This article is about the alcoholic drink made from grapes. For drinks made from other fruits, seeFruit wine. For other uses, seeWine (disambiguation).
Wine has been produced for thousands of years, the earliest evidence dating fromc. 6000 BCE in present-dayGeorgia. Its popularity spread aroundthe Mediterranean during Classical antiquity, and was sustained in Western Europe by winemaking monks and a secular trade for general drinking.New World wine was established bysettler colonies from the 16th century onwards, and the wine trade increased dramatically up to the latter half of the 19th century, whenEuropean vineyards were largely destroyed by the invasive pestphylloxera. After theSecond World War, the wine market improved dramatically as winemakers focused on quality and marketing to cater for a more discerning audience, and wine remains a popular drink in much of the world.
Wine has played an important role in religion since antiquity, and has featured prominently in the arts for centuries. It is drunk on its own andpaired with food, often in social settings such aswine bars and restaurants. It is oftentasted and assessed, with drinkers using a wide range ofdescriptors to communicate a wine's characteristics. Wine is also collected andstored, as aninvestment or toimprove with age. Its alcohol content makes winegenerally unhealthy to consume, although it may havecardioprotective benefits.
Inmedieval Europe, monks grew grapes and made wine for theEucharist.[11] Monasteries expanded their land holdings over time and established vineyards in many of today's most successful wine regions.Bordeaux was a notable exception, being a purely commercial enterprise serving theDuchy of Aquitaine and by association Britain between the 12th and 15th centuries.[8]
European wine grape traditions were incorporated intoNew World wine, with colonists planting vineyards in order to celebrate the Eucharist. Vineyards were established in Mexico by 1530, Peru by the 1550s and Chile shortly afterwards. The European settlement ofSouth Africa and subsequent trade involving theDutch East India Company led to the planting of vines in 1655.Jesuit Missionaries managed to grow vines in California in the 1670s, and plantings were later established in Los Angeles in the 1820s andNapa andSonoma in the 1850s.Arthur Phillip introduced vines to Australia in 1788, and viticulture was widely practised by the 1850s. The Australian missionarySamuel Marsden introduced vines to New Zealand in 1819.[13]
TheGreat French Wine Blight began in the latter half of the 19th century, caused by an infestation of the aphidphylloxera brought over from America, whose louse stage feeds on vine roots and eventually kills the plant. Almost every vine in Europe needed to be replaced, by necessity grafted onto American rootstock which is naturally resistant to the pest. This practise continues to this day, with the exception of a small number of phylloxera-free wine regions such asSouth Australia.[14]
The subsequent decades saw further issues impact the wine trade, with the rise ofprohibitionism, political upheaval and twoworld wars, and economic depression and protectionism.[15] Theco-operative movement gained traction with winemakers during the interwar period, and theInstitut national de l'origine et de la qualité was established in 1947 to oversee the administration of France'sappellation laws, the first to create comprehensive restrictions on grape varieties, maximum yields, alcoholic strength and vinification techniques.[16] After theSecond World War, the wine market improved; all major producing countries adopted appellation laws, which increased consumer confidence, and winemakers focused on quality and marketing as consumers became more discerning and wealthy.[17] New World wines, previously dominated by a few large producers, began to fill a niche in the market, with small producers meeting the demand for high quality small-batch artisanal wines.[18] Aconsumer culture has emerged, supporting wine-related publications,wine tourism, paraphernalia such as preservation devices and storage solutions, and educational courses.[19]
The term "wine" typically refers to a drink made from fermented grape juice;[2] drinks from other fruits are generically calledfruit wine.[3] It does not include drinks made from starches (e.g.beer), honey (mead), apples (cider), pears (perry), or a liquid which is subsequently distilled to makeliquor.[2] Most fruits other than grapes lack sufficient fermentable sugars, are overly acidic, and do not have enough nutrients for yeast, necessitating winemaker intervention. They do not typically improve with age, and last less than a year after bottling. Fruit wines are particularly popular in North America and Scandinavia.[3]
Thesweetness of wine is determined by the amount of residual sugar left after fermentation.[20]Dessert wines have a high level of residual sugar remaining after fermentation. There are several ways of making sweet wines, such as the use of grapes affected bynoble rot (e.g.Sauternes), exposed to freezing temperatures (e.g.icewine), or dried (e.g.Vin Santo).[21]
Sparkling wines areeffervescent, and can be any color, although they are usually white.[22] They generally undergosecondary fermentation to createcarbon dioxide, which remains dissolved in the wine under pressure in a sealed container.[23] Two common methods of accomplishing this are thetraditional method, used forCava,Champagne, and more expensive sparkling wines, and theCharmat method, used forProsecco,Asti, and less expensive wines. A hybrid "transfer method" is also used, yielding intermediate results, and simple addition of carbon dioxide is used in the cheapest of wines.[24]
The type of grape used and the amount ofskin contact while the juice is being extracted determines the color of the wine.[25]
Rosé wine, which gainscolor from red grape skins, but not enough to qualify it as ared wine. The color can range from a very pale pink to pale red.[29]
There are two primary ways to produce rosé wine. The preferred technique is allowing a short period of maceration after crushing red grapes, which extracts a certain amount of color. The juice is then fermented like a white wine. An alternative isblending a small amount of finished red wine into finished white wine.[29][c]
White grapes
Orange wine, sometimes called amber wine, is made with white grapes but with the skins allowed to macerate during and beyond fermentation, similar to red wine production. This results in their darker color compared to white wines, and produces a deliberately astringent end result.[30]
White wine, typically made fromwhite grape varieties (those with yellow or green skins), and range from practically colorless to golden.[31][d] When skin contact is used, to improve the flavor or to increase the body or aging potential, it is usually limited to between four and 24 hours; any longer leads to bitterness.[32]
Wine is usually made from one or morevarieties of the European speciesVitis vinifera, such asChardonnay andCabernet Sauvignon. MostVitis vinifera vines have been grafted onto North American species' rootstock, a common practice due to their resistance tophylloxera, a root louse that eventually kills the vine.[33]
In the context of wine production,terroir is a concept that encompasses the growing environment of the vine, including elevation and slope of the vineyard, type and chemistry of soil, and climatic and seasonal conditions. The range of possible combinations of these factors can result in great differences in the characteristics and quality of the resultant wine.[34]
Wine grapes grow mainly between 30 and 50 degrees latitude north and south of the equator, although the effects ofclimate change and advances in viticulture are increasing the area under vine elsewhere.[35] The world's southernmost vineyard is inSarmiento, Argentina, near the46th parallel south.[36] The northernmost wine region isOkanagan Valley which reaches up to the50th parallel north.[37][38]
Kvevris, traditional Georgian wine-making vessels made of clay.
There are a number of different ways of making wine in a modern winery, each decision affecting the final outcome. The first step is harvesting the grapes, the timing of which depends on sugar and acid levels, any diseases affecting the crop, and the weather, among other factors. Grapes are harvested by hand or machine, sorted to select those of sufficient quality, typically destemmed, and then crushed to release the juice. The liquid maymacerate for a few hours before being pressed and clarified.[39]
The liquid is then transferred to a container forfermentation, which is typically made of stainless steel, wood or concrete, and either open or closed. Yeast is naturally present on grape skins, but most producers choose to use a specific strain for their predictable behaviour, allowing them to control the flavors produced. The yeast consumes the sugars and converts them into alcohol, heat, and carbon dioxide. For red wines, winemakers may choose to encourage the extraction of tannins and flavor from the grape skins by agitating the mixture. If permitted by law, the winemaker may include additives such as sugar, to increase the alcohol content (chaptalization), or adjust the acid levels. Some wines undergo a secondary,malolactic fermentation, in which the harshermalic acid is converted intolactic acid by bacteria. Finally the wine may be filtered to remove microbes and yeast, andsulfites may be added as apreservative.[39]
Most wines are sold inglass bottles, traditionally sealed with acork stopper.[40] The standard volume of wine bottle is 75cl, although they can range from 18.7cl to 18 liters.[41] The bottles used for sparkling wine must be thick to withstand the pressure of the gas behind the cork, which can be up to 6 standard atmospheres (88 psi).[42]
Most cork for wine bottles comes fromAlentejo, but a decline in quality in the late 20th century and an increase in demand spurred development of alternatives. An increasing number of wine producers usealternative closures such asscrewcaps and synthetic "corks".[40] Although alternative closures reduce the risk ofcork taint,[40] they have been blamed for causing excessivereduction.[43]
Regulations govern the classification and sale of wine in many regions of the world. When one variety of grape is predominantly used,[e] the wine may be marketed as a "varietal" as opposed to a "blended" wine.[56] Similarly, in order to state a vintage, a percentage of the grapes must have been harvested in the declared year.[f]
Italian wine bottleneck markings showingDOCG and DOC status
European wines tend to be classified by region (e.g.Bordeaux,Rioja andChianti), with concomitant restrictions on grape varieties, yields and vinification methods.[61][62]
The classification ofSwiss wine was historically complex due toits system of federalism.[66] It generally follows EU regulations to simplify exporting, although wine sold domestically does not need to.[67]English wine follows rules for PGI and PDO products similar to the EU.[68][69]
New World wine classifications are generally limited to indications of geographical areas, such as in theAmerican Viticultural Area and Australian Wine Geographical Indications systems.[61][70] Australia also relies on awarding individual wines at prominentwine competitions, as well as in the influential publicationLangton's Classification of Australian Wine.[71]Some producers have created voluntary schemes to allow producers to indicate adherence to a stricter set of criteria than required by law, such as Appellation Marlborough Wine in New Zealand andMeritage in the USA.[72][73] Overall, however, New World countries avoid rigid classification systems, allowing for more flexibility and experimentation.[74]
Wine indicating a vintage contains the juice of grapes harvested that year, with the exception ofEiswein picked in early January, which is dated the previous year. Most of a vintage's characteristics are a result of the weather experienced by the vines during theirgrowth cycle; the interaction between weather, grape varieties andterroir leads to different areas thriving under different conditions. In most of Europe, good vintages correlate with years of plenty of sunshine and average-to-warm temperatures, whereas bad vintages almost always occur in cold and/or wet years with little sunshine. In warmer climates, good vintages usually have average-to-cool temperatures. Even within a single area, however, aspects such as the soil type and depth can lead to different results, as can the variety of grape being grown, as different varieties tolerate different types of weather. Therefore vintages are rarely uniformly "good" or "bad" even within a small area.[75]
For consistency, non-vintage wines can be blended from more than one vintage, which helps winemakers maintain a consistent flavor profile. This is common for Champagne, Port, Sherry and Madeira.[76]
Wine fraud can take several forms, such as mixing a wine with a cheaper one to increase profits, surreptitiously adulterating it with additives, or passing it off as a more expensive wine by relabeling it. Such instances of fraud have a history dating back toAncient Greece, but wine fraud has become less common overall since the late 19th century as legal frameworks and appellation systems have become stricter and more widespread.[77] Nevertheless, the increase of the value of fine wines since the 1970s has led to a corresponding increase in relabeling fraud.[78]
Decanting involves pouring the wine into an intermediate container before serving it in a glass, which allows the removal of undesirable sediments that may have formed in the wine. Sediment is more common in older bottles. Aeration in a decanter may benefit younger wines by "opening them up", releasing more flavor, but aerating older wines can oxidize them.[79][80]
Serve tannic red wines relatively warm, 15–18 °C (59–64 °F) Serve complex dry white wines relatively warm, 12–16 °C (54–61 °F) Serve soft, lighter red wines for refreshment at 10–12 °C (50–54 °F) Cool sweet, sparkling, flabby white and rosé wines, and those with any off-odour, at 6–10 °C (43–50 °F)
As a standard rule, red wines are served at what would historically have been "room temperature" (now, with modern heating and insulation, this would be considered the temperature of a cool room), whites chilled, and sparkling and sweeter whites even cooler.[82] Volatile flavor compounds evaporate more easily at higher temperatures, so warmth increases the aromatic intensity. However, alcohol begins to evaporate noticeably over 20 °C (68 °F), and the carbon dioxide in sparkling wines is released too quickly at temperatures of about 18 °C (64 °F). The palate is more sensitive to sweetness at higher temperatures, so when the sweetness is not balanced by acidity a wine should be served cooler. Cooler temperatures suppress aroma, and therefore faults detectable on the nose, but increase sensitivity to tannins and bitterness.[81]
Tilting the glass and judging a wine's color against a white background is often one of the first steps in tasting a wine.[83]
Wine tasting is the sensory examination and evaluation of wine, allowing the consumer to identify faults and appreciate the product. Tasting takes place in many different settings, from casual social engagements to blind tasting examinations.[84] Tasting a wine typically involves assessing its appearance, smell, and taste.[85]
When judging a wine's appearance, faults can be apparent due to cloudiness or unexpected effervescence.[86] The color of the wine may indicate its age, with red wines becoming paler and white wines becoming darker, although color is also influenced by the grapes used. "Legs" or "tears" – lines formed on the glass after swirling – indicate high alcohol content or sweetness.[87]
A wine's "nose" (aroma) may range from neutral to pungent, and informs most of the experience of tasting a wine. Tasters often use a wide range ofdescriptors to compare wine aromas to other things, from fruits and vegetables such as pineapple and asparagus to non-consumables such as compost heaps and leather. The origin of these scents may be the grapes used, or the fermentation or maturation process.[88] When the nose includes an undesirable scent, this may indicate a fault.[89]
On the palate the taster experiences themouthfeel of the wine, including its sweetness, acidity, bitterness, tannins, and alcohol, as well as saltiness in the case ofsherry.[90] Once the wine is swallowed or spat out, the length of time the flavours remain detectable is an indicator of quality.[84]
Wine as a share of total alcohol consumption, 2016
The total global consumption of wine was in decline in the early 2010s, primarily because the French and Italians were drinking considerably less. As of 2019[update], however, this trend appears to be reversing due to an increase in popularity with younger Americans and the Chinese.[91] The 2024 global market was estimated at US$515.1 billion, with a projectedcompound annual growth rate of 7.1% between 2025 and 2030. Trends include a growing demand fororganic wine, and for higher-quality products which justify a higher price point.[92]
Wine is important in cuisine; it can be used in preparation and tenderizing, as well as a flavor agent in marinades , stocks, stews (e.g.coq au vin,beef bourguignon),[93] and sauces (e.g. inwine sauces).[94] Many desserts also contain wine, such aszabaione andtrifle. Ethanol evaporates at 78 °C (172 °F), so when wine is heated past this point it likely loses much of its alcohol content, and its acidity and sugars become more prominent. The necessary quality of cooking wine is a matter of debate, but faulty wine is not appropriate for culinary use, and the range of flavor compounds in a fine wine do not survive heating.[93]
10.6 g alcohol is 13%vol. 100 g wine is approximately 100 ml (3.4 fl oz.) Sugar and alcohol content can vary.
Some studies have shown an association between moderate wine consumption and a decrease in cardiovascular and all-cause mortality. However, alcohol consumption is also associated with an increased risk of a number of other health conditions, such as cancer.[95][96]
Thestilbeneresveratrol has showncardioprotective attributes in humans.[97] Grape skins naturally produce resveratrol in response to fungal infection, including exposure to yeast during fermentation.[98] Nevertheless, the potential harms of regular alcohol consumption are considered to outweigh any such benefits.[99]
Research byPesticide Action Network found that European wines contain large amounts ofPFAS ("forever chemicals"), particularlyTFA, which have long-term negative health consequences.[100]
Many wines improve with age; conversely, wines can reduce in quality over time by suboptimal storage conditions, such as being exposed to strong light and heat. Optimal conditions are provided bywine cellars andwine caves, as well as temperature-controlled cabinets.[101]
The ideal temperature for wine storage is 12–13 °C (54–55 °F) with a humidity of 65–70%. Lower humidity levels and temperature fluctuations can dry out or stress a cork over time, allowing oxygen to enter the bottle, which reduces the wine's quality through oxidation.[102][101] Wines with corks are typically stored horizontally to help keep the cork moist, but this is not necessary for screwcaps.[101]
Investment by buying bottles and cases of the most desirable wines became especially popular during the early 21st century, due to an increase in the global popularity of wine as well as low interest rates driving demand for alternatives which may yield higher returns. Bordeaux is especially popular for investment, due to its fame, high volume of output, longevity, and relatively simple naming system. Burgundy is also popular, with the 2016Romanée-Conti fetching £3,250 per bottle, as well as Italian wines such asBarolo,Barbaresco, and those ofTuscany.[103]
Wines may also be bought and then aged for future consumption. Most wine is intended to be drunk within a year of bottling, but top-quality wines are usually sold long before they reach their optimal drinking window, with flavors developing in the bottle over many years. Estimating the optimal time to consume a wine is impossible to do accurately, partly because it is only clear that the ideal time has passed when the quality starts to decline, but also becausebottle variation and differences in storage create differences even between wines of the same vintage and batch.[101]
People drink wine for a number of reasons, including toaid socialization, topair with food, and simply as a sensory experience.[104] Wine is increasingly viewed as a "lifestyle" product, with a concomitant interest in associated activities such aswine tourism. Producers have used an increased interest in theMediterranean diet, with wine as one of its constituent parts, to drive sales;[105] in continental western Europe, wine is considered an everyday pleasure.[106]
In London,wine bars date from the 19th century,[107] and they became popular in the 1970s in France,[108] and the 1980s in London and New York City. They have experienced a resurgence in more recent years,[109][110][111] and in Britain are often based on European cafés.[112]
Sommeliers have become increasingly prominent infine dining establishments as in-house experts, especially forwine and food pairing, with their tastes influencing the wider market as well. As consumer knowledge has improved, and with the popularity oftasting menus and experimental dishes which are difficult to pair, their public image may have become more important than their traditional role of recommending a wine to drink with a meal.[113]
This moralizing perspective became common in 17th century verse, incorporated into a theme ofmemento mori in which the vice of drinking leads imbibers to the grave.[118] Wine negatively affects severalShakespeare characters, such asCassio inOthello and the Duke of Clarence inRichard III,[119] and the works ofJohn Milton contain several negative references to wine.[120]Drinking songs, extant since antiquity, flourished in England during this period, with traveling balladeers using alcohol as inspiration as they composed and performed in the increasing number of alehouses.[121] The depiction of the "Temptation ofSt Anthony" byDavid Ryckaert III shows the saint being tempted primarily by wine, with music also featuring as a prominent temptation.[122]
In the 19th century, avant-garde paintings inspired by everyday life naturally featured wine, often as the catalyst for overindulgence and drunkenness. An example of this isManet's 1882 paintingA Bar at the Folies-Bergère, which depicts a bar and crowd at a music hall, the bar replete with Champagne.[123] Classically-inspired scenes such as thebacchanalia continued to feature in 20th century artworks by artists such asAndré Derain andPablo Picasso, tending to depict wine consumption in a more positive light.[124]
There are hundreds of examples of poetry from the 19th and 20th centuries featuring wine, notablyDon Juan byLord Byron, which "recall[s] the classicalcarpe diem philosophy ofTheognis andHorace".[125] Byron inDon Juan and his contemporaryJohn Keats in the 1817 poem "Give me women, wine and snuff" play with the centuries-old phrase "wine, women and song", which links wine to other hedonistic pleasures in ahendiatris.[126] The phrase in its original German was also used for the title of the waltzWein, Weib und Gesang byJohann Strauss II in 1869.[127] Both "Villanelle of the Poet's Road" byErnest Christopher Dowson (1899) and "A Drinking Song" byYeats (1910) combine this hedonistic attitude with a sombermemento mori theme.[125][128]
Wine features in many 21st century songs and films, and acts as the central topic of the 2004 filmSideways, whose popularity had a measurable effect on wine sales in the US.[129] Research has demonstrated that music can enhance the experience of drinking wine, an example ofcrossmodal perception,[130] and Champagne producerKrug provides pairing suggestions for music and its wines.[131]
Dionysus, the Ancient Greek god of wine, is attested from around 1200BCE, with a distinct personality becoming apparent by the eighth century BCE. Festivals in his name took place in wine-producing regions across Greece andAsia Minor in autumn or early spring, respectively when grapes were harvested or wine was released. He was one of the most frequently represented figures in classical art and literature.[132]
Bacchus was the incarnation of Dionysus in theRoman pantheon. It is unclear when his cult gained popularity, but in 186BCE theSenate forbade rites in his honor in the decreeSenatus consultum de Bacchanalibus.[133] He features on many Roman sarcophagi, appearing to represent "an agent of deliverance from earthly concerns", in a similar way to how the Greeks viewed him.[134]
Wine forms an integral part ofJewishlaws andtraditions. TheDerekh Eretz Rabbah and theTosefta detail strict rules on the drinking of wine, and excessive consumption is condemned by scripture.[135] Nevertheless, wine is approved as a medicine in theTalmud.[136] TheKiddush is a blessing recited over wine or grape juice to sanctify theShabbat, and during thePassover Seder, it is aRabbinic obligation of adults to drink four cups of wine.[137]
Wine was drunk at theLast Supper, during whichJesus used it as a metaphor for his blood – this forms a key part of theEucharist and informs theological ideas ontransubstantiation, being a key symbol ofsalvation.[138] The centrality of wine in the Eucharist led to monks growing grapes to make wine, and monasteries became important agents in wine production during theMiddle Ages.[11]
Alcoholic drinks, including wine, are forbidden under most interpretations ofIslamic law.[139] TheQur'an, cited as the root of this prohibition, portrays wine in various lights, including as an "abomination" as well as a reward ("rivers of wine") inJannah.[140] By contrast, theHadith consistently condemns wine, although it is not explicitly prohibited.[141]
^The unqualified term "wine" typically refers to grape wine;[2] wine can be made from a variety of fruit crops, collectively referred to asfruit wine.[3]
^An exception to this is the family ofteinturier varieties, which actually have red flesh.[27]
^This practise is not allowed in most controlled wine regions, althoughChampagne is a notable exception.[29]
^Red grapes may be used to make a white wine if the winemaker separates the skins from the juice quickly after pressing to minimize skin contact, and whitechampagne commonly uses red grapes in this way.[31]
^Robinson, Jancis (2003).Jancis Robinson's Wine Course: A Guide to the World of Wine (3rd ed.). Abbeville Press. pp. 96–97.ISBN978-0-7892-0883-5.OL8153962M.
^Tomé-Carneiro, J; Gonzálvez, M; Larrosa, M; Yáñez-Gascón, MJ; García-Almagro, FJ; Ruiz-Ros, JA; Tomás-Barberán, FA; García-Conesa, MT; Espín, JC (July 2013). "Resveratrol in primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease: a dietary and clinical perspective".Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.1290 (1):37–51.Bibcode:2013NYASA1290...37T.doi:10.1111/nyas.12150.PMID23855464.S2CID206223647.
^"Höga halter av miljögiftet PFAS i vin – "explosionsartad ökning"".Dagens Nyheter (in Swedish). 23 April 2025. Archived fromthe original on 23 April 2025. Retrieved29 May 2025.Vår undersökning visar på höga halter TFA i alla viner utom de allra äldsta. Före 1988 ser vi ingenting. Men efter 2020 hittar vi halter från 21 000 nanogram per liter ända upp till 320 000 nanogram. Det är skrämmande, säger Elin Engdahl. [Our research shows high levels of TFA in all but the oldest wines. Before 1988, we see nothing. But after 2020, we find levels ranging from 21,000 nanograms per liter up to 320,000 nanograms. This is scary, says Elin Engdahl.]
Mieder, Wolfgang (1989). ""Wine, Women and Song": From Martin Luther to American T-Shirts". In Oring, Elliott (ed.).Folk Groups and Folklore Genres: A Reader. Logan: Utah State University Press. pp. 279–290.
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