^ Whilst the deposition of EmperorRomulus Augustulus in 476 is the most commonly cited end date for the Western Roman Empire, the last Western Roman emperorJulius Nepos, was assassinated in 480, when the title and notion of a separate Western Empire were abolished. Another suggested end date is the reorganization of the Italian peninsula and abolition of separate Western Roman administrative institutions under EmperorJustinian during the latter half of the 6th century.
In modernhistoriography, theWestern Roman Empire were theRoman Empire's western provinces, collectively, during any period in which they were administered separately from theeastern provinces by a separate, independent imperial court. Particularly during the period from AD 395 to 476, there were separate, coequal courts dividing the governance of the empire into the Western provinces and the Eastern provinces with a distinctimperial succession in the separate courts. The terms Western Roman Empire andEastern Roman Empire were coined in modern times to describe political entities that werede facto independent; contemporaryRomans did not consider the Empire to have been split into two empires but viewed it as a singlepolity governed by two imperial courts for administrative expediency. The Western Empire collapsed in 476, and the Western imperial court inRavenna disappeared by 554, at the end ofJustinian'sGothic War.
Though there were periods with more than one emperor ruling jointly before, the view that it was impossible for a single emperor to govern the entire Empire wasinstitutionalized by emperorDiocletian following the disastrous civil wars and disintegrations of theCrisis of the Third Century. He introduced the system of theTetrarchy in 286, with two senior emperors titledAugustus, one in the East and one in the West, each with an appointed subordinate and heir titledCaesar. Though the tetrarchic system would collapse in a matter of years, the East–West administrative division would endure in one form or another over the coming centuries. As such, the unofficial Western Roman Empire would exist intermittently in several periods between the 3rd and 5th centuries. Some emperors, such asConstantine I andTheodosius I, governed, if briefly, as the soleAugustus across the Roman Empire. On the death of Theodosius in 395, the empire was divided between his two infant sons, withHonorius as his successor in the West governing briefly fromMediolanum then fromRavenna, andArcadius as his successor in the East governing fromConstantinople.
In 476, after theBattle of Ravenna, the Roman army in the West suffered defeat at the hands ofOdoacer and his Germanicfoederati. Odoacer forced theabdication of the emperorRomulus Augustulus and became the firstKing of Italy. In 480, following the assassination of the previous Western emperorJulius Nepos, the Eastern emperorZeno dissolved the Western court and proclaimed himself the sole emperor of the Roman Empire. The date of 476 was popularised by the 18th-century British historianEdward Gibbon as a demarcating event for thefall of the Western Roman Empire and is sometimes used to mark the transition fromAntiquity to theMiddle Ages. Odoacer's Italy and otherbarbarian kingdoms, many of them representing former Western Roman allies that had been granted lands in return for military assistance, would maintain a pretense of Roman continuity through the continued use of the old Roman administrative systems and nominal subservience to the Eastern Roman court.
In the 6th century, EmperorJustinian I re-imposed direct Imperial rule on large parts of the former Western Roman Empire, including the prosperous regions ofNorth Africa, the ancient Roman heartland ofItaly and parts ofHispania. Political instability in the Eastern heartlands, combined with foreign invasions, plague, and religious differences, made efforts to retain control of these territories difficult and they were gradually lost for good. Though the Eastern Empire retained territories in the south of Italy until the eleventh century, the influence that the Empire had overWestern Europe had diminished significantly. Thepapal coronation of theFrankish kingCharlemagne asRoman Emperor in 800 marked a new imperial line that would evolve into theHoly Roman Empire, which presented a revival of the Imperial title in Western Europe but was in no meaningful sense an extension of Roman traditions or institutions. TheGreat Schism of 1054 between the churches ofRome andConstantinople further diminished any authority the emperor in Constantinople could hope to exert in the West.
As theRoman Republic expanded, it reached a point where the central government in Rome could not effectively rule the distant provinces. Communications and transportation were especially problematic given the vast extent of the Empire. News of invasion, revolt, natural disasters, or epidemic outbreak was carried by ship ormounted postal service, often requiring much time to reach Rome and for Rome's orders to be returned and acted upon. Therefore, provincialgovernors hadde facto autonomy in the name of the Roman Republic. Governors had several duties, including the command of armies, handling the taxes of the province and serving as the province's chief houses.[4]
Octavian obtained the Roman provinces of the West:Italia (modern Italy),Gaul (modern France),Gallia Belgica (parts of modern Belgium, the Netherlands andLuxembourg), andHispania (modern Spain and Portugal).[5] These lands also included Greek and Carthaginian colonies in the coastal areas, thoughCeltic tribes such asGauls andCeltiberians were culturally dominant. Lepidus received the minor province ofAfrica (roughly modernTunisia). Octavian soon took Africa from Lepidus, while addingSicilia (modernSicily) to his holdings.[7]
Upon thedefeat of Mark Antony, a victorious Octavian controlled a unitedRoman Empire. The Empire featured many distinct cultures; all experienced a gradualRomanization.[8] While the predominantly Greek culture of the East and the predominantly Latin culture of the West functioned effectively as an integrated whole, political and military developments would ultimately realign the Empire along those cultural and linguistic lines. More often than not, Greek and Latin practices (and to some extent the languages themselves) would be combined in fields such ashistory (e.g., those byCato the Elder),philosophy andrhetoric.[9][10][11]
Minor rebellions and uprisings were fairly common events throughout the Empire. Conquered tribes or oppressed cities would revolt and thelegions would be detached to crush the rebellion. While this process was simple in peacetime, it could be considerably more complicated in wartime. In a full-blownmilitary campaign, the legions were far more numerous – as, for example, those led byVespasian in theFirst Jewish–Roman War. To ensure a commander's loyalty, a pragmatic emperor might hold some members of the general's familyhostage. To this end,Nero effectively heldDomitian andQuintus Petillius Cerialis, Governor ofOstia, who were respectively the younger son and brother-in-law of Vespasian. Nero's rule was ended by a revolt of thePraetorian Guard, who had been bribed in the name ofGalba. The Praetorian Guard, a figurative "sword ofDamocles", was often perceived as being of dubious loyalty, primarily due its role in court intrigues and in overthrowing several emperors, includingPertinax andAurelian.[13][14] Following their example, the legions at the borders increasingly participated incivil wars. For instance, legions stationed inEgypt and the eastern provinces would see significant participation in thecivil war of 218 between EmperorMacrinus andElagabalus.[15]
As the Empire expanded, two key frontiers revealed themselves. In the West, behind the riversRhine andDanube, Germanic tribes were an important enemy. Augustus, the first emperor, had tried to conquer them but had pulled back after the disastrousBattle of the Teutoburg Forest.[16] Whilst the Germanic tribes were formidable foes, theParthian Empire in the East presented the greatest threat to the Empire. The Parthians were too remote and powerful to be conquered and there was a constant Parthian threat of invasion. The Parthians repelled several Roman invasions, and even after successful wars of conquest, such as those implemented byTrajan orSeptimius Severus, the conquered territories were forsaken in attempts to ensure a lasting peace with the Parthians. The Parthian Empire would be succeeded by the Sasanian Empire, whichcontinued hostilities with the Roman Empire.[17]
Controlling the western border of Rome was reasonably easy because it was relatively close to Rome itself and also because of the disunity among the Germans. However, controlling both frontiers simultaneously during wartime was difficult. If the emperor was near the border in the East, the chances were high that an ambitious general would rebel in the West and vice versa. This wartime opportunism plagued many ruling emperors and indeed paved the road to power for several future emperors. By the time of theCrisis of the Third Century, usurpation became a common method of succession:Philip the Arab,Trebonianus Gallus andAemilianus were all usurping generals-turned-emperors whose rule would end with usurpation by another powerful general.[18][19][20]
The idea of co-emperorship was first tested byMarcus Aurelius (r. 161–180), who decided to rule alongside his adoptive brotherLucius Verus. There was, however, much precedent. Theconsulate of theRepublic was a twin magistracy, and earlier emperors had often had a subordinate lieutenant with many imperial offices. Many emperors had planned a joint succession in the past—Augustus planned to leaveGaius andLucius Caesar as joint emperors on his death; Tiberius wished to haveCaligula andTiberius Gemellus do so as well; asClaudius withNero andBritannicus. All of these arrangements had ended in failure, either through premature death (Gaius and Lucius) or murder (Gemellus and Britannicus).[21] Marcus Aurelius ruled mostly from the West, while Verus spent most of his reign campaigning in the East,against Parthia. Verus accompanied Marcus at the start of theMarcomannic Wars, but died shortly after. Decades later,Septimius Severus (r. 193–211) appointed his sonsGeta andCaracalla as joint heirs. However, Caracalla murdered his brother shortly after succeeding to the throne.
With the assassination of the emperorAlexander Severus in March 235 by his own troops, the Roman Empire sank into a 50-year period of civil war now known as the Crisis of the Third Century. During this period, the Empire saw the combined pressures of barbarian invasions and migrations into Roman territory, civil wars, peasant rebellions and political instability, with multiple usurpers competing for power. The idea of dividing the empire was first developed in this time;Valerian and his sonGallienus divided the empire between them, the former ruling from the East and the latter from the West. However, Valerian was captured by theSassanids at theBattle of Edessa, leaving Gallienus as sole emperor.[22]
Saloninus, Gallienus' infant son, and thepraetorian prefect Silvanus resided inColonia Agrippina (modernCologne) to solidify the loyalty of the local legions. Nevertheless,Postumus – the local governor of the German provinces – rebelled, and his assault on Colonia Agrippina resulted in the deaths of Saloninus and the prefect. In the confusion that followed, an independent state known in modern historiography as theGallic Empire emerged.[23]
Its capital was Augusta Treverorum (modernTrier), and it quickly expanded its control over the German and Gaulish provinces, all of Hispania andBritannia. It had its ownsenate, and a partial list of itsconsuls still survives. It maintained Roman religion, language, and culture, and was far more concerned with fighting theGermanic tribes, fending off Germanic incursions and restoring the security the Gallic provinces had enjoyed in the past, than in challenging the Roman central government.[24]
In the reign ofClaudius Gothicus (268–270), large expanses of the Gallic Empire were restored to Roman rule. At roughly the same time, however, several eastern provinces seceded to form thePalmyrene Empire, under the rule of QueenZenobia.[25]
In 272, Emperor Aurelian finally managed to reclaim Palmyra and its territory for the empire. With the East secure, his attention turned to the West, invading the Gallic Empire a year later. Aurelian decisively defeatedTetricus I in theBattle of Châlons, and soon captured Tetricus and his sonTetricus II. Both Zenobia and the Tetrici were pardoned, although they were first paraded in a triumph.[26][27]
Diocletian divided the Roman Empire when, in 286, he elevatedMaximian to the rank ofAugustus (emperor) and gave him control of the Western Empire, while he continued to rule the East.[28][29][30] In 293,Galerius andConstantius Chlorus were appointed as their subordinate (caesars), as a way to avoid the civil unrest that had marked the 3rd century. This system effectively divided the Empire into four major regions, theFirst Tetrarchy: in the West, Maximian madeMediolanum (nowMilan) his capital, and Constantius made Trier his. In the East, Galerius made his capitalSirmium and Diocletian madeNicomedia his. On 1 May 305, Diocletian and Maximian abdicated, replaced by Galerius and Constantius, who, in turn, appointedMaximinus II andValerius Severus, respectively, as their caesars, thus creating theSecond Tetrarchy.[31]
The Tetrarchy collapsed after the unexpected death of Constantius in 306.His son,Constantine, was declared Western emperor by the British legions,[32][33][34][35] but several other claimants arose and attempted to seize the Western Empire. In 308, Galerius revived the Tetrarchy by dividing the Western Empire between Constantine andLicinius.[36] However, Constantine was more interested in conquering the whole empire so, by 314, began to compete against Licinius, finally defeating him in 324 at theBattle of Chrysopolis.[37] After Constantine unified the empire, he refounded the city ofByzantium in modern-day Turkey asNova Roma ("New Rome"), later calledConstantinople, and made it the capital of the Roman Empire.[38] Although the Tetrarchy was ended, the concept of physically dividing the Roman Empire into East and a West continued, as happened after the deaths of Constantine andTheodosius I.[39][40]
Division of the Empire among theCaesars appointed byConstantine I: from west to east, the territories ofConstantine II,Constans I,Dalmatius andConstantius II. After the death of Constantine I (337), this was the formal division of the Empire, untilDalmatius was killed and his territory divided between Constans and Constantius.
The Roman Empire was under the rule of a single emperor, but, with the death of Constantine in 337, the empire was partitioned between his surviving male heirs.[39]Constantius, his third son and the second by his wifeFausta (Maximian's daughter)[41] received the eastern provinces, including Constantinople,Thrace,Asia Minor,Syria,Egypt, and Cyrenaica;Constantine II received Britannia,Gaul, Hispania, andMauretania; andConstans, initially under the supervision of Constantine II, receivedItaly, Africa,Illyricum, Pannonia,Macedonia, andAchaea. The provinces of Thrace, Achaea and Macedonia were shortly controlled byDalmatius, nephew of Constantine I and acaesar, not anAugustus, until his murder by his own soldiers in 337.[42] The West was unified in 340 under Constans, who was assassinated in 350 under the order of theusurperMagnentius. After Magnentius lost theBattle of Mursa Major and committed suicide, a complete reunification of the whole Empire occurred under Constantius in 353.[41]
Constantius II focused most of his power in the East. Under his rule, the city of Byzantium – only recently re-founded as Constantinople – was fully developed as a capital. At Constantinople, the political, economic and military control of the Eastern Empire's resources would remain safe for centuries to come. The city was well fortified and located at the crossroads of several major trade and military routes. The site had been acknowledged for its strategic importance already by emperors Septimius Severus andCaracalla, more than a century prior.[43]
In 361, Constantius II became ill and died, and Constantius Chlorus' grandsonJulian, who had served as Constantius II's Caesar, assumed power. Julian was killed in 363 in theBattle of Samarra against theSasanian Empire and was succeeded byJovian, who ruled for only nine months.[44] Following the death of Jovian,Valentinian I emerged as emperor in 364. He immediately divided the Empire once again, giving the eastern half to his brotherValens. Stability was not achieved for long in either half, as the conflicts with outside forces (barbarian tribes) intensified. In 376, theVisigoths, fleeing before theOstrogoths, who in turn were fleeing before theHuns, were allowed to cross the river Danube and settle in the Balkans by the Eastern government. Mistreatment caused a full-scale rebellion, and in 378 they inflicted a crippling defeat on the Eastern Roman field army in theBattle of Adrianople, in which Emperor Valens also died. The defeat at Adrianople was shocking to the Romans, and forced them to negotiate with and settle the Visigoths within the borders of the Empire, where they would become semi-independentfoederati under their own leaders.[45]
More than in the East, there was also opposition to the Christianizing policy of the emperors in the western part of the Empire. In 379, Valentinian I's son and successorGratian declined to wear the mantle ofPontifex Maximus, and in 382 he rescinded the rights of pagan priests and removed theAltar of Victory from theRoman Curia, a decision which caused dissatisfaction among the traditionally pagan aristocracy of Rome.[46] The political situation was unstable. In 383, a powerful and popular general namedMagnus Maximus seized power in the West and forced Gratian's half-brotherValentinian II to flee to the East for aid; in a destructive civil war the Eastern emperor Theodosius I restored him to power.[47] In 392, theFrankish and paganmagister militumArbogast assassinated Valentinian II and proclaimed an obscure senator namedEugenius as emperor. In 394 the forces of the two halves of the Empire againclashed with great loss of life. Again Theodosius I won, and he briefly ruled a united Empire until his death in 395. He was the last emperor to rule both parts of the Roman Empire before the West fragmented and collapsed.[40]
The administrative divisions of the Roman Empire in 395
Theodosius I's older sonArcadius inherited the eastern half while the youngerHonorius got the western half. Both were still minors and neither was capable of ruling effectively. Honorius was placed under the tutelage of the half-Roman/half-barbarianmagister militumFlavius Stilicho,[48] whileRufinus became the power behind the throne in the east. Rufinus and Stilicho were rivals, and their disagreements would be exploited by the Gothic leaderAlaric I who again rebelled in 408 following the massacre by Roman legions of thousands of barbarian families who were trying to assimilate into the Roman empire.[49]
Neither half of the Empire could raise forces sufficient even to subdue Alaric's men, and both tried to use Alaric against the other half. Alaric himself tried to establish a long-term territorial and official base, but was never able to do so. Stilicho tried to defend Italy and bring the invading Goths under control, but to do so he stripped the Rhine frontier of troops and theVandals,Alans, andSueviinvaded Gaul in large numbers in 406. Stilicho became a victim of court intrigues and was killed in 408. While the East began a slow recovery and consolidation, the West began to collapse entirely. Alaric's mensacked Rome in 410.[50]
Honorius, the younger son of Theodosius I, was declaredAugustus (and as such co-emperor with his father) on 23 January in 393, at the age of 9. Upon the death of Theodosius, Honorius inherited the throne of the West at the age of ten whilst his older brother Arcadius inherited the East. The western capital was initially Mediolanum, as it had been during previous divisions, but it was moved toRavenna in 401 upon the entry of the Visigothic king Alaric I into Italy. Ravenna, protected by abundant marshes and strong fortifications, was far easier to defend and had easy access to the imperial fleet of the Eastern Empire but made it more difficult for the Roman military to defend the central parts of Italy from regular barbarian incursions.[51] Ravenna would remain the western capital until 450 whenValentinian III moved the court back to Rome. Most western emperors from 450 until 475 reigned from Rome. The last de facto western emperorRomulus Augustulus resided in Ravenna from 475 until his deposition in 476 and Ravenna would later be the capital of both theOstrogothic Kingdom and theExarchate of Ravenna.[52][53]
Despite the moved capital, economic power remained focused on Rome and its rich senatorial aristocracy which dominated much of Italy and Africa in particular. After EmperorGallienus had banned senators from army commands in the mid-3rd century, the senatorial elite lost all experience of – and interest in – military life.[54] In the early 5th century the wealthy landowning elite of the Roman Senate largely barred its tenants from military service, but it also refused to approve sufficient funding for maintaining a sufficiently powerful mercenary army to defend the entire Western Empire. The West's most important military area had been northern Gaul and the Rhine frontier in the 4th century, when Trier frequently served as a military capital of sorts for the Empire. Many leading Western generals werebarbarians.[55]
The reign of Honorius was, even by Western Roman standards, chaotic and plagued by both internal and external struggles. The Visigothicfoederati under Alaric,magister militum inIllyricum, rebelled in 395.Gildo, theComes Africae andMagister utriusque militiae per Africam, rebelled in 397 and initiated theGildonic War. Stilicho managed to subdue Gildo but was campaigning inRaetia when the Visigoths entered Italy in 402.[56] Stilicho, hurrying back to aid in defending Italy, summoned legions in Gaul and Britain with which he managed to defeat Alaric twice before agreeing to allow him to retreat back toIllyria.[57]
Barbarian invasions and the invasion of usurperConstantine III in the Western Roman Empire during the reign ofHonorius, 407–409
The weakening of the frontiers in Britain and Gaul had dire consequences for the Empire. As the imperial government was not providing the military protection the northern provinces expected and needed, numerous usurpers arose in Britain, includingMarcus (406–407),Gratian (407), andConstantine III who invaded Gaul in 407.[58] Britain was effectively abandoned by the empire by 410 due to the lack of resources and the need to look after more important frontiers. The weakening of the Rhine frontier allowed multiple barbarian tribes, including the Vandals, Alans andSuebi, to cross the river and enter Roman territory in 406.[59]
Honorius was convinced by the ministerOlympius that Stilicho was conspiring to overthrow him, and so arrested and executed Stilicho in 408.[60] Olympius headed a conspiracy that orchestrated the deaths of key individuals related to the faction of Stilicho, including his son and the families of many of his federated troops. This led many of the soldiers to instead join with Alaric, who returned to Italy in 409 and met little opposition. Despite attempts by Honorius to reach a settlement and six legions of Eastern Roman soldiers sent to support him,[61] the negotiations between Alaric and Honorius broke down in 410 and Alaric sacked the city of Rome. Though the sack was relatively mild and Rome was no longer the capital of even the Western Empire, the event shocked people across both halves of the Empire as this was the first time Rome (viewed at least as the symbolic heart of the Empire) had fallen to a foreign enemy since theGallic invasions of the 4th century BC. The Eastern Roman emperorTheodosius II, the successor of Arcadius, declared three days of mourning in Constantinople.[62]
Without Stilicho and following the sack of Rome, Honorius' reign grew more chaotic. The usurperConstantine III had stripped Roman Britain of its defenses when he crossed over to Gaul in 407, leaving the Romanized population subject to invasions, first by thePicts and then by theSaxons,Angli, and theJutes who began to settle permanently from about 440 onwards. After Honorius accepted Constantine as co-emperor, Constantine's general in Hispania,Gerontius, proclaimedMaximus as emperor. With the aid of generalConstantius, Honorius defeated Gerontius and Maximus in 411 and shortly thereafter captured and executed Constantine III. With Constantius back in Italy, the Gallo-Roman senatorJovinus revolted after proclaiming himself emperor, with the support of the Gallic nobility and the barbarianBurgundians and Alans. Honorius turned to the Visigoths under KingAthaulf for support.[63] Athaulf defeated and executed Jovinus and his proclaimed co-emperorSebastianus in 413, around the same time as another usurper arose inAfrica,Heraclianus. Heraclianus attempted to invade Italy but failed and retreated to Carthage, where he was killed.[64]
With the Roman legions withdrawn, northern Gaul became increasingly subject to Frankish influence, the Franks naturally adopting a leading role in the region. In 418, Honorius granted southwestern Gaul (Gallia Aquitania) to the Visigoths as a vassal federation. Honorius removed the local imperial governors, leaving the Visigoths and the provincial Roman inhabitants to conduct their own affairs. As such, the first of the "barbarian kingdoms", theVisigothic Kingdom, was formed.[65]
Germanic and Hunnic invasions of the Roman Empire, AD 100–500
Honorius' death in 423 was followed by turmoil until the Eastern Roman government installedValentinian III as Western emperor in Ravenna by force of arms, withGalla Placidia acting as regent during her son's minority. Theodosius II, the Eastern emperor, had hesitated to announce the death of Honorius and in the ensuing interregnum,Joannes was nominated as Western emperor. Joannes' rule was short and the forces of the East defeated and executed him in 425.[66]
Boxwoodrelief depicting the liberation of a besieged city by a relief force, with those defending the walls making asortie. Western Roman Empire, early 5th century AD
After a violent struggle with several rivals, and against Placidia's wish,Aetius rose to the rank ofmagister militum. Aetius was able to stabilize the Western Empire's military situation somewhat, relying heavily on hisHunnic allies. With their help Aetius undertook extensive campaigns in Gaul, defeating the Visigoths in 437 and 438 but suffering a defeat himself in 439, ending the conflict in astatus quo ante with a treaty.[67]
Meanwhile, pressure from the Visigoths and a rebellion byBonifacius, the governor of Africa, induced the Vandals under KingGaiseric to cross from Spain to Tingitana in what is now Morocco in 429. They temporarily halted inNumidia in 435 before moving eastward. With Aetius occupied in Gaul, the Western Roman government could do nothing to prevent the Vandals conquering the wealthy African provinces, culminating in thefall ofCarthage on 19October 439 and the establishment of theVandal Kingdom. By the 400s, Italy and Rome itself were dependent on the taxes and foodstuffs from these provinces, leading to an economic crisis. With Vandal fleets becoming an increasing danger to Roman sea trade and the coasts and islands of the western and central Mediterranean, Aetius coordinated a counterattack against the Vandals in 440, organizing a large army in Sicily.[68]
However, the plans for retaking Africa had to be abandoned due to the immediate need to combat the invading Huns, who in 444 were united under their ambitious kingAttila. Turning against their former ally, the Huns became a formidable threat to the Empire. Aetius transferred his forces to the Danube,[68] though Attila concentrated on raiding the Eastern Roman provinces in the Balkans, providing temporary relief to the Western Empire. In 449, Attila received a message fromHonoria, Valentinian III's sister, offering him half the western empire if he would rescue her from an unwanted marriage that her brother was forcing her into. With a pretext to invade the West, Attila secured peace with the Eastern court and crossed the Rhine in early 451.[69] With Attila wreaking havoc in Gaul, Aetius gathered a coalition of Roman and Germanic forces, including Visigoths and Burgundians, and prevented the Huns from taking the city ofAurelianum, forcing them into retreat.[70] At theBattle of the Catalaunian Plains, the Roman-Germanic coalition met and defeated the Hunnic forces, though Attila escaped.[71]
Attila regrouped and invaded Italy in 452. With Aetius not having enough forces to attack him, the road to Rome was open. Valentinian sentPope Leo I and two leading senators to negotiate with Attila. This embassy, combined with a plague among Attila's troops, the threat of famine, and news that the Eastern emperorMarcian had launched an attack on the Hun homelands along the Danube, forced Attila to turn back and leave Italy. When Attila died unexpectedly in 453, the power struggle that erupted between his sons ended the threat posed by the Huns.[72]
The Western Roman Empire during the reign ofMajorian in AD 460. During his four-year-long reign from 457 to 461, Majorian restored Western Roman authority in Hispania and most of Gaul. Despite his accomplishments, Roman rule in the west would last less than two more decades.
Valentinian III was intimidated by Aetius and was encouraged by the Roman senatorPetronius Maximus and the chamberlain Heraclius to assassinate him. When Aetius was at court in Ravenna delivering a financial account, Valentinian suddenly leaped from his seat and declared that he would no longer be the victim of Aetius' drunken depravities. Aetius attempted to defend himself from the charges, but Valentinian drew his sword and struck the weaponless Aetius on the head, killing him on the spot.[73] On 16 March the following year, Valentinian himself was killed by supporters of the dead general, possibly acting for Petronius Maximus. With the end of theTheodosian dynasty, Petronius Maximus proclaimed himself emperor during the ensuing period of unrest.[74]
Petronius was not able to take effective control of the significantly weakened and unstable Empire. He broke the betrothal between Huneric, son of the Vandal kingGaiseric, and Eudocia, daughter of Valentinian III. This was seen as a just cause of war by King Gaiseric, who set sail to attack Rome. Petronius and his supporters attempted to flee the city at the sight of the approaching Vandals, only to be stoned to death by a Roman mob. Petronius had reigned only 11 weeks.[75] With the Vandals at the gates, Pope Leo I requested that the King not destroy the ancient city or murder its inhabitants, to which Gaiseric agreed and the city gates were opened to him. Though keeping his promise, Gaiseric looted great amounts of treasure and damaged objects of cultural significance such as theTemple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus. The severity of theVandal sack of 455 is disputed, though with the Vandals plundering the city for a full fourteen days as opposed to the Visigothic sack of 410, where the Visigoths only spent three days in the city, it was likely more thorough.[76]
Avitus, a prominent general under Petronius, was proclaimed emperor by the Visigothic kingTheodoric II and accepted as such by theRoman Senate. Though supported by the Gallic provinces and the Visigoths, Avitus was resented in Italy due to ongoing food shortages caused by Vandal control of trade routes, and for using a Visigothic imperial guard. He disbanded his guard due to popular pressure, and the Suebian generalRicimer used the opportunity to depose Avitus, counting on popular discontent. After the deposition of Avitus, the Eastern emperorLeo I did not select a new westernAugustus. The prominent generalMajorian defeated an invading force ofAlemanni and was subsequently proclaimed Western emperor by the army and eventually accepted as such by Leo.[77]
Majorian was the last Western emperor to attempt to recover the Western Empire with his own military forces. To prepare, Majorian significantly strengthened the Western Roman army by recruiting large numbers of barbarian mercenaries, among them theGepids, Ostrogoths,Rugii, Burgundians, Huns,Bastarnae, Suebi,Scythians and Alans, and built two fleets, one at Ravenna, to combat the strong Vandalic fleet. Majorian personally led the army to wage war in Gaul, leaving Ricimer in Italy. The Gallic provinces and the Visigothic Kingdom had rebelled following the deposition of Avitus, refusing to acknowledge Majorian as lawful emperor. At theBattle of Arelate, Majorian decisively defeated the Visigoths under Theoderic II and forced them to relinquish their great conquests in Hispania and return tofoederati status. Majorian then entered theRhone Valley, where he defeated the Burgundians and reconquered the rebel city ofLugdunum. With Gaul back under Roman control, Majorian turned his eyes to the Vandals and Africa. Not only did the Vandals pose a constant danger to coastal Italy and trade in the Mediterranean, but the province they ruled was economically vital to the survival of the West. Majorian began a campaign to fully reconquer Hispania to use it as a base for the reconquest of Africa. Throughout 459, Majorian campaigned against the Suebi in northwestern Hispania.[77]
The Vandals began to increasingly fear a Roman invasion. King Gaiseric tried to negotiate a peace with Majorian, who rejected the proposal. In the wake of this, Gaiseric devastatedMauretania, part of his own kingdom, fearing that the Roman army would land there. Having regained control of Hispania, Majorian intended to use his fleet atCarthaginiensis to attack the Vandals. Before he could, the fleet was destroyed, allegedly by traitors paid by the Vandals. Deprived of his fleet, Majorian had to cancel his attack on the Vandals and conclude a peace with Gaiseric. Disbanding his barbarian forces, Majorian intended to return to Rome and issue reforms, stopping atArelate on his way. Here, Ricimer deposed and arrested him in 461, having gathered significant aristocratic opposition against Majorian. After five days of beatings and torture, Majorian was beheaded near the riverIria.[77]
The final collapse of the Empire in the West was marked by increasingly ineffectual puppet emperors dominated by their Germanicmagistri militum. The most pointed example of this isRicimer, who effectively became a "shadow emperor" following the depositions of Avitus and Majorian. Unable to take the throne for himself due to his barbarian heritage, Ricimer appointed a series of puppet emperors who could do little to halt the collapse of Roman authority and the loss of the territories re-conquered by Majorian.[78] The first of these puppet emperors,Libius Severus, had no recognition outside of Italy, with the Eastern emperor Leo I and provincial governors in Gaul andIllyria all refusing to recognize him.[79]
Severus died in 465 and Leo I, with the consent of Ricimer, appointed the capable Eastern generalAnthemius as Western emperor following an eighteen-monthinterregnum. The relationship between Anthemius and the East was good, Anthemius is the last Western emperor recorded in an Eastern law, and the two courts conducted a joint operation to retake Africa from the Vandals, culminating in the disastrousBattle of Cape Bon in 468. In addition Anthemius conducted failed campaigns against the Visigoths, hoping to halt their expansion.[78]
The trial and subsequent execution ofRomanus, an Italian senator and friend of Ricimer, on the grounds of treachery in 470 made Ricimer hostile to Anthemius. Following two years of ill feeling, Ricimer deposed and killed Anthemius in 472, elevatingOlybrius to the Western throne.[80] During the brief reign of Olybrius, Ricimer died and his nephewGundobad succeeded him asmagister militum. After only seven months of rule, Olybrius died ofdropsy. Gundobad elevatedGlycerius to Western emperor. The Eastern Empire had rejected Olybrius and also rejected Glycerius, instead supporting a candidate of their own,Julius Nepos,magister militum inDalmatia. With the support of Eastern emperorsLeo II andZeno, Julius Nepos crossed theAdriatic Sea in the spring of 474 to depose Glycerius. At the arrival of Nepos in Italy, Glycerius abdicated without a fight and was allowed to live out his life as theBishop of Salona.[81]
The brief rule of Nepos in Italy ended in 475 whenOrestes, a former secretary of Attila and themagister militum of Julius Nepos, took control of Ravenna and forced Nepos to flee by ship toDalmatia. Later in the same year, Orestes crowned his own young son as Western emperor under the nameRomulus Augustus. Romulus Augustus was not recognised as Western emperor by the Eastern Court, who maintained that Nepos was the only legal Western emperor, reigning in exile fromDalmatia.[82]
On 4 September 476,Odoacer, leader of the Germanicfoederati in Italy, captured Ravenna, killed Orestes and deposed Romulus. Though Romulus was deposed, Nepos did not return to Italy and continued to reign as Western emperor fromDalmatia, with support from Constantinople. Odoacer proclaimed himself ruler of Italy and began to negotiate with the Eastern emperorZeno. Zeno eventually granted Odoacerpatrician status as recognition of his authority and accepted him as his viceroy of Italy. Zeno, however, insisted that Odoacer had to pay homage to Julius Nepos as the emperor of the Western Empire. Odoacer accepted this condition and issued coins in the name of Julius Nepos throughout Italy. This, however, was mainly an empty political gesture, as Odoacer never returned any real power or territories to Nepos. The murder of Nepos in 480 prompted Odoacer to invadeDalmatia, annexing it to hisKingdom of Italy.[83]
The city ofRavenna, Western Roman capital, on theTabula Peutingeriana, a 13th-century medieval map possibly copied from a 4th- or 5th-century Roman original
By convention, the Western Roman Empire is deemed to have ended on 4 September 476, when Odoacer deposed Romulus Augustus, but the historical record calls this determination into question. Indeed, the deposition of Romulus Augustus received very little attention in contemporary times. Romulus was a usurper in the eyes of the Eastern Roman Empire and the remaining territories of Western Roman control outside of Italy, with the previous emperor Julius Nepos still being alive and claiming to rule the Western Empire inDalmatia. Furthermore, the Western court had lacked true power and had been subject to Germanic aristocrats for decades, with most of its legal territory being under control of various barbarian kingdoms. With Odoacer recognising Julius Nepos, and later the Eastern emperor Zeno, as his sovereign, nominal Roman control continued in Italy.[84]Syagrius, who had managed to preserve Roman sovereignty in anexclave in northern Gaul (a realm today known as theDomain of Soissons) also recognized Nepos as his sovereign and the legitimate Western emperor.[85]
The authority of Julius Nepos as emperor was accepted not only by Odoacer in Italy, but by the Eastern Empire and Syagrius in Gaul (who had not recognized Romulus Augustulus). Nepos was murdered by his own soldiers in 480, a plot some attribute to Odoacer or the previous, deposed emperor Glycerius,[86] and the Eastern emperor Zeno chose not to appoint a new Western emperor. Zeno, recognizing that no true Roman control remained over the territories legally governed by the Western court, instead chose to abolish the juridical division of the position of emperor and declared himself the sole emperor of the Roman Empire. Zeno became the first sole Roman emperor since the division after Theodosius I, 85 years prior, and the position would never again be divided. As such, the (eastern)Roman emperors after 480 are the successors of the western ones, albeit only in a juridical sense.[87] These emperors would continue to rule the Roman Empire until theFall of Constantinople in 1453, nearly a thousand years later.[88] As 480 marks the end of the juridical division of the empire into two imperial courts, some historians refer to the death of Nepos and abolition of the Western Empire by Zeno as the end of the Western Roman Empire.[85][89]
Despite the fall, or abolition, of the Western Empire, many of the new kings of western Europe continued to operate firmly within a Roman administrative framework. This is especially true in the case of the Ostrogoths, who came to rule Italy after Odoacer. They continued to use the administrative systems of Odoacer's kingdom, essentially those of the Western Roman Empire, and administrative positions continued to be staffed exclusively by Romans. The Senate continued to function as it always had, and the laws of the Empire were recognized as ruling the Roman population, though the Goths were ruled by their own traditional laws.[90] Western Roman administrative institutions, in particular those of Italy, thus continued to be used during "barbarian" rule and after the forces of the Eastern Roman empire re-conquered some of the formerly imperial territories. Some historians thus refer to the reorganizations of Italy and abolition of the old and separate Western Roman administrative units, such as thePraetorian prefecture of Italy, during the sixth century as the "true" fall of the Western Roman Empire.[84]
Roman cultural traditions continued throughout the territory of the Western Empire for long after its disappearance, and a recent school of interpretation argues that the great political changes can more accurately be described as a complex cultural transformation, rather than a fall.[91]
Map of thebarbarian kingdoms (major kingdoms and the Roman Empire labelled below) of the western Mediterranean in 526, seven years before the campaigns of reconquest under Eastern emperorJustinian I
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Germanic kingdoms, often referred to as "barbarian kingdoms", founded during its collapse continued to grow and prosper. Their beginnings, together with the end of the Western Roman Empire, mark the transition fromlate antiquity to theMiddle Ages. The practices of the barbarian kingdoms gradually replaced the old Roman institutions, specifically in thepraetorian prefectures ofGaul and Italy, during the sixth and seventh centuries.[92] In many places, the Roman institutions collapsed along with the economic stability. In some regions, notably Gaul and Italy, the settlement of barbarians on former Roman lands seems to have caused relatively little disruption, with barbarian rulers using and modifying the Roman systems already in place.[93] The Germanic kingdoms in Italy, Hispania and Gaul continued to recognise the emperor in Constantinople as a somewhat nominal sovereign, the Visigoths minted coins in their names until the reign of Justinian I in the sixth century.[94]
6th-century Visigothic coin, struck in the name of Emperor Justinian I
Some territories under direct Roman control continued to exist in the West even after 480. TheDomain of Soissons, a rump state in Northern Gaul ruled by Syagrius, survived until 486 when it was conquered by theFranks under KingClovis I in theFranco-Roman War of 486 after beaten Syagrius in theBattle of Soissons. Syagrius was known as the "King of the Romans" by the Germanic peoples of the region and repeatedly claimed that he was merely governing a Roman province, not an independent realm.[85] Under Clovis I from the 480s to 511, the Franks would come to develop into a great regional power. After their conquest of Soissons, the Franks defeated the Alemanni in 504 and conquered all Visigothic territory north of thePyrenees other thanSeptimania in 507. Relations between the Franks and the Eastern Empire appear to have been positive, with Emperor Anastasius granting Clovis the title of consul following his victory against the Visigoths. At the time of its dissolution in the 800s, the Frankish Kingdom had lasted far longer than the other migration period barbarian kingdoms. Its divided successors would develop into the medieval states ofFrance (initially known asWest Francia) andGermany (initially known asEast Francia).[95]
A Mauro-Roman realm survived in the province of Mauretania Caesariensis until the late 7th or early 8th century. An inscription on a fortification at the ruined city ofAltava from the year 508 identifies a man namedMasuna as the king of theKingdom of the Moors and Romans (Regnum Maurorum et Romanorum).[96] It is possible that Masuna is the same man as the "Massonas" who allied himself with the forces of the Eastern Roman Empire against the Vandals in 535.[97] This Kingdom was defeated by the Eastern Romanmagister militumGennadius in 578, and its coastal territories were incorporated into the Empire once more.[98]
Odoacer's Italy in AD 480, following the annexation ofDalmatia
The deposition of Romulus Augustus and the rise of Odoacer as ruler of Italy in 476 received very little attention at the time.[84] Overall, very little changed for the people; there was still a Roman emperor in Constantinople to whom Odoacer had subordinated himself. Interregna had been experienced at many points in the West before and the deposition of Romulus Augustus was nothing out of the ordinary. Odoacer saw his rule as entirely in the tradition of the Roman Empire, not unlike Ricimer, and he effectively ruled as an imperial "governor" of Italy and was even awarded the title ofpatricius. Odoacer ruled using the Roman administrative systems already in place and continued to mint coins with the name and portrait of Julius Nepos until 480 and later with the name and portrait of the EasternAugustus, rather than in his own name.[84]
When Nepos was murdered inDalmatia in 480, Odoacer assumed the duty of pursuing and executing the assassins and established his own rule inDalmatia at the same time.[99] Odoacer established his power with the loyal support of the Roman Senate, a legislative body that had continued even without an emperor residing in Italy. Indeed, the Senate seems to have increased in power under Odoacer. For the first time since the mid-3rd century, copper coins were issued with the legendS C (Senatus Consulto). These coins were copied by Vandals in Africa and also formed the basis of the currency reform carried out by EmperorAnastasius in the East.[100]
Under Odoacer, Western consuls continued to be appointed as they had been under the Western Roman Empire and were accepted by the Eastern Court, the first beingCaecina Decius Maximus Basilus in 480. Basilus was made thepraetorian prefect of Italy in 483, another traditional position which continued to exist under Odoacer.[101] Eleven further consuls were appointed by the Senate under Odoacer from 480 to 493 and one further Praetorian Prefect of Italy was appointed,Caecina Mavortius Basilius Decius (486–493).[102]
Solidus minted underOdoacer with the name and portrait of the Eastern emperorZeno
Though Odoacer ruled as a Roman governor would have and maintained himself as a subordinate to theremaining Empire, the Eastern emperor Zeno began to increasingly see him as a rival. Thus, Zeno promisedTheoderic the Great of the Ostrogoths,foederati of the Eastern Court, control over theItalian peninsula if he was able to defeat Odoacer.[103] Theoderic led the Ostrogoths across theJulian Alps and into Italy and defeated Odoacer in battle twice in 489. Following four years of hostilities between them, John, theBishop of Ravenna, was able to negotiate a treaty in 493 between Odoacer and Theoderic whereby they agreed to rule Ravenna and Italy jointly. Theoderic entered Ravenna on 5March and Odoacer was dead ten days later, killed by Theoderic after sharing a meal with him.[104]
Theoderic inherited Odoacer's role as acting viceroy for Italy and ostensibly apatricius and subject of the emperor in Constantinople. This position was recognized by Emperor Anastasius in 497, four years after Theoderic had defeated Odoacer. Though Theodoric acted as an independent ruler, he meticulously preserved the outward appearance of his subordinate position. Theoderic continued to use the administrative systems of Odoacer's kingdom, essentially those of the Western Roman Empire, and administrative positions continued to be staffed exclusively by Romans. The senate continued to function as it always had and the laws of the Empire were recognized as ruling the Roman population, though the Goths were ruled by their own traditional laws. As a subordinate, Theoderic did not have the right to issue his ownlaws, only edicts or clarifications.[105] The army and military offices were exclusively staffed by the Goths, however, who largely settled in northern Italy.[106]
Though acting as a subordinate in domestic affairs, Theodoric acted increasingly independent in his foreign policies. Seeking to counterbalance the influence of the Empire in the East, Theoderic married his daughters to the Visigothic kingAlaric II and the Burgundian princeSigismund. His sister Amalfrida was married to the Vandal kingThrasamund and he married Audofleda, sister of the Frankish king Clovis I, himself.[107] Through these alliances and occasional conflicts, the territory controlled by Theoderic in the early sixth century nearly constituted a restored Western Roman Empire. Ruler of Italy since 493, Theoderic becameking of the Visigoths in 511 and exerted hegemony over theVandals in North Africa between 521 and 523. As such, his rule extended throughout the westernMediterranean. The Western imperial regalia, housed in Constantinople since the deposition of Romulus Augustulus in 476, were returned to Ravenna by Emperor Anastasius in 497.[108] Theoderic, by now Western emperor in all but name, could not, however, assume an imperial title, not only because the notion of a separate Western court had been abolished but also due to his "barbarian" heritage, which, like that ofRicimer before him, would have barred him from assuming the throne.[78]
With the death of Theodoric in 526, his network of alliances began to collapse. The Visigoths regained autonomy under KingAmalaric and the Ostrogoths' relations with the Vandals turned increasingly hostile under the reign of their new kingAthalaric, a child under the regency of his motherAmalasuntha.[109] After the collapse of Theoderic's control of the western Mediterranean, the Frankish Kingdom rose to become the most powerful of the barbarian kingdoms, having taken control of most of Gaul in the absence of Roman governance.[95]
Amalasuntha continued the policies of conciliation between the Goths and Romans, supporting the new Eastern emperorJustinian I and allowing him to use Sicily as a staging point during the reconquest of Africa in theVandalic War. With the death of Athalaric in 534, Amalasuntha crowned her cousin and only relativeTheodahad as king, hoping for his support. Instead, Amalasuntha was imprisoned and, even though Theodahad assured Emperor Justinian of her safety, she was executed shortly after. This served as an idealcasus belli for Justinian, who prepared to invade and reclaim the Italian peninsula for the Roman Empire.[109]
TheEastern Roman Empire, by reoccupying some of the former Western Roman Empire's lands, enlarged its territory considerably duringJustinian's reign from 527(red) to 565(orange).
With Emperor Zeno having juridically reunified the Empire into one imperial court, the remaining Eastern Roman Empire continued to lay claim to the areas previously controlled by the Western court throughoutlate antiquity and the Middle Ages. Though military campaigns had been conducted by the Western court prior to 476 with the aim of recapturing lost territory, most notably under Majorian, the reconquests, if successful at all, were only momentary. It was as a result of the campaigns of the generalsBelisarius andNarses on behalf of the Eastern Roman emperor Justinian I from 533 to 554 that long-lasting reconquests of Roman lands were witnessed.[110]
Despite also suffering from barbarian incursions, the Eastern Empire had survived the fifth century mostly intact. The Western Roman Empire, less urbanized than the Eastern and more thinly populated, may have experienced an economic decline throughout the Late Empire in some provinces.[111] Southern Italy, northern Gaul (except for large towns and cities), and to some extent Spain and the Danubian areas may have suffered. The East fared better economically, especially as Emperors such as Constantine the Great and Constantius II had invested heavily in the eastern economy. As a result, the Eastern Empire could afford large numbers of professional soldiers and to augment them with mercenaries, while the Western Roman Empire could not afford this to the same extent. Even after major defeats, the East could, although not without difficulties, buy off its enemies with a ransom or "protection money".[112] Numbering more than 300,000 soldiers, the Eastern Roman army of Justinian I was among the most powerful in the world.[113]
Unlike the Visigoths and Ostrogoths, the Vandals in Africa minted their own coinage and were bothde facto andde jure independent, often being enemies of both the Western and Eastern Roman Empires.[114] With the pro-Roman Vandal kingHilderic having been deposed byGelimer in 530,[115] Justinian prepared an expedition led by Belisarius. It swiftly retook North Africa between June 533 and March 534, returning the wealthy province to Roman rule. Following the reconquest, Justinian swiftly reintroduced the Roman administrations of the province, establishing a newPraetorian Prefecture of Africa and taking measures to decrease Vandal influence, eventually leading to the complete disappearance of the Vandalic people.[116]
Justinian I (left) was the first Eastern emperor to attempt to reconquer the territories of the West, undertaking successful campaigns in Africa and Italy in the 500s.Manuel I Komnenos (right) was the last, campaigning in southern Italy in the 1150s.
Following the execution of the pro-Roman Ostrogoth queen Amalasuntha and the refusal of Ostrogoth King Theodahad to renounce his control of Italy, Justinian ordered the expedition to move on to reconquer Italy, ancient heartland of the Empire. From 534 to 540, the Roman forces campaigned in Italy and captured Ravenna, the Ostrogothic and formerly Western Roman capital, in 540. The Gothic resistance revived under KingTotila in 541. They were finally defeated following campaigns by the Roman general Narses, who also repelled invasions into Italy by the Franks and Alemanni, though some cities in northern Italy continued to hold out until the 560s. Justinian promulgated thePragmatic Sanction to reorganize the governance of Italy and the province was returned to Roman rule. The end of the conflict saw Italy devastated and considerably depopulated, which, combined with the disastrous effects of thePlague of Justinian, made it difficult to retain over the following centuries.[117]
At the time of the collapse of the Western Empire in 476–480, the Visigoths controlled large areas of southern Gaul as well as a majority of Hispania. Their increased domain had been partly conquered and partly awarded to them by the Western emperor Avitus in the 450s–60s.[118] Justinian undertook some limited campaigns against them, recovering portions of the southern coast of the Iberian peninsula. Here, the province ofSpania would last until the 620s, when the Visigoths under KingSuintila reconquered the south coast.[119] These regions remained under Roman control throughout the reign of Justinian. Three years after his death, theLombards invaded Italy. The Lombards conquered large parts of the devastated peninsula in the late 500s, establishing theLombard Kingdom. They were in constant conflict with the Exarchate of Ravenna, a polity established to replace the old Praetorian Prefecture of Italy and enforce Roman rule in Italy. The wealthiest parts of the province, including the cities of Rome and Ravenna, remained securely in Roman hands under the Exarchate throughout the seventh century.[120]
Map of theEastern Roman Empire in 717. Over the course of the seventh and eighth centuries, Islamic expansion had ended Roman rule in Africa and though some bastions of Roman rule remained, most of Italy was controlled by theLombards.
Although other Eastern emperors occasionally attempted to campaign in the West, none were as successful as Justinian. After 600, events conspired to drive the Western provinces out of Constantinople's control, with imperial attention focused on the pressing issues ofwar with Sasanian Persia and then the rise of Islam. For a while, the West remained important, withEmperor Constans II ruling fromSyracuse in Sicily a Roman Empire that still stretched from North Africa to the Caucasus in the 660s. Thereafter, imperial attention declined, with Constantinople itselfbeing besieged in the 670s, renewed war with the Arabs in the 680s, and thena period of chaos between 695 and 717, during which time Africa was finally lost once and for all,being conquered by the Umayyad Caliphate. Through reforms and military campaigns, EmperorLeo III attempted to restore order in the Empire, but his doctrinal reforms, known as theIconoclastic Controversy, were extremely unpopular in the West and were condemned byPope Gregory III.[121]
The Roman Empire was not the only Christian nation affected by the Islamic conquests, as the Visigothic Kingdom finally fell to theUmayyad Caliphate in the 720s.[122][123] TheKingdom of Asturias was founded byPelagius of Asturias around the same time and was the first Christian realm to be established in Iberia following the defeat of the Visigoths.[124] Asturias would be transformed into theKingdom of León in 924,[125] which would develop into the predecessors of modern-day Spain.[126]
The religious disagreements between Rome and Constantinople eventually led to the breakdown in imperial rule over Rome itself, and the gradual transition of the Exarchate of Ravenna into the independentPapal States, led by the Pope. In an attempt to gain support against the Lombards, the Pope called for aid from the Frankish Kingdom instead of the Eastern Empire, eventually crowning the Frankish kingCharlemagne as "Roman Emperor" in 800. Though this coronation was strongly opposed by the Eastern Empire, there was little they could do as their influence in Western Europe decreased. After a series of small wars in the 810s, EmperorMichael I recognized Charlemagne as an "Emperor". He refused to recognize him as a "Roman Emperor" (a title which Michael reserved for himself and his successors), instead recognizing him as the slightly less prestigious "Emperor of the Franks".[127]
Imperial rule continued inSicily throughout the eighth century, withthe island slowly being overrun by the Arabs during the course of the ninth century. In Italy, a few strongholds inCalabria provided a base for a later, modest imperial expansion, which reached its peak in the early eleventh century, with most of southern Italy under Roman rule of a sort. This, however, was undone by further civil wars in the Empire, and the slow conquest of the region by the Empire's former mercenaries, theNormans, who finally put an end to imperial rule in Western Europe in 1071 with theconquest of Bari.[128] The last emperor to attempt reconquests in the West wasManuel I Komnenos, who invaded southern Italy during a war with the NormanKingdom of Sicily in the 1150s. The city ofBari willingly opened its gates to the emperor and after successes in taking other cities in the region,[129] Manuel dreamed of a restored Roman Empire and a union between the churches ofRome andConstantinople, separated since theschism of 1054. Despite initial successes and Papal support, the campaign was unsuccessful and Manuel was forced to return east.[130]
As the Western Roman Empire crumbled, the new Germanic rulers who conquered its constituent provinces maintained most Roman laws and traditions. Many of the invading Germanic tribes were already Christianized, although most were followers ofArianism. They quickly changed their adherence to thestate church of the Roman Empire. This helped cement the loyalty of the local Roman populations, as well as the support of the powerfulBishop of Rome. Although they initially continued to recognize indigenous tribal laws, they were more influenced byRoman law and gradually incorporated it.[92] Roman law, particularly theCorpus Juris Civilis collected on the orders of Justinian I, is the basis of moderncivil law. In contrast,common law is based on GermanicAnglo-Saxon law. Civil law is by far the most widespread system of law in the world, in force in some form in about 150 countries.[131]
Romance languages, languages that developed fromLatin following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, are spoken in Western Europe to this day, with the exception of Romanian, which developed from the Latin spoken in the eastern provinces and the early Eastern Empire. Their extent in Western Europe almost reflects the continental borders of the old Empire.
Latin as a language did not disappear.Vulgar Latin combined with neighboring Germanic andCeltic languages, giving rise to modernRomance languages such as Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian, and a large number of minor languages and dialects. Today, more than 900 million people are native speakers of Romance languages worldwide. In addition, many Romance languages are used as lingua francas by non-native speakers.[132]
Latin also influencedGermanic languages such as English and German.[133] It survives in a "purer" form as the language of the Catholic Church; the CatholicMass was spoken exclusively in Latin until1969. As such it was also used as alingua franca by ecclesiasticals. It remained the language of medicine, law, and diplomacy, as well as of intellectuals and scholarship, well into the 18th century. Since then the use of Latin has declined with the growth of otherlingua francas, especially English and French.[134] TheLatin alphabet was expanded due to the split of I into I and J, and of V into U, V, and, in places (especially Germanic languages and Polish), W.Latin script is the basis for the largest number of alphabets of anywriting system[135] and is themost widely adopted writing system in the world.Roman numerals continue to be used in some fields and situations, though they have largely been replaced byArabic numerals.[136]
WhenPope Leo III crowned Charlemagne as "Roman Emperor" in 800, he both severed ties with the outraged Eastern Empire and established the precedent that no man in Western Europe would be emperor without a papal coronation.[138] Although the power the Pope wielded changed significantly throughout the subsequent periods, the office itself has remained as the head of the Catholic Church and the head of state of theVatican City. The Pope has consistently held the title of "Pontifex Maximus" since before the fall of the Western Roman Empire and retains it to this day; this title formerly used by the high priest ofthe Roman polytheistic religion, one of whom was Julius Caesar.[46][139]
The Roman Senate survived the initial collapse of the Western Roman Empire. Its authority increased under the rule of Odoacer and later the Ostrogoths, evident by the Senate in 498 managing to installSymmachus as pope despite bothTheodoric of Italy and Emperor Anastasius supporting another candidate,Laurentius.[140] Exactly when the senate disappeared is unclear, but the institution is known to have survived at least into the 6th century, inasmuch as gifts from the senate were received by EmperorTiberius II in 578 and 580. The traditional senate building,Curia Julia, was rebuilt into a church underPope Honorius I in 630, probably with permission from the Eastern emperor,Heraclius.[141]
Marcellinus Comes, a sixth-century Eastern Roman historian and a courtier of Justinian I, mentions the Western Roman Empire in hisChronicle, which primarily covers the Eastern Roman Empire from 379 to 534. In theChronicle, it is clear that Marcellinus made a clear divide between East and West, with mentions of a geographical east ("Oriens") and west ("Occidens") and of an imperial east ("Orientale imperium" and "Orientale respublica") and an imperial west ("Occidentalie imperium", "Occidentale regnum", "Occidentalis respublica", "Hesperium regnum", "Hesperium imperium" and "principatum Occidentis"). Furthermore, Marcellinus specifically designates some emperors and consuls as being "Eastern", "Orientalibus principibus" and "Orientalium consulum" respectively.[142] The termHesperium Imperium, translating to "Western Empire", has sometimes been applied to the Western Roman Empire by modern historians as well.[143]
Though Marcellinus does not refer to the Empire as a whole after 395, only to its separate parts, he clearly identifies the term "Roman" as applying to the Empire as a whole. When using terms such as "us", "our generals", and "our emperor", Marcellinus distinguished both divisions of the Empire from outside foes such as the Sasanian Persians and the Huns.[142] This view is consistent with the view that contemporary Romans of the 4th and 5th centuries continued to consider the Empire as a single unit, although more often than not with two rulers instead of one.[89] The first time the Empire was divided geographically was during the reign of Diocletian, but there was precedent for multiple emperors. Before Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, there had been a number of periods where there were co-emperors, such as withCaracalla andGeta in 210–211, who inherited the imperial throne from their fatherSeptimius Severus, but Caracalla ruled alone after the murder of his brother.[144]
Maps of theExarchates within the Roman Empire in AD 600. The Exarchates ofRavenna (left) andAfrica (right) were established by the Eastern Empire to better administer the reconquered Western territories.
The positions of Eastern and WesternAugustus, established under Emperor Diocletian in 286 as the Tetrarchy, had been abolished by Emperor Zeno in 480 following the loss of direct control over the western territories. Declaring himself the soleAugustus, Zeno only exercised true control over the largely intact Eastern Empire and over Italy as the nominal overlord of Odoacer.[87] The reconquests under Justinian I would bring back large formerly Western Roman territories into Imperial control, and with them the Empire would begin to face the same problems it had faced under previous periods prior to the Tetrarchy when there had been only one ruler. Shortly after the reconquest of North Africa a usurper,Stotzas, appeared in the province (though he was quickly defeated).[145] As such, the idea of dividing the Empire into two courts out of administrative necessity would see a limited revival during the period that the Eastern Empire controlled large parts of the former West, both by courtiers in the East and enemies in the West.[146][147]
The earliest attempt at crowning a new Western emperor after the abolition of the title occurred already during theGothic Wars under Justinian. Belisarius, an accomplished general who had already successfully campaigned to restore Roman control over North Africa and large parts of Italy, including Rome itself, was offered the position of Western Roman emperor by the Ostrogoths during his siege of Ravenna (the Ostrogothic, and previously Western Roman, capital) in 540. The Ostrogoths, desperate to avoid losing their control of Italy, offered the title and theirfealty to Belisarius as WesternAugustus. Justinian had expected to rule over a restored Roman Empire alone, with theCodex Justinianeus explicitly designating the newPraetorian Prefect of Africa as the subject of Justinian in Constantinople.[148] Belisarius, loyal to Justinian, feigned acceptance of the title to enter the city, whereupon he immediately relinquished it. Despite Belisarius relinquishing the title, the offer had made Justinian suspicious and Belisarius was ordered to return east.[146]
At the end of Emperor Tiberius II's reign in 582, the Eastern Roman Empire retained control over relatively large parts of the regions reconquered under Justinian. Tiberius chose twoCaesares, the generalMaurice and the governorGermanus, and married his two daughters to them. Germanus had clear connections to the western provinces, and Maurice to the eastern provinces. It is possible that Tiberius was planning to divide the empire into western and eastern administrative units once more.[147] If so, the plan was never realized. At the death of Tiberius, Maurice inherited the entire empire as Germanus had refused the throne. Maurice established a new type of administrative unit, theExarchate, and organized the remaining western territories under his control into the Exarchate of Ravenna and theExarchate of Africa.[149]
In addition to remaining as a concept for an administrative unit in the remaining Empire, the ideal of the Roman Empire as a mighty Christian Empire with a single ruler further continued to appeal to many powerful rulers in western Europe. With the papal coronation of Charlemagne as "Emperor of the Romans" in AD 800, his realm was explicitly proclaimed as a restoration of the Roman Empire in Western Europe under the concept oftranslatio imperii. Though theCarolingian Empire collapsed in 888 andBerengar, the last "Emperor" claiming succession from Charlemagne, died in 924, the concept of a papacy- and Germanic-based Roman Empire in the West would resurface in the form of theHoly Roman Empire in 962. TheHoly Roman Emperors would uphold the notion that they had inherited the supreme power and prestige of the Roman emperors of old until thedissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806.[150]
Charlemagne, and the subsequent Holy Roman Emperors, were not, and did not claim to be, rulers of a restored Western Roman Empire. Pope Leo III and contemporary historians were fully aware that the notion of a separate Western court had been abolished over three centuries prior and considered the Roman Empire to be "one and indivisible". The ruler of the Roman Empire at the time of Charlemagne's coronation wasIrene of Athens, the mother of emperorConstantine VI who she had deposed. Leo III considered Irene to be a usurper and illegitimate to rule due to her gender and as such considered the imperial throne to be vacant. Thus, Charlemagne was not crowned as the ruler of the Western Roman Empire and successor to Romulus Augustulus, but rather as the successor of Constantine VI and as sole Roman Emperor. Irene was deposed and replaced by EmperorNikephoros soon after, and the Eastern Empire refused to recognize the Imperial title of Charlemagne. Following several wars in the 810s EmperorMichael I Rangabe eventually recognized Charlemagne as an "Emperor", but as the slightly humiliating "Emperor of the Franks" rather than "Roman Emperor", a title he reserved for himself.[127] For centuries to come, the "revived" Western court and the Eastern court, in direct succession to the Roman emperors of old, would make competing claims to be rulers of the whole Roman Empire. With the Eastern Empire terming the Holy Roman Empire as an "Empire of the Franks", the term "Empire of the Greeks" was popularized in the Frankish court as a way to refer to the Empire centered in Constantinople.[151]
Following the end of the Eastern Roman Empire after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 and the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the title of "Emperor" became widespread among European monarchs. TheAustrian Empire laid claim to be the heir of the Holy Roman Empire as Austria'sHabsburgs attempted to unite Germany under their rule.[152] TheGerman Empire, established in 1871, also claimed to be a successor of Rome through the lineage of the Holy Roman Empire.[153] Both of these empires used the imperial titleKaiser (derived from the Latin word "Caesar"), the German word for emperor. The German Empire andAustria-Hungary, successor of the Austrian Empire, would both fall in the aftermath of theFirst World War along with theRussian andOttoman Empires which had also claimed succession from the Eastern Roman Empire.[154][155][156]
Maximian was elevated tocaesar by Diocletian in 285, after Diocletian defeatedCarinus.[159] He became Western emperor in 286, with the establishment of the Tetrarchy. On 1 May 305, both Maximian and Diocletian abdicated, leaving Constantius and Galerius as emperors.[160]
Constantius was elevated tocaesar in 293, under Maximian. Constantius became the Western emperor in 305, after the abdication of Maximian.[160] Constantius died on 25 July 306, leaving a highly contested succession in his wake.[163]
Valerius Severus was elevated tocaesar by Constantius in 305, after the abdication of Maximian and Diocletian. After the death of Constantius in 306, Severus became Western emperor. Severus was forced to deal with the revolt of Maxentius, the son of Maximian. Maxentius invaded in early 307, and captured the Western Empire.[164] He had Severus put to death soon after his capture.[165]
Maxentius was proclaimed emperor in 306, in opposition to Valerius Severus, and ruled alongside his father Maximian. They succeeded in capturing the Western Empire in 307, and had Severus killed soon after.[167] The Western Empire was invaded in 312 by Constantine, who on 28 October 312 decisively defeated Maxentius, who drowned when his forces were pushed back into theTiber river.[168] Maximian had relinquished the title ofaugustus in 308, but rebelled in Gaul once again in 310. He was defeated by Constantine shortly after.[166]
Valens I: 317(Titular emperor of the West, ruled only in the East)
Martinian: 324(Titular emperor of the West, ruled only in the East)
Licinius was made emperor of the Eastern Empire, and parts of the Western Empire, all of which was actually held by Maxentius, at theCouncil of Carnuntum, which was held in 308 in order to try to end the civil war in the Western Empire. Constantine invaded Licinius' section of the Western Empire in 313, and forced him to sign a treaty in which he forfeited his claim to the Western Empire, and only controlled the Eastern Empire.[169] Licinius attempted twice to replace Constantine, first withValerius Valens in 316 and thenMartinian in 324, but they were both killed shortly after their elevation.
Constantine I was proclaimedaugustus of the Western Empire by his father's troops on 25 July 306 and was accepted ascaesar by Galerius later that year. In 307 Maximian accepted him toaugustus (although Maximian himself was considered an usurper) and in 309 he proclaimed himself as the Western emperor, in opposition to Maxentius and Licinius. He ruled alone in the West from 312 and became sole Roman emperor following the defeat ofLicinius at theBattle of Chrysopolis.[170]
Constantine II 337–340(Emperor of Gaul, Britannia and Hispania: 337–340).[162]
Constantine II was proclaimedcaesar of the Eastern Empire in late 317. In 335, Constantine I allotted the inheritance his sons would receive after his death, which would take place two years later in 337, giving Constantine II thePraetorian prefecture of Gaul, which also includedBritannia andHispania. Constantine II's relationship with Constans I was tense, and in 340, Constantine took advantage of Constans absence from Italy and invaded it. However, in the same year, he was ambushed by Constans' forces in Aquilea, and was killed.[171]
Constans I 337–350(Emperor of Italy and Africa: 337–340, Western emperor: 340–350).[162]
Constans was given thePraetorian prefecture of Italy and Africa on the death of Constantine I. After Constantine II was killed in 340, while attempting to invade Constans' territory in Italy, Constans took control of the entire Western Empire. Constans was contemptuous of his army, who as a result proclaimed Magnentius as emperor in 350. Constans fled toward Hispania, but was captured and executed by an agent of Magnentius on the border.[172]
Constantius II was proclaimedcaesar in 334, and became Eastern emperor in 337, after the death of Constantine I. After Constans was killed by the usurper Magnentius, Constantius laid claim to the Western Empire, and after defeating Magnentius took possession of it, becoming sole emperor. Constantius II died in 361, of a violent fever.[175]
Julian was proclaimedcaesar in 355. He was proclaimed emperor by his troops shortly before Constantius' death. Julian died in March 363, of wounds sustained during the Battle of Samarra.[176]
When Julian died in 363, he left no heir, causing a succession crisis. The Roman Army elected Jovian as sole emperor. Jovian reigned only seven months, in which he signed a humiliating peace treaty with the Sasanian Empire, underShapur II. In this agreement, Rome surrendered five provinces and 18 fortresses to the Sasanians, in exchange for a 30-year truce. Jovian died on 16 February 364, due to either indigestion or charcoal vapour inhalation.[177]
After the death of Jovian, Valentinian I was elected. He divided the Empire between himself and his younger brother, Valens, giving himself the West and Valens the East. Valentinian spent much of his reign defending Gaul against repeated attacks by barbarian tribes, only leaving the region in 373. In 375, while meeting with the Quadi, he suffered a stroke brought on by rage.[178]
Valentinian I elevated his son, Gratian, toaugustus in 367, however after his death in 375 his leading generals elevated his much younger son, Valentinian II, toaugustus alongside Gratian and Valens who was emperor in the East.[179] Gratian showed a strong preference for the barbarian mercenaries in his army, especially his Alanic guard, which inflamed the Roman population, to the point that in 383, Roman troops in Britain declared Magnus Maximus emperor, in opposition to Gratian. Maximus landed troops in Gaul, and attacked Gratian's troops near Paris. Gratian was defeated, and fled toLyon, where he was murdered on 25 August 383.[180]
After the death of Gratian, Valentinian II succeeded him, although he only controlled Italy itself, with all other Western Roman provinces recognizing Maximus. In 387 Maximus invaded Italy, to depose Valentinian. Valentinian fled to the court of Theodosius, where he succeeded in convincing Theodosius to attack Maximus, and to reinstate himself as Western emperor, which was done after Maximus was defeated in battle near Aquileia.[180] Valentinian continued to rule the Western Empire until 392, when he was probably murdered by Arbogast.[181]
Magnus Maximus was elected emperor by his men in 383, in opposition to Gratian, and defeated him in battle in 383. Maximus was recognized as the Western emperor by Eastern emperor Theodosius I in 384, however this recognition was revoked by him when Maximus invaded Italy and deposed Valentinian II in 387. Valentinian II fled to the Eastern Roman Empire, and convinced Theodosius I to invade the Western Roman Empire and restore him to the Western Roman throne, which he did in 388. Maximus was defeated in battle near Aquileia, and executed.[180][182][184][185]
Theodosius I: 394–395(Eastern emperor: 379–394, sole emperor: 394–395)[162]
Theodosius was proclaimed Eastern Emperor by Gratian on 19 January 379, after securing victory against invading barbarians along the Danube. He became sole emperor in August 394, after defeating the usurper Eugenius. Theodosius died ofedema in January 395.[186]
Honorius became Western emperor in 395, after the death of his father Theodosius. His reign was beset by barbarian invasions, and for much of his early reign, until 408, he was controlled byStilicho, whose influence over Honorius would create a standard for puppet Western Emperors. After 408 his reign was greatly influenced by the generalConstantius, who briefly reigned as his co-emperor for a few months before dying of natural causes. He also faced the usurpation ofPriscus Attalus, a senator who was proclaimed emperor at Rome in 409, andConstantine, who took over Britain and Gaul around the same time. Honorius died of edema in 423.[188][187]
Joannes: 423–425[187](Not recognized by Eastern emperor; accepted by the Senate)
Valentinian III was designated Honorius' heir in 421, although he was not proclaimedcaesar, only given the title ofnobilissimus puer. In 423, after the death of Honorius, a usurper namedJoannes rose up, forcing Valentinian III to flee with his family to the court of the Eastern emperor Theodosius II. Joannes was defeated by Theodosius in Ravenna.
The following last emperors of the West were all accepted by the Senate but only two of them (Anthemius andJulius Nepos) were recognized in the East. In fact, these two emperors were installed by the Eastern emperor.
Petronius Maximus became the Western Roman emperor on 17 March 455, after assassinating Valentinian III.[190] During his short reign, he provoked Gaiseric, theVandal king, into invading the Western Empire and sacking Rome, by breaking a marriage agreement made between Gaiseric and Valentinian III. Maximus and his son Palladius attempted to flee on 31 May 455, however they were apprehended by a group of peasants, and either killed by them, or by palace servants wishing to curry favor with them.[191][192]
Avitus: 455–456(Not recognized by Eastern emperor)[193]
Avitus was proclaimed Western emperor on 9July 455, with the support of the Visigoth King Theodoric II. While he held support from the Visigoths, his rule alienated both the Roman Senate and people. In 456 Ricimer, a senior officer, had Avitus deposed, and ruled the Western Empire through a series of puppet emperors until his death in 472.[194]
Majorian: 457–461(Not recognized by Eastern emperor)[195]
Majorian was proclaimed Western emperor on 28 December 457. On 7August 461, Majorian was compelled to abdicate, and reportedly died five days later of dysentery, although modern historians have asserted he was likely murdered byRicimer, who became the power behind the throne.[196]
Libius Severus was proclaimed Western emperor on 19 November 461. His rule, even as a puppet emperor, extended little beyond Italy, withAegidius splitting off from the Western Empire, and establishing the Kingdom of Soissons. Libius Severus incited the hostility of the Vandals, who invaded Italy and Sicily. During these events, Libius Severus died on 14November 465, possibly due to being poisoned by Ricimer.[197]
Anthemius was proclaimed Western emperor on 12April 467 by Leo I. Under Anthemius, the Western Empire, which had become increasingly isolated from the Eastern Empire, grew closer, although this collaboration came too late to save the Western Empire. Anthemius' friendly attitude towards the Eastern Empire angered Ricimer, who deposed him in March or April of 472.[198]
Olybrius: 472(Not recognized by Eastern emperor)[162]
Olybrius was proclaimed emperor in April 472. His brief reign, lasting only five or six months, was dominated by Gundobad, who had replaced his uncle Ricimer as the true power behind the throne, after the former's death. Olybrius died in October or November 472, of edema.[199]
Glycerius: 473–474(Not recognized by Eastern emperor)[162]
After the death of both Olybrius and Ricimer, Glycerius was proclaimed Western emperor by the Western Roman army, on 3 or 5May 473.[200] He was deposed by Julius Nepos in July 474, and sent to live in a monastery, where he remained until his death.[201]
The Eastern Roman Empire had rejected the coronation of both Olybrius and Glycerius, instead supporting Julius Nepos,magister militum in Dalmatia as Western Roman emperor. Nepos, with support from the East, deposed Glycerius in the spring of 474.[81] Orestes,magister militum of Nepos, deposed him a year later in 475, forcing Nepos to flee Ravenna to his estates in Dalmatia. Orestes crowned his son Romulus as Western emperor, though the Eastern Empire and the Western possessions outside of Italy maintained recognition of Nepos as the legitimate Emperor.[82] Nepos continued to rule as "Western emperor" in exile in Dalmatia until his murder in 480 and would be the last holder of the title.[86]
Romulus Augustus was crowned as Western emperor after his father Orestes deposed Julius Nepos.[82] The rule of Romulus would be brief; in the autumn of 476 thefoederati under the control of Odoacer rebelled when their demands for a third of the land of Italy were ignored.[203] Orestes was captured and executed on 28August of the same year and Romulus was deposed by Odoacer a week later. Romulus was spared and allowed to live in theCastellum Lucullanum inCampania, where he might have been alive as late as AD 507.[204]
With the deposition of Romulus Augustus by Odoacer, direct Roman control ceased to exist in Italy. Odoacer assumed control of the peninsula as ade jure representative of Western Roman emperor Nepos. With the death of Nepos in 480, the Eastern Roman emperor Zeno abolished the title and position of Western Roman emperor and assumed the role of Odoacer's sovereign. The position of Roman emperor would never again be divided, though some new candidates for the position of Western emperor were proposed during and after the Eastern Roman re-conquests of the sixth century, such asBelisarius in 540 andGermanus in 582.[146][147]
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