is needed to answer this question, while most studies rely on cross-sectional observations.[96]
In theAvestaGathas, hymns traditionally attributed toZoroaster,Ahura Mazda means "Lord" (Ahura) and "Wisdom" (Mazda), and is the central deity who embodies goodness, being also called "Good Thought" (Vohu Manah).[106] InZoroastrianism, the order of the universe and morals is calledasha (inAvestan, truth, righteousness), which is determined by thisomniscient Thought and also considered a deity emanating from Ahura (Amesha Spenta). It is related to another ahura deity,Spenta Mainyu (active Mentality).[107] It says in Yazna 31:[108]
To him shall the best befall, who, as one that knows, speaks to me Right's truthful word of Welfare and of Immortality; even the Dominion of Mazda which Good Thought shall increase for him. About which he in the beginning thus thought, "let the blessed realms be filled with Light", he it is that by his wisdom created Right.
InHellenistic religion, wisdom was often personified as a divine or mystical force guiding human understanding. In Greek mystery religions, particularlyOrphism and theEleusinian Mysteries, wisdom was associated with spiritual enlightenment and initiation into hidden truths.[109] Philosophical movements such asNeoplatonism developed a concept of wisdom (sophia, σοφία) as the knowledge of the divine order of existence.Plotinus (204–270 CE) viewed wisdom as an ascent of the soul towardsthe One, the ultimate source of all reality.[110] In this tradition, wisdom was both intellectual and mystical, requiring inner purification to grasp transcendent truths.
Wisdom also played a central role inGnosticism, anesoteric movement that emerged in the first few centuries CE. Gnostics saw wisdom (Sophia) as a divine figure, often depicted as a fallen being who sought to restore humanity’s knowledge of its divine origin. In texts in theNag Hammadi library, Sophia is described as the mother of all living and the source ofgnosis (spiritual knowledge).[111] According toValentinian Gnosticism, Sophia’s fall led to the creation of the material world, but through wisdom, the soul could transcend illusion and return to the divine realm.[112]
Gnostic texts such as thePistis Sophia depict wisdom as a cosmic force struggling to free itself from ignorance and darkness. This contrasts with orthodox Christian views, where wisdom (σοφία) is associated with theLogos and divine order rather than cosmic dualism.[113] InHermeticism, another esoteric tradition of the Hellenistic period, wisdom was linked to inner enlightenment and mystical union with the divine mind (nous, νοῦς).[114] These traditions, though diverse, shared the belief that wisdom was the key to transcending material existence and reuniting with the divine.
The word "wisdom" (חכם) is mentioned 222 times in theHebrew Bible. It was regarded as one of the highest virtues among the Israelites along with kindness (חסד) and justice (צדק). The books ofProverbs andPsalms each urge readers to obtain and to increase in wisdom.[citation needed]
In the Hebrew Bible, wisdom is exemplified bySolomon, who asks God for wisdom in2 Chronicles 1:10. Much of theBook of Proverbs, which is filled withwise sayings, is attributed to Solomon. InProverbs 9:10, the fear of the Lord is called the beginning of wisdom. Another proverb says that wisdom is gained from God, "For the Lord gives wisdom; from His mouth come knowledge and understanding".[115] InProverbs 1:20, there is also reference to wisdom personified in female form, "Wisdom calls aloud in the streets, she raises her voice in the marketplaces." InProverbs 8:22–31, this personified wisdom is described as being present with God before creation began and even as taking part in creation itself.
King Solomon continues his teachings of wisdom in the book ofEcclesiastes. Solomon discusses his exploration of the meaning of life and fulfillment, as he speaks of life's pleasures, work, and materialism, yet concludes that it is all meaningless. "'Meaningless! Meaningless!" says the Teacher [Solomon]. 'Utterly meaningless! Everything is meaningless'...For with much wisdom comes much sorrow, the more knowledge, the more grief"[116] Solomon concludes that all life's pleasures and riches, and even [human]wisdom, mean nothing if there is no relationship with God.[117]
TheTalmud teaches that a wise person can foresee the future.Nolad is a Hebrew word for "future," but also the Hebrew word for "birth", so one rabbinic interpretation of the teaching is that a wise person is one who can foresee the consequences of his/her choices (i.e. can "see the future" that he/she "gives birth" to).[118]
Christian thought opposessecular wisdom and embraces Godly wisdom.Paul the Apostle states that worldly wisdom thinks the claims ofChrist to be foolishness. However, to those who are "on the path to salvation" Christ represents the wisdom of God.[119] Wisdom is considered one of theseven gifts of the Holy Spirit.[120]1 Corinthians 12:8–10 gives an alternate list of nine virtues, among which is wisdom.
TheEpistle of James is a New Testament analogue of the book of Proverbs, in that it also discusses wisdom. It reiterates the message from Proverbs that wisdom comes from God by stating, "If any of you lacks wisdom, you should ask God, who gives generously to all without finding fault, and it will be given to you".[121] James also explains how wisdom helps one acquire other forms of virtue: "But the wisdom that comes from heaven is first of all pure; then peace-loving, considerate, submissive, full of mercy and good fruit, impartial and sincere."[122] James focuses on using this God-given wisdom to perform acts of service to the less fortunate.
Apart from Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and James, other main books of wisdom in the Bible are Job, Psalms, and 1 and 2 Corinthians, which give lessons on gaining and using wisdom through difficult situations.
The Islamic term for wisdom ishikmah. Prophets of Islam are believed by Muslims to possess great wisdom. The term occurs a number of times in theQuran, notably inSura 2:269,Sura 22:46, andSura 6:151.
The Sufi philosopherIbn Arabi considersal-Hakim ("The Wise") as one of the names of the Creator.[123] Wisdom and truth, considered divine attributes, were valued inIslamic sciences andphilosophy. The first Arab philosopher,Al-Kindi says at the beginning of his book:[124]
We must not be ashamed to admire the truth or to acquire it, from wherever it comes. Even if it should come from far-flung nations and foreign peoples, there is for the student of truth nothing more important than the truth, nor is the truth demeaned or diminished by the one who states or conveys it; no one is demeaned by the truth, rather all are ennobled by it.
InBaháʼí Faith scripture, "The essence of wisdom is the fear of God, the dread of His scourge and punishment, and the apprehension of His justice and decree."[125] Wisdom is seen as a light that casts away darkness, and "its dictates must be observed under all circumstances".[126] One may obtain knowledge and wisdom through God, his Word, and hisDivine Manifestation; the source of all learning is the knowledge of God.[127]
Wide is the courtyard of Shamash night chamber, (just as wide is the womb of) a wise pregnant woman!Sin, his warrior, wise one, heard of the offerings and came down to his fiesta. He is the father of the nation and the father of intelligence
Sia was the personification of perception and thoughtfulness in the mythology ofAncient Egypt. Thoth, married toMaat (inancient Egyptian: order, righteousness, truth), was regarded as the being who introduced wisdom to the nation.[130][131]
Athena (as Mentor) supportedhim by recognizing and fosteringcourage,hope, sense, bravery, and adeptness (Homer, trans. 1996, p. 102).[133]
— Sommer
Theancient Greeks considered wisdom to be an importantvirtue,personified as thegoddesses Metis and Athena. Metis was the first wife ofZeus, who, according toHesiod'sTheogony, had devoured her pregnant; Zeus earned the title of Mêtieta ("The Wise Counselor") after that, as Metis was the embodiment of wisdom, and he gave birth to Athena, who is said to have sprung from his head.[134][135] Athena was portrayed as strong, fair, merciful, and chaste.[136]
Apollo was also considered a god of wisdom, designated as the conductor of theMuses (Musagetes),[137] who were personifications of the sciences and of the inspired and poetic arts. According toPlato in hisCratylus, the name of Apollo could also mean "ballon" (archer) and "omopoulon" (unifier of poles [divine and earthly]), since this god was responsible for divine and true inspirations, thus considered an archer who was always right in healing and oracles: "he is an ever-darting archer".[138] Apollo prophesied through the priestesses (Pythia) in theTemple of Apollo (Delphi), where the aphorism "know thyself" (gnōthi seauton)[a] was inscribed (one of theDelphic maxims).[139] He was contrasted withHermes, who was related to the sciences and technical wisdom, and, in the first centuries after Christ, was associated withThoth in anEgyptian syncretism, under the nameHermes Trimegistus.[140] Greek tradition recorded the earliest introducers of wisdom in theSeven Sages of Greece.[141]
Theancient Romans also valued wisdom, which was personified asMinerva or Pallas. She also represents skillful knowledge and the virtues, especially chastity. Her symbol was theowl, which is still a popular representation of wisdom, because it can see in darkness. She was said to have been born from Jupiter's forehead.[142]
Odin is known for his wisdom, often as acquired through various hardships and ordeals involving pain and self-sacrifice. In one instance he plucked out an eye and offered it to Mímir, guardian of the well of knowledge and wisdom, in return for a drink from the well.[143]In another famous account, Odin hanged himself for nine nights fromYggdrasil, theWorld Tree that unites all therealms of existence, suffering from hunger and thirst and finally wounding himself with a spear until he gained the knowledge ofrunes for use in casting powerfulmagic.[144] He was also able to acquire themead of poetry from thegiants, a drink of which could grant the power of a scholar orpoet, for the benefit ofgods and mortals alike.[143]
For broader coverage of this topic, seeWisdom tooth.
In many cultures, the name for third molars, which are the last teeth to grow, is etymologically linked with wisdom, as in the Englishwisdom tooth. This nickname originated from the classical tradition – the Hippocratic writings used the termsóphronistér (inGreek, related to the meaning of moderation or teaching a lesson), and inLatindens sapientiae (wisdom tooth).[145]
Nicholas Maxwell, a philosopher in the United Kingdom, believesacademia ought to alter its focus from the acquisition of knowledge to seeking and promoting wisdom.[147] This he defines as the capacity to realize what is of value in life, for oneself and others.[148] He teaches that new knowledge and technologicalknow-how increase our power to act. Without wisdom though, Maxwell claims this new knowledge may cause human harm as well as human good. He argues that the pursuit of knowledge is indeed valuable and good, but that it should be considered a part of the broader task of improving wisdom.[149]
Ecological wisdom – Philosophy of ecological harmony or equilibrium as developed by Arne Næss or Félix GuattariPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Eudaimonia – Human flourishing in ancient Greek philosophy
Genius – Exceptional intellectual ability, creativity, or originality
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^Augustine, Saint (2003) [426].The City of God. London: Penguin Classics.
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^Scott, David (1998)."The Perennial Message of 'the Goddess': Enduring Themes down the Ages in Bactria".East and West.48 (1/2):27–39.JSTOR29757365. Retrieved25 July 2024.In theGaruda Purana 1.7.9, one of the manifestations of the energy of Sarasvati wasmedha (wisdom), an identification repeated with respect to the Goddess in theDevi Mahatmya 1.11. Thus it is no surprise to find with Anahita, in verse 86 of herAban Yast, that 'the priests (athravans) who read and the pupils of the priest will beg of thee knowledge'.
^Zhuangzi (2003) [4th century BCE].Zhuangzi: Basic Writings. Columbia University Press.
^Mair, Victor H. (1998).Wandering on the Way: Early Taoist Tales and Parables of Zhuangzi. University of Hawaii Press.
^Kirkland, Russell (2004).Taoism: The Enduring Tradition. Routledge.
^abLaozi (2006) [4th century BCE].Tao Te Ching. Hackett Publishing.
^Ames, Roger T. (2003).Dao De Jing: A Philosophical Translation. Ballantine Books.ISBN978-0345444196.
^Robinet, Isabelle (1997).Taoism: Growth of a Religion. Stanford University Press.
^Baltes, Paul B.; Staudinger, Ursula M. (2000)."Wisdom: A Metaheuristic (Pragmatic) to Orchestrate Mind and Virtue Toward Excellence".American Psychologist.55 (1):122–136.doi:10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.122.hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0025-9C51-4.PMID11392856. Retrieved27 July 2024.Theoretical and empirical work on explicit psychological theories of wisdom can be roughly divided into three groups: (a) the conceptualization of wisdom as a personal characteristic or constellation of personality dispositions (e.g., Erikson, 1959; McAdams & de St. Aubin, 1998), (b) the conceptualization of wisdom in the neo-Piagetian tradition of postformal and dialectical thought (e.g., Alex ander & Langer, 1990; Labouvie-Vief, 1990), and (c) the conceptualization of wisdom as an expert system dealing with the meaning and conduct of life (P. Baltes & Smith, 1990; Dittmann-Kohli & Baltes, 1990; Staudinger & Baltes, 1994).
^Sternberg, R. J. (1985). "Implicit theories of intelligence, creativity, and wisdom".Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.49 (3):607–662.doi:10.1037/0022-3514.49.3.607.
^abStaudinger, U.M.; Glück, J. (2011). "Psychological wisdom research: Commonalities and differences in a growing field".Annual Review of Psychology.62:215–241.doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.121208.131659.PMID20822439.
^abGrossmann, Igor (2017)."Wisdom in Context".Perspectives on Psychological Science.12 (2):233–257.doi:10.1177/1745691616672066.PMID28346113.S2CID26818408. Retrieved18 July 2024.Compromise [...] Intellectual humility [...] Recognition of uncertainty and change [...] Others' perspectives / broader contexts
Staudinger, U.M.; Lopez, D.F; Baltes, P.B. (1997). "The psychometric location of wisdom-related performance: Intelligence, personality, and more?".Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin.23 (11):1200–1214.doi:10.1177/01461672972311007.S2CID145148320.
Baltes, P.B.; Glück, J.; Kunzmann, U. "Wisdom: Its structure and function in regulating successful life span development". In Snyder, C.R.; Lopez, S.J. (eds.).Handbook of Positive Psychology. Oxford University Press. pp. 327–347.
^abGrossmann, Igor; Kross, Ethan (2017). "Exploring Solomon's Paradox: Self-distancing eliminates the self-other asymmetry in wise reasoning about close relationships in younger and older adults".Psychological Science.25 (8):1571–1580.doi:10.1177/0956797614535400.PMID24916084.S2CID3539860.
^Taylor, M.; Bates, G.; Webster, J.D. (2011). "Comparing the psychometric properties of two measures of wisdom: Predicting forgiveness and psychological well-being with the Self-Assessed Wisdom Scale (SAWS) and the Three-Dimensional Wisdom Scale (3D-WS)".Experimental Aging Research.37 (2):129–141.doi:10.1080/0361073X.2011.554508.PMID21424954.S2CID205555336.
^Grossmann, I.; Gerlach, T.M.; Denissen, J.J. (2016). "Wise reasoning in the face of everyday life challenges".Social Psychological and Personality Science.7 (7):611–622.doi:10.1177/1948550616652206.S2CID148246126.
^abOrwoll, L.; Perlmutter, M. (1990). Sternberg, R. J. (ed.).Wisdom: Its nature, origins, and development. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 160–177.ISBN978-0-521-36718-9.
^Meacham, J. A. (1990). "The loss of wisdom". In Sternberg, R. J. (ed.).Wisdom: Its nature, origins, and development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 181, 211.
^Jacoby, Mario (1985).Individuation and Narcissism: The Psychology of the Self in Jung and Kohut. Translated by Gubitz, Myron. Routledge. pp. 134–135.ISBN0-415-06464-3.The figures representing the archetype of the 'Wise Old Man' or of the 'Magna Mater' are equivalent to the mana personality; they are both personifications of what could be called the 'wisdom in nature' or the Jungian self with its 'unconscious knowledge'. [...] From a Jungian point of view, we could say that a conscious relationship to the 'Wise Old Man or Woman' in ourselves and to his or her knowledge concerning the infinite is an essential part of an attitude that deserves being called 'wise'.
^Campbell, Joseph (2003). Cousineau, Phil (ed.).The Hero's Journey: Joseph Campbell on His Life and Work (3rd ed.). Novato, California: New World Library. pp. 186–187.
Iwamura, Jane Naomi (2010).Virtual orientalism: Asian religions and American popular culture. Oxford University Press.OCLC1090089521.
Niemiec, Ryan M. (2014).Positive psychology at the movies: using films to build character strengths and well-being. Hogrefe.ISBN9780889374430.OCLC844533648.
^Kreger, D. W. (2013).The Tao of Yoda: based upon the Tao Te Ching by Lao Tzu. Windham Everitt.ISBN9780983309925.OCLC861507203.
^Baltes, Paul B.; Smith, Jacqui (2008)."The Fascination of Wisdom: Its Nature, Ontogeny, and Function".Perspectives on Psychological Science.3 (1):56–64.doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2008.00062.x.JSTOR40212228.PMID26158670. Retrieved27 July 2024.The Berlin Wisdom Paradigm [...] combines a broad definition of wisdom as excellence in mind and virtue with a specific characterization of wisdom as an expert knowledge system dealing with the conduct and understanding of life. We called this domain of knowledge thefundamental pragmatics of life [...]life planning [...]life management [...] andlife review[.]
^abcdefgZhang, K.; Shi, J.; Wang, F. (2023)."Wisdom: Meaning, structure, types, arguments, and future concerns".Current Psychology.42 (18):15030–15051.doi:10.1007/s12144-022-02816-6.PMC8817649.PMID35153458.Since wisdom research in psychology began in the late 1970s (Clayton, 1975), many scientific theories about wisdom have emerged, including: (a) the Berlin wisdom paradigm (Baltes & Kunzmann, 2004; Baltes & Smith, 2008; Baltes & Staudinger, 1993, 2000; Scheibe et al., 2007), (b) the balance theory of wisdom (Sternberg, 1998, 2018), (c) the self-transcendence wisdom theory (Levenson et al., 2005), (d) the three-dimensional wisdom theory (Ardelt, 2003; Thomas et al., 2015), (e) the H.E.R.O.(E.) model of wisdom (Webster, 2003; Webster et al., 2014, 2017), (f) the process view of wisdom (Yang, 2008, 2013, 2016, 2017), and (g) the integrating virtue and wit theory of wisdom (Chen & Wang, 2013; Wang et al., 2019, pp. 376–378; Wang & Zheng, 2012, 2014, 2015).
^Adamson, Peter (2018),"Al-Kindi", in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.),The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2018 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, retrieved16 August 2019
^"Asl-i-Kullu'l-Khayr (Words of Wisdom)".Bahai Reference Library. Tablets of Bahá’u’lláh Revealed After the Kitáb-i-Aqdas (pocket-size ed.). US Bahá’í Publishing Trust. 1988. Retrieved19 March 2013.
^ʻAbduʹl-Bahá (1980).A traveler's narrative. Translated by Browne, Edward G. (New and corr. ed.). Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'i Publ. Trust. p. 46.ISBN978-0877431343.
^Esslemont, J.E. (2006).Bahá'u'lláh and the new era: an introduction to the Bahá'í faith. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'í Pub. Trust.ISBN978-1931847278.
^Carol, Sommer; Markopoulos, Panagiotis; Goggins, Shana (2013)."Mentoring master's level students: Drawing upon the wisdom of Athena as Mentor in Homer's Odyssey".Journal of Poetry Therapy.26 (1):1–12.doi:10.1080/08893675.2013.764049. Retrieved25 July 2024.[R]eference to Athena within the context of mentoring is not new (Roberts, 2000; Sambunjak & Marusic, 2009) [...] Athena appears in the guise of an old friend of Odysseus, whose name happens to be Mentor. She offers aid and advice to the young Telemachus. [...] In relationship to Telemachus, Athena (as Mentor) supported him by recognizing and fostering courage, hope, sense, bravery, and adeptness (Homer, trans. 1996, p. 102).
^Griffiths, Alan H. (29 January 2024). "Seven Sages". In Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (eds.).Oxford Classical Dictionary (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 1357.
^Maxwell, Nicholas (2007).From Knowledge to Wisdom: A Revolution for Science and the Humanities. Pentire Press.
^"Friends of Wisdom".University College London. 21 February 2019.an association of people sympathetic to the idea that academic inquiry should help humanity acquire more wisdom by rational means
