Keitel's rise to theWehrmacht high command began with his appointment as the head of the Armed Forces Office at theReich Ministry of War in 1935. Having taken command of theWehrmacht in 1938,Adolf Hitler replaced the ministry with the OKW and Keitel became its chief. He was reviled among his military colleagues as Hitler's habitual "yes-man".
Wilhelm Keitel was born in the village of Helmscherode nearGandersheim in theDuchy of Brunswick, Germany. He was the eldest son of Carl Keitel (1854–1934), a middle-class landowner, and his wife Apollonia Vissering (1855–1888). As a youngster his main interests were hunting and riding horses,[2] hobbies which he pursued also later in life.[3] He was also interested in farming[2] and wanted to take over his family's estates after completing his education at agymnasium. This plan failed as his father did not want to retire. Instead, he embarked on a military career in 1901, becoming an officer cadet of thePrussian Army. As a commoner, he did not join the cavalry, but a field artillery regiment inWolfenbüttel, serving asadjutant from 1908.[4] On 18 April 1909, Keitel married Lisa Fontaine, a wealthy landowner's daughter at Wülfel nearHanover.[5]
Keitel was 1.85 metres (6 feet 1 inch) tall, later described as a solidly built and square-jawed Prussian.[6]
During World War I, Keitel served on theWestern Front and took part in the fighting inFlanders, where he was severely wounded.[7] After being promoted to captain, Keitel was posted to thestaff of an infantry division in 1915.[8] After the war, Keitel was retained in the newly createdReichswehr of theWeimar Republic and played a part in organizing the paramilitaryFreikorps units on the Polish border. In 1924, Keitel was transferred to theMinistry of the Reichswehr in Berlin, serving with theTruppenamt ('Troop Office'), the post-Versailles disguisedGerman General Staff. Three years later, he returned to field command.[7]
Now a lieutenant-colonel, Keitel was again assigned to the war ministry in 1929 and was soon promoted to Head of the Organizational Department ("T-2"), a post he held until Adolf Hitler took power in 1933. Playing a vital role in theGerman rearmament, he traveled at least once to theSoviet Union to inspect secretReichswehr training camps. In the autumn of 1932, he suffered a heart attack and double pneumonia.[9] Shortly after his recovery, in October 1933, Keitel was appointed as deputy commander of the3rd Infantry Division; in 1934, he was given command of the 22nd Infantry Division at Bremen.[10]
Rise to theWehrmacht High Command
Keitel (seated far right) with Hitler in the Sudetenland in 1938.
In 1935, at the recommendation of GeneralWerner von Fritsch, Keitel was promoted to the rank of major general and appointed chief of the Reich Ministry of War's Armed Forces Office (Wehrmachtsamt), which oversaw the army, navy, and air force.[11][12] After assuming office, Keitel was promoted to lieutenant general on 1 January 1936.[13]
On 21 January 1938, Keitel received evidence revealing that the wife of his superior, War MinisterWerner von Blomberg, was a former prostitute.[14] Upon reviewing this information, Keitel suggested that the dossier be forwarded to Hitler's deputy,Hermann Göring, who used it to bring about Blomberg's resignation.[15]
Hitler took command of theWehrmacht in 1938 and replaced the war ministry with the Supreme Command of the Armed Forces (Oberkommando der Wehrmacht), with Keitel as its chief.[16] As a result of his appointment, Keitel assumed the responsibilities of Germany's war minister.[17] Although not officially appointed aReichsminister, Keitel was grantedcabinet-level rank.[18] When von Blomberg was asked by Hitler (out of respect for him, after his dismissal in 1938) who he would recommend to replace him, he had said that Hitler himself should take over the job. He told Hitler that Keitel (who was his son-in-law's father) "is just the man who runs my office". Hitler snapped his fingers and exclaimed "That's exactly the man I'm looking for". So on 4 February 1938 when Hitler becameCommander-in-Chief of theWehrmacht, Keitel (to the astonishment of the General Staff, including himself) became chief of staff.[6]
Soon after his promotion, Keitel convinced Hitler to appointWalther von Brauchitsch as Commander-in-Chief of the Army, replacing von Fritsch.[19] Keitel was promoted toGeneraloberst (Colonel General) in November 1938, and in April 1939 he was awarded theGolden Party Badge by Hitler.[20]
Criticism of capabilities
Field MarshalEwald von Kleist labelled Keitel nothing more than a "stupid follower of Hitler" because of his servile "yes man" attitude toward Hitler. His sycophancy was well known in the army, and he acquired the nickname 'Lakeitel', a pun derived fromLakai ("lackey") and his surname.[21][22] Hermann Göring's description of Keitel as having "a sergeant's mind inside a field marshal's body" was a feeling often expressed by his peers. He had been promoted because of his willingness to function as Hitler's mouthpiece.[23] He was known by his peers as a"blindingly loyal toady" of Hitler, nicknamed "Nickgeselle", after a popular metal toy nodding donkey, the "Nickesel". During the war he was subject to verbal abuse from Hitler, who said to other officers (according toGerd von Rundstedt) that "you know he has the brains of a movie usher ... (but he was made the highest ranking officer in the Army) ... because the man's as loyal as a dog" (said by Hitler with a sly smile).[24]
Keitel was predisposed to manipulation because of his limited intellect and nervous disposition; Hitler valued his diligence and obedience.[25] On one occasion,GeneralleutnantBurkhart Müller-Hillebrand [de] asked who Keitel was: upon finding out he became horrified at his own failure to salute his superior.Franz Halder, however, told him: "Don't worry, it's only Keitel".[25] German officers consistently bypassed him and went directly to Hitler.[26]
World War II
Keitel (far left) and other members of the German high command with Adolf Hitler at a military briefing, (c. 1940)
The planning forOperation Barbarossa, the 1941 invasion of the Soviet Union, was begun tentatively by Halder with the redeployment of the18th Army into an offensive position against the Soviet Union.[29] On 31 July 1940, Hitler held a major conference that included Keitel, Halder,Alfred Jodl,Erich Raeder, Brauchitsch, andHans Jeschonnek which further discussed the invasion. The participants did not object to the invasion.[30] Hitler asked for war studies to be completed[31] andGeorg Thomas was given the task of completing two studies on economic matters. The first study by Thomas detailed serious problems with fuel and rubber supplies. Keitel bluntly dismissed the problems, telling Thomas that Hitler would not want to see it. This influenced Thomas' second study which offered a glowing recommendation for the invasion based upon fabricated economic benefits.[32]
In January 1943, just before the final surrender atStalingrad, Hitler agreed to the creation of a three-man committee with representatives of the State, the Armed Forces High Command, and the Party in an attempt to centralize control of the war economy and over the home front. The committee members were Keitel, (Chief of OKW)Hans Lammers (Chief of the Reich Chancellery), andMartin Bormann (Chief of the Party Chancellery). The committee, soon known as theDreierausschuß (Committee of Three), met eleven times between January and August 1943. However, it had little autonomy, with Hitler reserving most of the final decisions to himself. In addition, it ran up against resistance from cabinet ministers, who headed deeply entrenched spheres of influence and, seeing it as a threat to their power, worked together to undermine it. The result was that nothing changed, and the Committee declined into irrelevance.[33]
Keitel signing the ratified surrender terms for the German Army in Berlin, 8 May 1945
Keitel played an important role after the failed20 July plot in 1944. He sat on the army "court of honour" that handed over many officers who were involved, including Field MarshalErwin von Witzleben, toRoland Freisler's notoriousPeople's Court. Around 7,000 people were arrested, many of whom were tortured by the Gestapo, and around 5,000 were executed.[34]
In April and May 1945, during theBattle of Berlin, Keitel called for counterattacks to drive back the Soviet forces and relieve Berlin. However, there were insufficient German forces to carry out such counterattacks. AfterHitler's suicide on 30 April, Keitel stayed on as a member of the short-livedFlensburg Government underGrand AdmiralKarl Dönitz. Upon arriving in Flensburg,Albert Speer, the Minister of Armaments and War Production, said that Keitel grovelled to Dönitz in the same way as he had done to Hitler. On 7 May 1945, Alfred Jodl, on behalf of Dönitz, signed Germany's unconditional surrender on all fronts.Joseph Stalin considered this an affront, so a second signing was arranged at the Berlin suburb ofKarlshorst on 8 May. There, Keitel signed theGerman Instrument of Surrender on 8 May 1945. Five days later on 13 May, he was arrested at the request of the United States and interned atCamp Ashcan inMondorf-les-Bains.[35] Jodl succeeded him as Chief of OKW until the final dissolution of the Flensburg Government on 23 May.
Keitel had full knowledge of the criminal nature of the planning and the subsequentinvasion of Poland, agreeing to its aims in principle.[36] The Nazi plans included mass arrests, population transfers, and mass murder. Keitel did not contest the regime's assault upon basic human rights or counter the role of theEinsatzgruppen in the murders.[36] The criminal nature of the invasion was now obvious; local commanders continued to express shock and protest over the events they were witnessing.[37] Keitel continued to ignore the protests among the officer corps while they became morally numbed to the atrocities.[36]
Keitel issued a series ofcriminal orders from April 1941.[38] The orders went beyond established codes of conduct for the military and broadly allowed the execution of Jews, civilians, and non-combatants for any reason. Those carrying out the murders were exempted from court-martial or later being tried for war crimes. The orders were signed by Keitel; however, other members of the OKW and theOKH, including Halder, wrote or changed the wording of his orders. Commanders in the field interpreted and carried out the orders.[39]
In the summer and autumn of 1941, German military lawyers unsuccessfully argued that Soviet prisoners of war should be treated in accordance with theGeneva Conventions. Keitel rebuffed them, writing: "These doubts correspond to military ideas about wars of chivalry. Our job is to suppress a way of life."[40] In September 1941, concerned that some field commanders on the Eastern Front did not exhibit sufficient harshness in implementing the May 1941 order on the "Guidelines for the Conduct of the Troops in Russia", Keitel issued a new order, writing: "[The] struggle against Bolshevism demands ruthless and energetic action especially also against the Jews, the main carriers of Bolshevism".[41] Also in September, Keitel issued an order to all commanders, not just those in the occupied Soviet Union, instructing them to use "unusual severity" to stamp out resistance. In this context, the guideline stated that execution of 50 to 100 "Communists" was an appropriate response to a loss of a German soldier.[41] Such orders and directives further radicalised the army's occupational policies and enmeshed it in thegenocide of the Jews.[42]
Plaque commemorating French victims at theHinzert concentration camp, using the expressions "Nacht und Nebel" and "NN-Deported." The inscription translates to: "No hate, but also no forgetting."
In December 1941, Hitler instructed the OKW to subject, with the exception of Denmark, Western Europe (which was under military occupation) to theNight and Fog Decree.[43] Signed by Keitel,[44] the decree made it possible for foreign nationals to be transferred to Germany for trial by special courts, or simply handed to theGestapo for deportation to concentration camps. The OKW further imposed a blackout on any information concerning the fate of the accused. At the same time, Keitel increased pressure onOtto von Stülpnagel, the military commander in France, for a more ruthless reprisal policy in the country.[43] In October 1942, Keitel signed theCommando Order that authorized the killing of enemy special operations troops even when captured in uniform.[45]
In the spring and summer of 1942, as the deportations of the Jews toextermination camps progressed, the military initially protested when it came to the Jews that laboured for the benefit of theWehrmacht. The army lost control over the matter when theSS assumed command of all Jewish forced labour in July 1942. Keitel formally endorsed the state of affairs in September, reiterating for the armed forces that "evacuation of the Jews must be carried out thoroughly and its consequences endured, despite any trouble it may cause over the next three or four months".[46]
Trial, conviction, and execution
Keitel's detention report from June 194517 October 1946 newsreel of theNuremberg trials sentencing
After the war, Keitel faced theInternational Military Tribunal (IMT), where he was examined by Chief Medical OfficerLt. Col. Rene Juchli who reported that Keitel was suffering from "high blood pressure, varicose veins, and dysentery".[47] He was indicted on all four counts before the IMT: conspiracy to commitcrimes against peace, planning, initiating and wagingwars of aggression,war crimes, andcrimes against humanity. Most of the case against him was based on his signature being present on dozens of orders that called for soldiers and political prisoners to be killed or 'disappeared'.[48] In court, Keitel admitted that he knew many of Hitler's orders were illegal.[49] His defence relied almost entirely on the argument that he was merelyfollowing orders in conformity to "the leader principle" (Führerprinzip) and hispersonal oath of loyalty to Hitler.[23]
Keitel's body after his execution, showing injuries caused from hitting his head on the trap door
The IMT rejected this defence and convicted him on all charges. Although the tribunal's charter allowed "superior orders" to be considered a mitigating factor, it found Keitel's crimes were so egregious that "there is nothing in mitigation". In its judgment against him, the IMT wrote, "Superior orders, even to a soldier, cannot be considered in mitigation where crimes as shocking and extensive have been committed consciously, ruthlessly and without military excuse or justification." It also noted several instances where he issued illegal orders on his own authority.[48]
In his statement before the Tribunal, Keitel said: "As these atrocities developed, one from the other, step by step, and without any foreknowledge of the consequences, destiny took its tragic course, with its fateful consequences."[50] To underscore the criminal rather than military nature of Keitel's acts, theAllies denied his request to be shot byfiring squad. Instead, he was executed at Nuremberg Prison byhanging.[51]
On the day of the execution, Keitel told prison chaplainHenry F. Gerecke "You have helped me more than you know. May Christ, my saviour, stand by me all the way. I shall need him so much." He then received Communion and was executed later that day.[52][53] Keitel was executed byUS ArmyMaster SergeantJohn C. Woods.[54] His last words were: "I call on God Almighty to have mercy on the German people. More than two million German soldiers went to their death for the fatherland before me. I follow now my sons – all for Germany."[55] The trap door was small, causing head injuries to Keitel and several other condemned men as they dropped.[56] Many of the executed Nazis fell from the gallows with insufficient force to snap their necks, resulting in convulsions that in Keitel's case lasted 24 minutes.[54] The corpses of Keitel and the other nine executed men were, like Hermann Göring's, cremated atOstfriedhof (Munich) and the ashes were scattered in the riverIsar.[49]
Works
Before his execution, Keitel published his memoirs, which were titled in English asIn the Service of the Reich. It was later re-edited byWalter Görlitz [de] asThe Memoirs of Field-Marshal Keitel (ISBN978-0-8154-1072-0). Another work by Keitel later published in English wasQuestionnaire on the Ardennes Offensive.[57]
^Railton, Nicholas M. "Henry Gerecke and the Saints of Nuremberg".Kirchliche Zeitgeschichte, vol. 13, no. 1, 2000, pp. 112–137. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/43750887. Accessed 8 February 2021.
Broszat, Martin (1981).The Hitler State: The Foundation and Development of the Internal Structure of the Third Reich. New York: Longman Inc.ISBN0-582-49200-9.
Burleigh, Michael (2010).Moral Combat: Good and Evil in World War II. New York and London: Harper Collins.ISBN978-0-00-719576-3.
Förster, Jürgen (1998). "Complicity or Entanglement? The Wehrmacht, the War and the Holocaust (pages 266–283)". In Michael Berenbaum & Abraham Peck (ed.).The Holocaust and History The Known, the Unknown, the Disputed and the Reexamiend. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.ISBN978-0-253-33374-2.
Goerlitz, Walter (2003). "Keitel, Jodl, and Warlimont". In Barnett, Correlli (ed.).Hitler's Generals. Grove Press. pp. 139–175.ISBN978-0802139948.
Kane, Thomas M. (2004). "Keitel, Wilhelm". In Bradford, James C. (ed.).International Encyclopedia of Military History. Routledge. pp. 707–708.ISBN978-1-135-95034-7.
Keitel, Wilhelm (1949).Questionnaire on the Ardennes offensive. Historical Division, Headquarters, United States Army, Europe.ASINB0007K46NA.
Mitcham, Samuel; Mueller, Gene (2012).Hitler's Commanders: Officers of the Wehrmacht, the Luftwaffe, the Kriegsmarine, and the Waffen-SS. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.ISBN978-1-44221-153-7.
Mitcham, Samuel W. Jr. (2001).Hitler's Field Marshals and Their Battles. New York: Cooper Square Press.ISBN0-8154-1130-8.
Mueller, Gene (1979).The Forgotten Field Marshal: Wilhelm Keitel. Durham, NC: Moore Publishing.ISBN978-0-87716-105-9.
Smith, Kingsbury (16 October 1946)."The Execution of Nazi War Criminals". Nuremberg Gaol, Germany. International News Service. Retrieved17 November 2019.
Tucker, Spencer (2005).World War II: A Student Encyclopedia. ABC Clio.ISBN1-85109-857-7.
Wheeler-Bennett, John W. (1980) [1953].Nemesis of Power: The German Army in Politics 1918–1945. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.ISBN0-333-06864-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
Wistrich, Robert (1982).Who's Who in Nazi Germany. Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc.ISBN0-02-630600-X.
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