Global aquaculture production of Whiteleg shrimp (Penaeus vannamei) in million tonnes from 1980 to 2022, as reported by theFAO[2]
Whiteleg shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei,synonymPenaeus vannamei), also known asPacific white shrimp orKing prawn or White shrimp, is a species ofprawn of the easternPacific Ocean commonly caught or farmed forfood.
Litopenaeus vannamei grows to a maximum length of 230 mm (9.1 in), with acarapace length of 90 mm (3.5 in).[3] Adults live in the ocean, at depths to 72 m (236 ft), whilejuveniles live inestuaries.[3] Therostrum is moderately long, with 7–10 teeth on the dorsal side and two to four teeth on the ventral side.[3] The global production of white shrimp had increased to approximately 5 million metric tons, with a market value reaching USD 30 billion in 2018.[4]
Whiteleg shrimp are native to the easternPacific Ocean, from theMexican state ofSonora to as far south as northernPeru.[3] It is aeuryhaline tropical shrimp species capable of growing in salinities ranging from 0 to 40‰,[5] with the optimal salinity for growth being between 15 and 25‰.[6] The optimal pH for white shrimp is approximately 7.56,[7] and dissolved oxygen levels should be maintained above 2.8 mg/L.[8] Whiteleg shrimp can grow in water temperatures ranging from 15 °C to 38 °C, with the optimal growth temperature between 22 °C and 35 °C; it is restricted to areas where the water temperatures remain above 20 °C (68 °F) throughout the year.[9]
During the 20th century,L.vannamei was an important species for Mexicaninshore fishermen, as well as fortrawlers further offshore.[3]In the late 20th century, the wild fishery was overtaken by the development ofaquaculture production; this began in 1973 inFlorida using prawns captured inPanama, that were used in hatcheries for larvae production.[9]
InLatin America, the cultivation ofL. vannamei expanded with improvements such as the availability of hatchery-produced larvae, advances in feed formulation, modernization of farming techniques, development of freezing facilities, and establishment of market distribution channels.[10] FromMexico toPeru, most countries developed large production areas in the 70s and 80s.Ecuador has become one of the world’s leading producers of whiteleg shrimp.[10]
Around the beginning of the 21st century,Asia introduced this species in their aquaculture operations (changing fromPenaeus monodon).China,Vietnam,India and others have become major packers as well.[10] The packing of shrimp from aquaculture origin has surpassed the quantity of ocean caught wild shrimp in recent years.[when?] Both wild-caught and farmed shrimp are affected by environmental conditions and disease outbreaks.[11]
By 2004, the production of white shrimp had reached 1,116,000 metric tons, surpassing that of black tiger shrimp.[12] According to statistics from theFood and Agriculture Organization (FAO), shrimp farming accounted for 18% of the total global aquaculture trade volume in 2018. In 2017, the global shrimp production was approximately 5,511,914 metric tons, with white shrimp accounting for 80% of the total production.[13]
Normally, there are peaks of production during the warmEl Niño years, and reduced production during the coolerLa Niña years. The effect is on ocean caught as well as on aquaculture origin.[citation needed]
In aquaculture, the use of antibiotics or chemical agents has been associated with environmental pollution and drug residue concerns. As a result, practices have increasingly shifted toward improving pond conditions and enhancing the immune response of white shrimp. Approaches such as water quality management, incorporation of probiotics into feed, and application of immunostimulants have been reported to be effective in reducing the risk of large-scale disease outbreaks.[19] Probiotics have been widely applied in feed and aquaculture environments to improve water quality and enhance the immunity of cultured organisms, thereby reducing disease incidence and helping prevent outbreaks.[20]
In 2010,Greenpeace International added the whiteleg shrimp to its seafood red list.This lists fish that are commonly sold in supermarkets around the world, and which have a very high risk of being sourced fromunsustainable fisheries.[21] The reasons given by Greenpeace were "destruction of vast areas ofmangroves in several countries, overfishing of juvenile shrimp from the wild to supplyshrimp farms, and significanthuman rights abuses".[21] In 2016,L.vannamei accounted for 53% of the total production of farmed crustaceans globally.[22]
Crustaceans primarily rely on non-specific immune responses,[23] which can be further categorized into cellular immune responses and humoral immune responses.[24]
Cellular immune responses[25]: cellular components include all reactions mediated directly by haemocytes, such as phagocytosis, encapsulation, and nodule formation.[26]Crustacean haemocytes are commonly classified into three distinct types: hyaline cells, semigranular cells (SGCs), and granular cells (GCs).[27] Hyaline cells, the smallest of the three haemocyte types, are agranular and function as the primary active phagocytes[25]. SGCs contain numerous small eosinophilic granules and play a key role inmicroorganism recognition, being involved inencapsulation,coagulation, and occasionalphagocytosis[25]. Granules of granular cells (GCs) contain prophenoloxidase (proPO), which is stored in an inactive form, as well as antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), protease inhibitors, and a cell adhesion/degranulating factor called peroxinectin.[28]
Humoral immune responses[25]: humoral components primarily consist of the prophenoloxidase-activating system,agglutinins, protease inhibitors, antimicrobial peptides (AMPs),phosphatases,lysozymes, clotting proteins, and reactive oxygen or nitrogen intermediates.[29] It also includes substances present in thehemolymph that recognize foreign agents and initiate immune responses, such as lipopolysaccharide- and β-1,3-glucan-binding protein (LGBP),lectins, clotting agents, andToll-like receptors.[30] Upon hemocyte lysis, lectins are released, which contribute to pathogen recognition and assist in phagocytosis and agglutination.[31]
Media related toLitopenaeus vannamei at Wikimedia Commons
