"The White Feather: A Sketch of English Recruiting" (Arnold Bennett, 1914)
TheWhite Feather Campaign was a prominent enlistment campaign andshamingritual inBritain during theFirst World War, in which women gavewhite feathers to non-enlisting men, symbolising cowardice and shaming them into signing up.
Although the campaign was unpopular among the public, often causingmental suffering andsuicides among men, it was seen as a success by the government, with figures such as Christabel Pankhurst receiving praise as well as monetary grants.
The campaign, noted for the participation of manysuffragettes and earlyfeminists in its leadership, is also interpreted as one of the reasons behind the passing of theRepresentation of the People Act, which first grantedfranchise to land-owning women.
WWI recruitment poster referring to theGerman bombardment of Scarborough, invoking the female casualties in the war in order to coax men into enlisting
At the outset of World War I,Britain relied onvoluntary enlistment. However, as the war stretched long, and Britain started running out of working-age men to death or injury, there was a shortage of troops, which prompted the government to startconscripting men in 1916, and later decreasing the age of conscription through theMilitary Service Act.[1] Britain also started recruiting teenagers, with about 250,000 minors serving with the country in WW1.[2] In August 1914, AdmiralCharles Penrose-Fitzgerald founded what became known as the "Order of the White Feather". He enlisted groups of young women to hand out white feathers – a traditional symbol of cowardice – to men in civilian attire in public places.[3][4][5] The group that he founded (with prominent members being the authorsEmma Orczy andMary Augusta Ward) was known as theWhite Feather Brigade or theOrder of the White Feather.[6] The Order and their recruiting methods quickly spread across Britain. Women of all backgrounds contributed their influence to the war effort.[7][4] These so-called"white feather girls" combed streets,trams,theatres and other public spaces, pinning feathers onto unsuspecting young men as a public rebuke for their failure to join the military.[8]
This was part of a larger shift towards propaganda drawing heavily on themes ofgender,[9] to highlight the innocent vulnerability of mothers, wives and daughters,[10][11] and to guilt men by implying they would be emasculated if they did not fight.[9]
The White Feather Movement was effective in drumming up enlistment – many men reportedly volunteered soon after being handed a feather, unable to bear the stigma. In Britain, it started to cause problems for the government whenpublic servants and men in essential occupations came under pressure to enlist. That promptedHome SecretaryReginald McKenna to issue employees in state industries withlapel badges reading "King and Country" to indicate that they were serving the war effort.
Likewise, theSilver War Badge, which was given to service personnel who had beenhonourably discharged by wounds or sickness, was first issued in September 1916 to prevent veterans from being challenged for not wearing uniform.[6] Anecdotes from the time indicate that the campaign was unpopular among soldiers, not least because soldiers who were home on leave could find themselves presented with feathers.[6]
A significant faction of Britishsuffragettes enthusiastically embraced the war effort and the White Feather Movement, viewing them as an opportunity to demonstrate women's patriotism and claim a stake in national service. Leading the pro-war charge was Emmeline Pankhurst, the famous militant suffragette and leader of theWomen's Social and Political Union (WSPU). As soon as war broke out in 1914, Emmeline and her eldest daughter Christabel Pankhurst dramatically pivoted their organisation's focus from fighting for the vote to fighting for the country.[12][8]
The British government, keen to secure the support of these influential militants, released all WSPU suffragettes fromprison in August 1914, effectively striking a bargain: the WSPU would suspend its suffrage agitation and devote its energies to recruiting men and mobilising women for war work.[12][13]Emmeline Pankhurst declared that suffragettes must now "fight for their country as they fought for the vote," telling her followers that the struggle for women's rights would be meaningless if Britain itself were defeated. The movement also received a £2,000 grant from the government toaid in campaigning.[14]
At a mass demonstration in 1915 billed as the "Women's Right to Serve" procession, Pankhurst led 30,000 women throughLondon with banners encouraging men to participate in the War.Sylvia Pankhurst later recounted that during Emmeline's recruiting tours, WSPU members "handed out white feathers to every young man they encountered wearing civilian dress"[4] According to Sylvia, WSPU enthusiasts would even appear at public meetings waving placards reading "Intern Them All" – a sign of their ultra-patriotic fervour against allegedly unpatriotic men and enemy aliens.[4] Sylvia later speculated that the WSPU's women and the unofficial white feather distributors were"one in the same."[8]
Thepsychological toll of receiving a white feather was significant. Men who were unable to enlist due to medical reasons or other exemptions faced public humiliation, leading to feelings ofemasculation anddepression. Some men even committedsuicide over being medically refused for service, instead of choosing to be publicly humiliated by women who knew nothing of their situation.[18][19] One notable case was Robert Greaves, who took his own life after receiving a white feather, despite being classified as unfit for military service due to aphysical disability.[20] A year later, a Londontaxi driver also committed suicide upon receiving a feather.[21][18] About the same time, a West Middlesex coroner examining another suicide also condemned the "white feather women" for denouncing men without inquiring into the circumstances.[22]
Some recipients of feathers were in fact serving soldiers on leave orwoundedveterans, incidents that exposed the zealotry of the campaign.[23][8] Occasionally injured veterans were mistakenly targeted, such as Reuben W. Farrow who after being aggressively asked by a woman on a tram why he would not do his duty, turned around and showed his missing hand causing her to apologise.[6] Others had completed their tour of duty, and due to the contracting of diseases such asmalaria, orpost-traumatic stress, did not seek to voluntarily reenlist.[24]
Although Admiral Fitzgerald, as well as propagandistsLord Esher andArthur Conan Doyle urged women to shun men out of uniform, and hand out feathers, the authorities frequently showed horror when women actually practised it. In a lecture exhorting girls of the Women's League of Honour to send their men to war, MajorLeonard Darwin clarified that he was "very far from admiring those women who go up to young men in the street...and abuse them for not enlisting, a proceeding which requires no courage on the woman's part, but merely a complete absence of modesty".[25][26]
On more than one occasion, white feathers were handed out toteenagers, who then lied about their age to recruiters in order to join,[27][28] or wanted to go but had family obligations.[29] In World War II, in January 1942, a 17-year-old, from a family where all other members were serving, lied about his age a year earlier and was discovered and so joined the cadets, received two feathers and committed suicide;[30] and in June 1943, an 18-year-old apprentice who was serving in the Home Guard also committed suicide after receiving a feather.[31]
PrivateNorman Demuth, who was discharged from the British Army after he had been wounded in 1916, received numerous white feathers after he returned from the Western Front. InForgotten Voices of the Great War, Demuth says:
Almost the last feather I received was on a bus. I was sitting near the door when I became aware of two women on the other side talking at me, and I thought to myself, "Oh Lord, here we go again". One lent forward and produced a feather and said, "Here's a gift for a brave soldier." I took it and said, "Thank you very much—I wanted one of those." Then I took my pipe out of my pocket and put this feather down the stem and worked it in a way I've never worked a pipe cleaner before. When it was filthy I pulled it out and said, "You know, we didn't get these in the trenches", and handed it back to her. She instinctively put out her hand and took it, so there she was sitting with this filthy pipe cleaner in her hand and all the other people on the bus began to get indignant. Then she dropped it and got up to get out, but we were nowhere near a stopping place and the bus went on quite a long way while she got well and truly barracked by the rest of the people on the bus. I sat back and laughed like mad.[32]
Perhaps the most misplaced use of a white feather was in October 1915 when one was presented to SeamanGeorge Samson, who was on his way in civilian clothes to aCarnoustie public reception being held in his honour for having been awarded theVictoria Cross for gallantry in theGallipoli campaign.[33][27] The pacifistFenner Brockway remarked he received so many white feathers that he had enough to make a fan.[34]
Around the rim of a Silver War Badge is "For King and Empire; Services Rendered"
Both in World War I and World War II there were calls for a "badge for services rendered" that could be worn by discharged soldiers.[35][36]
With World War I starting in August 1914, in Australia by November 1914 it was considered by some that the action of the "white feather brigade" was misplaced.[37][38] By June 1915 in Victoria, the "Australian Patriots' League" was formed for men who had volunteered but been rejected for service,[39] a badge was duly struck,[40][41] and by 1916, given to have a membership of 10,000 men.[42]
Nationally the "Rejected Volunteers' Association" (RVA) was established[43] about mid-1916, "for the protection of those who had volunteered but had not been accepted";[42] given to be about 40,000 men in the State of New South Wales alone. This creation was supported by theReturned Soldiers' Association.[42][43] The NSW branch of the RVA created an oval badge with "Has volunteered for active service" (although this was later changed to "For Empire"),[44] and the announcement the Commonwealth government was going to issue an official badge within two weeks was met with derision.[45][46] The RVA badge showed that the men wanted to serve.[43]
A call was made again in World War II in Australia for the creation of a badge and reinaugurate the RVA, to allow rejected volunteers to be acknowledged, and allow their services to be used on the home front.[47][48][49]
Government and media accolades soon followed for those feminist leaders who demonstrated zealous patriotism. Emmeline and Christabel Pankhurst were praised by the establishment press for their efforts to incite men into enlisting.[8] The WSPU'snewspaper was rebrandedBritannia to reflect its nationalist mission. In 1918,Christabel Pankhurst even stood for Parliament in the so-called "Khaki Election" as a candidate of the ruling coalition – and was endorsed by Prime MinisterDavid Lloyd George's government (a 'coupon' endorsement) in recognition of her wartime loyalty.[50]
Soon after the 1918Armistice, the Parliament passed theRepresentation of the People Act, which granted the vote to women over the age of 30[51] – a landmark, though partial, victory for women's suffrage. This outcome was widely interpreted as a reward for women's loyalty and contributions during the war. Politicians who had opposed women's suffrage before the war, such as formerPrime MinisterH. H. Asquith, changed their position in 1917–1918 in part because they were impressed by women's patriotic service.[8]
Rilla of Ingleside (1921), seesAnne Shirley's son, Walter Blythe, enlist in the First World War after receiving a white feather in the mail; he dies in battle.[52]
The Man Who Stayed at Home, a 1914 play byJ. E. Harold Terry and Lechmere Worrall, was renamedThe White Feather when staged in North America. The title character is a British secret agent who is falsely perceived to be a coward for his refusal to enlist.[53]
InThe Camels are Coming (1932),Biggles is handed a white feather by a woman while on leave in civilian clothes, who is later taken aback to find he is a Royal Flying Corps' leading pilot.
In the 1997 bookJingo, citizens of Ankh-Morpork are handed white feathers for not enlisting to fight in the war against Klatch.[55]
In the novelBirds of a Feather (2004), girls take it upon themselves to hand out feathers to young men not in uniform to shame them into enlisting in The Great War.[56]
In the 2015graphic novelSuffrajitsu: Mrs. Pankhurst's Amazons,Christabel Pankhurst is depicted encouraging women to hand white feathers to young men they see out of uniform. Persephone Wright heretofore a staunch supporter of Pankhurst'sVotes for Women campaigns, rejects the idea, saying "a man who's been shamed into service isn't a volunteer at all".
The Order of the White Feather was the inspiration for theWeddings Parties Anything song "Scorn of the Women", which concerns a man who is deemed medically unfit for service when he attempts to enlist, and is unjustly accused of cowardice.
In 1983,new wave bandKajagoogoo released their debut album calledWhite Feathers, whose opener was the title track, a light-hearted allegory for weak people.
In the TV seriesTo Serve Them All My Days, David Powlett-Jones, ashell-shocked officer, takes a position in a school. Suspecting a fellow teacher may be avoiding war duty, he muses, "I'd give a good deal to know whether he's really got a gammy knee", to which an acerbic colleague responds, "I suppose we couldn't get some chubby cherub to give him the white feather".
The 2000 Canadian miniseries,Anne of Green Gables: The Continuing Story, includes a scene in whichAnne Shirley's fiancé,Gilbert Blythe, receives a white feather, despite the fact he is a medical doctor and so provides an essential service at home. He eventually does enlist, and much of the plot deals with Anne searching for him when he's declared missing in action.
In the 2007 British period dramaLilies, the brother of the protagonists is discharged from the military during World War I after his boat sinks and he is one of a handful of shell-shocked survivors. Billy is given numerous white feathers for his perceived cowardice, and begins to hallucinate them choking him. This is a recurring theme throughout the series.
In the 2010 Australian filmBeneath Hill 60 about real-life soldierOliver Woodward, Woodward, before enlisting, receives several feathers to which he jokingly states, "Just a few more feathers, and I'll have a whole chicken."
InDownton Abbey, a pair of young women interrupt a benefit concert to hand out white feathers to the men who have not enlisted, before being ordered out by an angry Earl of Grantham.
In the 2021 filmThe King's Man, Conrad is given a white feather to shame him into enlisting in theBritish Army.
^abBurnham, Karyn (2014).The Courage of Cowards: The untold Stories of the First World War Conscientious Objectors. Havertown: Pen and Sword.ISBN978-1-78159-295-3.
^"Can It Be True?" editorial by "W.M." from the 3 April 1940, issue of theDaily Mirror: "Is it possible that nitwit girls are reviving the infamous "white feather" campaign of the last war? Rumours reach us from Doncaster to the effect that certain female louts are thus insulting male workers in or out of reserved occupations". Referenced29 October 2012, retrieved 29 January 2013
^"White feathers".The Daily News. Vol. XXXIV, no. 12, 742. Western Australia. 9 December 1915. p. 8. Retrieved25 April 2025 – via National Library of Australia.
^"Springwood".The Blue Mountain Echo. Vol. VI, no. 338. New South Wales, Australia. 20 August 1915. p. 6. Retrieved25 April 2025 – via National Library of Australia.
^Max Arthur,Forgotten Voices of the Great War (London: Random House, 2012). 18–22
^Glanfield, John. Bravest of the Brave (2005) pp. 110–112 Sutton PublishingISBN0-7509-3695-9
^Kilday, Anne-Marie; Nash, David S. (2017).Shame and Modernity in Britain: 1890 to the Present. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 30.ISBN978-0-2303-5933-8.
^""White Feather" Brigade".Barrier Miner. Vol. LIV, no. 16, 346. New South Wales, Australia. 17 February 1942. p. 1 (Home edition). Retrieved25 April 2025 – via National Library of Australia.
^"Rejected volunteers".The Cairns Post. No. 12, 966. Queensland, Australia. 16 September 1943. p. 4. Retrieved25 April 2025 – via National Library of Australia.
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