 | This articleneeds additional citations forverification. Please helpimprove this article byadding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Western concert flute" – news ·newspapers ·books ·scholar ·JSTOR(September 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this message) |
 | |
| Woodwind instrument | |
|---|---|
| Other names |
|
| Classification | Edge-blown aerophone |
| Hornbostel–Sachs classification | 421.121.12 (open side-blown flute with fingerholes) |
| Playing range | |
 | |
| Related instruments | |
| Flute family: | |
TheWestern concert flute can refer to the common C concertflute or to the family oftransverse (side-blown) flutes to which the C flute belongs. Almost all are made of metal or wood, or a combination of the two. A musician who plays the flute is called a “flautist” inBritish English, and a “flutist” inAmerican English.[1]
This type of flute is used in many ensembles, includingconcert bands,military bands,marching bands,orchestras,flute ensembles, and occasionally jazz combos andbig bands. Other flutes in this family include thepiccolo, thealto flute, and thebass flute. A largerepertory of works has been composed for flute.
The flute is one of the oldest and most widely used wind instruments.[2] The precursors of the modern concert flute were keyless wooden transverse flutes similar to modernfifes. These were later modified to include up to eight keys for chromatic notes.
Six-holed flutes pitched in D are the most common keyless wooden transverse flutes. They are used inIrish traditional music andhistorically informed performances of early music, includingBaroque music. During the Baroque era the traditional transverse flute was redesigned and eventually developed into the moderntraverso.
Throughout the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries, therecorder was prominent in Europe while transverse flutes were very uncommon. The transverse flute arrived in Europe from Asia via theByzantine Empire, whence it migrated to Germany and France. These became known as "German flutes" to distinguish them from others, such as the recorder.[3] The flute began to be used in court music, along with theviol, and was used insecular music in France and Germany. It would not spread to the rest of Europe for nearly a century. The first literary appearance of the transverse flute was made in 1285 byAdenet le Roi in a list of instruments he played. After this, a period of 70 years follows in which few references to the flute are found.
Beginning in the 1470s, the use of the flute in military contexts (the Swiss army used flutes for signalling, for example) led to its spread through Europe.[4] In the late 16th century, flutes began to appear in court and theatre music (in predecessors of the modern orchestra), and the first flute solos were seen.
After this flutes began appearing inchamber ensembles, often as thetenor voice, although flutes varied greatly in size and range. This madetransposition necessary, which led flautists to use Guidonianhexachords (used by singers and other musicians since their introduction in the 11th century) to transpose music more easily.[5]
During the 16th and early 17th centuries in Europe, the transverse flute was made in several sizes, in effect forming aconsort, similarly to how recorders and other instruments were used. The transverse flute was usually made in one section (or two for the larger sizes) and had a cylindrical bore. As a result, this flute had a rather soft sound and was used primarily in the "soft consort".
During theBaroque period, the transverse flute was redesigned. Now often called thetraverso (from the Italian), it was made in three or four sections or joints (the head, upper-body, lower-body and foot joint)[6] and made with a conical bore from the head joint down.[6] The conical bore gave the flute a wider range and more penetrating sound without sacrificing its softer, expressive qualities.[6] The head joint of the traverso contains one embouchure hole across which air is blown, and the two body pieces (upper and lower) each contain three equally sized finger holes. There is one key on the baroque flute. It is on the foot joint and was usually made out of metal.[6] The traverso was made with a variety of materials including wood (most often boxwood), ivory, and metal.[7] While very few flutes remain from theRenaissance andMedieval eras, many Baroque flutes have been preserved.[7]
While the flute was mostly used in ensembles and group performances during the Renaissance and Medieval eras, Baroque era composers began to write more music for the flute inoperas,ballets, andchamber music. The traverso also began to take on the role ofsoloist.[8] The first written work for the solo traverso was a piece written byMichael de la Barre entitled “Pièces pour la flute traversiere avec la basse-continue” in 1702.[9] Other notable baroque flute composers includePraetorius,Schütz,Rebillé,Quantz,J.S Bach,Telemann,Blavet,Vivaldi,Hotteterre,Handel andFrederick the Great.[10] Several books studying the Baroque flute were published during this time. In 1707,Jacques Martin Hotteterre wrote the first method book on playing the flute:Principes de la flûte traversière.[11] The 1730s saw an increase in the use of the flute in opera and chamber music, andQuantz published hisEssay of a Method of Playing the Transverse Flute near the end of this era.[12]
The Baroque flute requires less airflow than the modern flute and produces much softer, mellower sounds, often blending in with other instruments in the orchestra.[12] The baroque flute also requires the player to adjust the intonation more than modern flutes. Additional adjustments are needed when playing notes outside of theD major scale. The flutist can change pitch through small adjustments in the mouth and by turning the flute towards or away from the player.[12]
Flutes began to lose favor in the earlyRomantic era as symphony orchestras tended to featurebrass andstrings.[6] The 21st century has seen a rise in the popularity of the Baroque flute, by flutistBarthold Kuijken and others such asFrans Bruggen,Emi Ferguson, andPeter Holtslag.[13]
In the nineteenth century, the great flautist, composer, acoustician, and silversmithTheobald Boehm began to make flutes. Keys were added to the flute, and the taper was changed to strengthen its lower register.[14] The dimensions and key system of the modern western concert flute and its close relatives are strongly influenced by Boehm's design, which he patented in 1847. Minor additions to and variations on his key system are common, but the acoustical structure of the tube remains almost exactly as he designed it. Major innovations were the change from wood to metal, a large straight bore, a "parabolic" tapered headjoint bore, very large tone holes covered by keys, and the linked key system, which simplified fingering. The most substantial departures from Boehm's original description are the universal elimination of the "crutch" for the left hand and almost universal adoption of Briccialdi's thumb key mechanism and a closed-standing G♯ key over an additional G♯ tone hole.[15] Boehm'skey system, with minor variations, remains regarded as the most effective system of any modern woodwind, allowing trained instrumentalists to perform with facility in all keys. The modern flute has threeoctaves plus C7–C♯7–D7 in the fourth octave. Many modern composers used the high D♯7. While such extremes are not common, the modern flute can produce even higher notes.
The Meyer flute was a popular flute in the mid 19th century. Including and derived from the instruments built by H.F. Meyer from 1850 to the late 1890s, it could have up to 12 keys and was built with head joints of either metal-lined ivory or wood. The final form was a combination of a traditional keyed flute and the Viennese flute, and became the most common throughout Europe andAmerica. This form had 12 keys, a body of wood, a head joint of metal and ivory, and was common at the end of the century.[16]
Quite at the opposite end of the spectrum, in terms of the complexity of the key system developed by Boehm, was theGiorgi flute, an advanced form of the ancient holed flute. Patented in 1897, the Giorgi flute was designed without any mechanical keys, though the patent allows for the addition of keys as options. Giorgi enabled the performer to play equally true in all musical keys, as does the Boehm system. Giorgi flutes are now rarities, found in museums and private collections. The underlying principles of both flute patterns are virtually identical, with tone holes spaced as required to produce a fully chromatic scale. The player, by opening and closing holes, adjusts the effective length of the tube, and thus the rate of oscillation, which defines the audible pitch.
In the 1950s,Albert Cooper modified the Boehm flute to make playing modern music easier. The flute was tuned to A440, and theembouchure hole was cut in a new way to change thetimbre. These flutes became the most used flutes by professionals and amateurs.[17]
In the 1980s,Johan Brögger modified the Boehm flute by fixing two major problems that had existed for nearly 150 years: maladjustment between certain keys and problems between the G and B♭ keys. The result was non-rotating shafts, which gave a quieter sound and less friction on moving parts. Also, the modifications allowed for springs to be adjusted individually, and the flute was strengthened. The Brögger flute is only made by theBrannen Brothers[18] and Miyazawa Flutes.[19]
The flute is a transverse (or side-blown) woodwind instrument that is closed at the blown end. It is played by blowing a stream of air over theembouchure hole. The pitch is changed by opening or closing keys that cover circulartone holes (there are typically 16 tone holes). Opening and closing the holes produces higher and lower pitches. Higher pitches can also be achieved through over-blowing, like most other woodwind instruments. The direction and intensity of the airstream also affects the pitch, timbre, and dynamics.
Thepiccolo is also commonly used in Western orchestras and bands.Alto flutes, pitched a fourth below the standard flute, andbass flutes, an octave below, are also used occasionally.
The standard concert flute, also calledC flute,Boehm flute,silver flute, or simplyflute, is pitched in C and has a potential range of three and a half octaves starting from the note C4 (middle C). The flute's highest pitch is usually given as C7 or (in more modern flute literature) D7. More experienced flautists are able to reach up to F♯7, but notes above D7 are difficult to produce. Modern flutes may have a longer foot joint, aB-footjoint, with an extra key to reach B3.
From high to low, themembers of the concert flute family include the following:
Each of the above instruments has its own range. The piccolo reads music in C (like the standard flute), but sounds one octave higher. The alto flute is in the key of G, and the low register extends to the G below middle C; its highest note is a high G (4ledger lines above the treble staff). The bass flute is an octave lower than the concert flute, and the contrabass flute is an octave lower than the bass flute.
Less commonly seen flutes include the treble flute in G, pitched one octave higher than the alto flute; soprano flute, between the treble and concert; and tenor flute or flûte d'amour in B♭, A or A♭[citation needed] pitched between the concert and alto.
Flutes pitched lower than the bass flute were developed in the 20th century. These include thecontra-alto flute (pitched in G, one octave below the alto), thesubcontrabass flute (pitched in G, two octaves below the alto), and thedouble contrabass flute (pitched in C, one octave below the contrabass). The flute sizes other than the concert flute and piccolo are sometimes calledharmony flutes.
Concert flutes have three parts: theheadjoint,body, andfoot joint.[20] The headjoint is sealed by a cork (or plug that may be made out of various plastics, metals, or less commonly woods). It is possible to make fine adjustments to tuning by adjusting the headjoint cork, but usually it is left in the factory-recommended position around 17.3 mm (0.68 in) from the centre of theembouchure hole for best scale. Gross, temporary adjustments of pitch are made by moving the headjoint in and out of the headjoint tenon. The flautist makes fine or rapid adjustments of pitch and timbre by adjusting theembouchure and/or position of the flute in relation to himself or herself, i.e., side and out.
The head-joint tube is tapered slightly towards the closed end. Theobald Boehm described the shape of the taper as parabolic. Examination of his flutes did not reveal a true parabolic curve, but the taper is more complex than a truncated cone. The head joint is the most difficult part to construct because the lip plate and tone hole have critical dimensions, edges, and angles that vary slightly between manufacturers and in individual flutes, especially where they are handmade.
Head joint geometry appears particularly critical to acoustic performance and tone,[22] but there is no clear consensus on a particular shape amongst manufacturers. Acoustic impedance of theembouchure hole appears to be the most critical parameter.[23] Critical variables affecting this acoustic impedance include: chimney length (the hole between lip-plate and head tube), chimney diameter, and radiuses or curvature of the ends of the chimney. Generally, the shorter the hole, the more quickly a flute can be played; the longer the hole, the more complex the tone. Finding a particularly good example of a flute is dependent on play-testing. Head joint upgrades are usually suggested as a way to improve the tone of an instrument.
Cheaper student models may be purchased with a curved head to allow younger children with shorter arms to play them.[24]
Less expensive flutes are usually constructed ofbrass,polished and then silver-plated andlacquered to preventcorrosion, or silver-platednickel silver (nickel-bronzebell metal, 63%Cu, 29%Zn, 5.5%Ni, 1.25%Ag, .75%Pb, alloyedAs,Sb,Fe,Sn). Flutes that are more expensive are usually made of more precious metals, most commonly solidsterling silver (92.5% silver), and other alloys including French silver (95% silver, 5% copper), "coin silver" (90% silver), orBritannia silver (95.8% silver). It is reported[25] that old Louis Lot French flutes have a particular sound by nature of their specific silver alloy. Gold/silver flutes are even more expensive. They can be either gold on the inside and silver on the outside, or vice versa. All-gold and all-platinum flutes also exist. Flutes can also be made out of wood, with African blackwood (grenadilla orDalbergia melanoxylon) being the most common today.Cocuswood was formerly used, but this is hard to obtain today.[26] Wooden flutes were far more common before the early 20th century. The silver flute was introduced by Boehm in 1847, but did not become common until later in the 20th century.William S. Haynes, a flute manufacturer in Boston, Massachusetts, United States, toldGeorges Barrère that in 1905 he made one silver flute to every 100 wooden flutes, but in the 1930s, he made one wooden flute to every 100 silver flutes.[27]
Unusual tubing materials includeglass,carbon fiber, andpalladium.[28]: 20
Opinions on how different materials affect sound quality vary widely. Flute makerVerne Q. Powell stated that "As far as tone is concerned, I contend that 90 percent of it is the man behind the flute".[29]
Most metal flutes are made of alloys that contain significant amounts of copper or silver. These alloys are biostatic because of theoligodynamic effect and thus suppress growth of unpleasantmolds, fungi, and bacteria.
Good quality flutes are designed to prevent or reducegalvanic corrosion between the tube and key mechanism.[citation needed]
Tone holes are stopped by pads constructed of fish skin (gold-beater's skin) over felt, or sometimes silicone rubber on some low-cost or "ruggedized" flutes. Accurate shimming of pads on professional flutes to ensure pad sealing is very time consuming. In the traditional method, pads are seated on paper shims sealed withshellac. A recent development is "precision" pads fitted by a factory-trained technician. Student flutes are more likely to have pads bedded in thicker materials like wax or hot-melt glue. Larger-sized closed-hole pads are also held in with screws and washers.
The keys can be made of the same or different metals as the tubing, nickel silver keys with silver tubing, for example. Flute key axles (or "steels") are typically made of drill rod or stainless steel. These mechanisms need periodic disassembly, cleaning, and relubrication, typically performed by a trained technician, for optimal performance. James Phelan, a flute maker and engineer, recommends single-weight motor oil (SAE 20 or 30) as a key lubricant demonstrating superior performance and reduced wear, in preference to commercial key oils).[30]
The keywork is constructed by lost-wax castings and machining, with mounting posts and ribs silver-soldered to the tube. On the best flutes, the castings are forged to increase their strength.
Most keys have needle springs made ofphosphor bronze,stainless steel,berylliumcopper, or agold alloy. The B thumb keys typically have flat springs. Phosphor bronze is by far the most common material for needle springs because it is relatively inexpensive, makes a good spring, and is resistant to corrosion. Unfortunately, it is prone to metal fatigue. Stainless steel also makes a good spring and is resistant to corrosion. Gold springs are found mostly in high-end flutes because of gold's cost.[citation needed]
An early version ofAntonio Vivaldi'sLa tempesta di mare flute concerto was possibly written around 1713–1716, and would thus have been the first concerto for the instrument, as well as the earliest scoring of a high F6, a problematic note for the Baroque flute of that period.[38]
Flutes were rarely used in earlyjazz. Drummer and bandleaderChick Webb was among the first to use flutes in jazz, beginning in the late 1930s.Frank Wess was among the first noteworthy flautists in jazz, in the 1940s.[39][better source needed] Since Theobald Boehm's fingering is used in saxophones as well as in concert flutes, many flute players "double" on saxophone for jazz and small ensembles and vice versa.
Since 1950, a number of notable performers have used flutes in jazz.Frank Foster andFrank Wess (Basie band),Jerome Richardson (Jones/Lewis big band) andLew Tabackin (Akiyoshi/Tabackin big band) used flutes in big band contexts. In small band contexts, notable performers includedBud Shank,Herbie Mann,Yusef Lateef,Mélanie De Biasio,Joe Farrell,Rahsaan Roland Kirk,Charles Lloyd,Hubert Laws andMoe Koffman. Severalmodal jazz andavant-garde jazz performers have utilized the flute includingEric Dolphy,Sam Rivers andJames Spaulding.
Jethro Tull is probably the best-known rock group to make regular use of the flute, which is played by its frontman,Ian Anderson.[40] An alto flute is briefly heard inThe Beatles song "You've Got to Hide Your Love Away", played by John Scott. The Beatles would later feature a flute more prominently in their single "Penny Lane".
Other groups that have used the flute in pop and rock songs includeThe Moody Blues,Chicago, Australian groupsMen at Work andKing Gizzard & the Lizard Wizard, the Canadianprogressive rock groupHarmonium, Dutch bandsFocus and earlyGolden Earring, and the British groupsTraffic,Genesis,Gong (although its flautist/saxophonistDidier Malherbe was French),Hawkwind,King Crimson,Camel, andVan der Graaf Generator.
American singerLizzo is also well known for playing the flute. Her instrument is named Sasha Flute, which has its ownInstagram account.[41]
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link){{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link){{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link){{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link){{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link){{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)CS1 maint: publisher location (link){{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
| International | |
|---|---|
| National | |
| Other | |
