West Sumatra (Indonesian:Sumatera Barat[9]) is aprovince ofIndonesia. It is on the west coast of the island ofSumatra and includes theMentawai Islands off that coast. West Sumatra borders theIndian Ocean to the west, as well as the provinces ofNorth Sumatra to the north,Riau to the northeast,Jambi to the southeast, andBengkulu to the south. The province has an area of 42,119.54 km2 (16,262.45 sq mi), or about the same size asSwitzerland orPenza Oblast, with a population of 5,534,472 at the2020 census.[10] The official estimate at mid 2024 was 5,836,160 (comprising 2,940,270 males and 2,895,880 females).[1] The province issubdivided into twelveregencies and sevencities. It has relatively more cities than other provinces outsideJava,[11] although several of them are relatively low in population compared with cities elsewhere in Indonesia.Padang is the province's capital andlargest city.
West Sumatra is home to theMinangkabau people, although the traditional Minangkabau region is actually wider than the province's boundaries, covering up to the western coast of North Sumatra, the southwestern coast of Aceh, the western region of Riau, the western region of Jambi, the northern region of Bengkulu, andNegeri Sembilan inMalaysia. Another native ethnic group is theMentawai people, who inhabit the western islands of the same name.Islam is a predominant religion in the province, with about 97.4% of the total population.
West Sumatra was the centre of thePagaruyung Kingdom, founded byAdityawarman in 1347. The first European to come to the region was a French explorer and cartographer namedJean Parmentier who arrived around 1523. The region was later colonised by theDutch Empire and became aresidency named Sumatra's West Coast (Dutch:Sumatra's Westkust), whose administrative area included the present-dayKampar Regency in Riau andKerinci Regency in Jambi. Before becoming a province in 1957, West Sumatra was a part of the province of Central Sumatra (1948–1957), alongside Riau, Jambi, and theRiau Islands.
West Sumatra is known by the nameBumi Minangkabau (Land of Minangkabau), as it is the home and origin of theMinangkabau people. TheMinangkabau name comes from two words namely,Minang (win) andKabau (cattle). The name is associated with a Minangkabau legend known asTambo. From theTambo, it is said that at one time there was a foreign kingdom (usually interpreted as theMajapahit Empire) which came from the sea and would conquer what is now West Sumatra.[citation needed] To prevent fighting in the region, the local people propose a cattle race competition with the foreign forces. The foreign forces agreed and sent a large and aggressive cattle to the competition, while the local community sent a cattle calf who was still breastfeeding to the competition. In the competition, the cattle calf who was still breastfeeding thought the large and aggressive cattle was the mother. So the calf immediately ran towards the large and aggressive cattle to find milk until he tore apart the big cattle's stomach. The victory inspired the local people to use the nameMinangkabau, which comes from the phrase "Manang kabau" (winning cattle).[12] The story of the Tambo is also found in theHikayat Raja-raja Pasai which also mentions that the victory made the country that was previously namedPariangan changed to the nameMinangkabau.[13] Furthermore, the use of the nameMinangkabau is also used to refer to anagari (village), namely theNagari Minangkabau, which is located in Sungayang District,Tanah Datar Regency.
In the historical record of the Majapahit Empire,Nagarakretagama which dated from 1365, also mentioned the nameMinangkabwa as one of the Malay countries that has been conquered by the Majapahit.[14] Likewise in theMing Chronicles from 1405, there was the royal name ofMi-nang-ge-bu of the six kingdoms who sent messengers facingYongle Emperor inNanjing.[15] On the other hand, the nameMinang (Minanga kingdom) itself has also been mentioned in theKedukan Bukit inscription dated from 682 which is written inSanskrit. In the inscription, it was stated that the founder of theSrivijaya Empire namedDapunta Hyang departed from a place calledMinānga.[16] Some experts who refer to the source of the inscription suspects that the 4th line words (...minānga) and the 5th line words (tāmvan ...) are actually incorporated, so that they becomemināngatāmvan and are translated as the meeting point of twin rivers. The twin river is supposed to refer to the meeting of two sources of theKampar River, namely theKampar Kiri River and theKampar Kanan River.[17] But this hypothesis is denied by the Dutch indologistJohannes Gijsbertus de Casparis, which proves thattāmvan has nothing to do with "meeting point", because these can also be found in other Srivijaya relics.[18]
The village of Pariangan, located on the slopes ofMount Marapi, In folklore is said to be the first Minangkabau village.
From the stories of thetambo passed from generation to generation, the ancestors of the Minangkabau people were the descendants ofIskandarZulkarnain (Alexander the Great).[19] This tambo story is more or less comparable to theMalay Annals who also tells how the Minangkabau people sent their representatives to askSang Sapurba, one of the descendants of Iskandar Zulkarnain, to become their king.[20]
The Minang community is part of the Deutro-Malay community who migrated fromSouthern China to the island of Sumatra around 2,500–2,000 years ago. It is estimated that this community group entered from the east of the island of Sumatra, along theKampar River to the highlands calleddarek which became the home of the Minangkabau people.[21] Some of thesedarek areas then form a kind of confederation known asluhak, which is then referred to asLuhak Nan Tigo, which consists ofLuhak Tanah Data,Luhak Agam, andLuhak Limopuluah Koto. During the era of theDutch East Indies, theluhak area became a territorial government area calledafdeling, headed by a resident who by the Minangkabau community was called the nameTuan Luhak.[19] Initially, The Minangkabau people were included as a sub-group of theMalays, but since the 19th century, the Minangkabau and the Malays began to be seen as distinguished, from the matrilineal culture of the Minangkabau that persisted compared to the patrilineal culture adopted by Malay society in general.[22]
A statue believed to beAdityawarman, founder of a Minangkabau kingdom.
According to the MinangkabauTambo, in the period between the 1st century to the 16th century, many small kingdoms stood on what is now West Sumatra. These kingdoms included the Kuntu, Kandis, Siguntur, Pasumayan Koto Batu, Batu Patah, Sungai Pagu, Inderapura, Jambu Lipo, Taraguang, Dusun Tuo, Bungo Setangkai, Talu, Kinali, Parit Batu, Pulau Punjung. These kingdoms were short lived, and are usually under the influence of larger kingdoms, such asMalayu and Pagaruyung.
TheMalayu Kingdom is estimated to have appeared in the year 645 thought to be located in the upper reaches of theBatang Hari River. Based on theKedukan Bukit inscription, this kingdom was conquered by theSrivijaya in 682. And then in 1183 it appeared again based on theGrahi inscription in Cambodia, and then theNegarakertagama andPararaton recorded the existence of the Malay Kingdom which had its capital inDharmasraya. A military expedition to West Sumatra called thePamalayu emerged in 1275–1293 under the leadership of Kebo Anabrang of theSingasari Kingdom. After the submission of the kingdom recorded on theAmoghapasa carved on thePadang Roco Inscription, the Pamalayu returned to Java with the daughters of King Dharmasraya,Dara Petak andDara Jingga. Dara Petak was married toRaden Wijaya, the king ofMajapahit, as well as the heir to the Singhasari kingdom, while Dara Jingga was married toAdwayawarman. Jayanagara was born from the marriage of Raden Wijaya and Dara Petak, who would become the second king of Majapahit, whileAdityawarman was born from the marriage of Dara Jingga and Adwayawarman; he later became king of thePagaruyung Kingdom.
Hindu-Buddhist influence in western Sumatra emerged around the 13th century, and began during the Pamalayu expedition byKertanagara, and later during the reign of Adityawarman and his sonAnanggawarman.[23] Adityawarman's kingdom had the strength to dominate the central Sumatra region and its surrounding.[24] This was proven by the titleMaharajadiraja which was held by Adityawarman recorded on the back of the Amoghapasa carving, found in the upper reaches of theBatang Hari River (now part of theDharmasraya Regency). TheBatusangkar inscription mentioned Ananggawarman as ayuvaraja performing theTantris teaching ritual from Buddhism calledhevajra which is the ceremony of the transfer of power from Adityawarman to his crown prince, this can be attributed to the Chinese chronicle of 1377 about theSan-fo-ts'i messenger to theEmperor of China requesting recognition as ruler of theSan-fo-ts'i region.[25] Some inland areas of central Sumatra are still influenced by Buddhism, evident in the Padangroco temple, thePadanglawas temple andMuara Takus temple, the areas that were formerly part of Adityawarman's land.[26] Whereas the recorded devout adherents besides Adityawarman, wereKublai Khan and kingKertanegara of Singhasari.[27]
Minangkabau royal seal from the 19th century, written inJawi script
Thespread of Islam after the end of the 14th century had little effect, especially relating to the patrilineal system, and gave a relatively new phenomenon to the people in the interior of Minangkabau. At the beginning of the 16th century, theSuma Oriental, written between 1513 and 1515, recorded from the three Minangkabau kings, only one of whom had been a Muslim convert from 15 years before.[28] The influence ofIslam in Pagaruyung developed around the 16th century, namely through travelers and religious teachers who stopped or came fromAceh andMalacca. One of the famous ulama of Aceh,Abd al-Rauf al-Sinkili, was a cleric who was thought to first spread Islam in Pagaruyung. By the 17th century, the Kingdom of Pagaruyung transformed itself into an Islamicsultanate. The first Islamic king in the Minangkabau traditional culture was Sultan Alif.[29]
With the entry of Islam, the customary rules that are contrary to the teachings of Islam began to be replaced with the Islamic-based customary law. There is a famous Minangkabau custom proverb, "Adat basandi syarak, syarak basandi Kitabullah", which means that the Minangkabau adat is based on Islam, while Islam is based on theQur'an. But in some cases, several systems and methods of adat were still maintained causing the outbreak of civil war known as thePadri War. The war was initially between theulamas and theAdats, who were the Minangkabau nobility and traditional chiefs; later, theDutch involved themselves in the war.[30]
Islam also had an influence on Pagaruyung kingdom's government system with the addition of government elements such asTuan Kadi and several other terms related to Islam. The naming of the Sumpur Kudus District, which contains the words derived from the wordQuduus (holy) as the seat ofRajo Ibadat andLimo Kaum which contains the wordqaum is an influence fromArabic or Islam. In addition, in theadat, the termImam,Katik (Khatib),Bila (Bilal),Malin (Mu'alim), which is a substitute for Hindu and Buddhist terms used previously, such as the termPandito (priest), also appears.
Dutch forces charging towards Minangkabau position during thePadri WarTuanku Imam Bonjol was one of the leader of the Padri movement during thePadri War. Ultimately he was captured the Dutch and was exiled to theCelebes
At the beginning of the 17th century, the Pagaruyung Kingdom was forced to recognize the sovereignty of theAceh Sultanate, and to recognize the designated Aceh governors for the west coast of Sumatra.[31] But around 1665, the Minangkabau people on the west coast rebelled against the Aceh governor. From the letter of the Minangkabau ruler Raja Pagaruyung submitted a request to theDutch East India Company (VOC), and the VOC at that time took the opportunity to end Aceh's monopoly on gold and pepper.[32] Furthermore, the VOC through its regent inPadang, Jacob Pits whose territory included from Kotawan in the south to Barus in the north sent a letter dated October 9, 1668 addressed to the Ahmadsyah Sultan, Iskandar Zur-Karnain, the Minangkabau ruler who was rich in gold, was told the VOC controlled the west coast area so that the gold trade can be re-flowed through the coast. According to Dutch records, Sultan Ahmadsyah died in 1674 and was replaced by his son Sultan Indermasyah.[33][34] When the VOC succeeded in expelling the Aceh Sultanate from the coast of West Sumatra in 1666, Aceh's influence weakened on Pagaruyung.[35] The relationship between the outer regions and the coast with the Kingdom of Pagaruyung becomes closer. At the time Pagaruyung was one of the trading centers on the island of Sumatra, due to its production of gold, it attracted the attention of theDutch and theBritish to establish relations with Pagaruyung. It is recorded that in 1684, a Portuguese explorer named Tomas Dias paid a visit to Pagaruyung at the behest of the Dutch governor general inMalacca.[36]
Around 1750, the Pagaruyung kingdom began to dislike the presence of the VOC in Padang and once tried to persuade the British who were inBengkulu to expel the Dutch from the region which the British did not respond to.[37] But in 1781, the British managed to control Padang for a short period of time, and messengers from Pagaruyung congratulated the success of the British in expelling the Dutch from Padang.[38][39] Minangkabau land has long been considered rich in gold, and at that time the power of the Minangkabau king was divided into kingSuruaso and the king ofSungai Tarab with the equal power.[39] Previously in 1732, the VOC regent in Padang had noted that there was a queen namedYang Dipertuan Puti Jamilan who had sent spears and swords made from gold, as a sign of her inauguration as the ruler of the land.[40] While the Dutch and British succeeded in reaching the interior of the Minangkabau region, they had never found significant gold reserves in the area.[41]
As a result of the conflict between theBritish andFrench in theNapoleonic Wars where the Dutch were on the French side, the British fought the Dutch and again succeeded in taking control of the coast of West Sumatra between 1795 and 1819. The British governorThomas Stamford Raffles visited Pagaruyung in 1818, when thePadri War began. At that time Raffles discovered that the capital city of the kingdom had been burned because of the war.[42] After the signing ofa peace agreement between the British and the Netherlands was signed in 1814, the Dutch re-entered Padang in May 1819. The Dutch reaffirmed their influence on the island of Sumatra and Pagaruyung, with the signing of theAnglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824. The power of the king of Pagaruyung was very weak in the days leading up to the Padri war, although the king was still respected by his subject. The areas on the western coast fell into the influence of Aceh, whileInderapura on the southern coast practically became an independent kingdom although officially still under the rule of the king of Pagaruyung.
In the early 19th century a conflict broke out between thePadri and theAdat. In several negotiations there was no agreement between them. Pagaruyung's kingdom was in turmoil, and the peak of the war was when the Padri under the leadership ofTuanku Pasaman attacked Pagaruyung in 1815. Sultan Arifin Muningsyah was forced to abdicate and escape from the royal capital to Lubuk Jambi.[43][44] Under pressure by the Padri, the Pagaruyung royal family requested assistance from the Dutch, and before that they had conducted diplomacy with the British when Raffles visited Pagaruyung and promised them assistance.[35] On February 10, 1821, Sultan Tangkal Alam Bagagarsyah, the nephew of Sultan Arifin Muningsyah, in Padang along with 19 other traditional leaders signed an agreement with the Dutch to cooperate in fighting the Padri, even though he was considered not entitled to make an agreement on behalf of the kingdom of Pagaruyung.[45][33] As a result of this agreement,the Netherlands considered it a sign of surrender of the kingdom of Pagaruyung to the Dutch government.[30] After the Dutch captured Pagaruyung from the Padri, in 1824 at the request of Lieutenant Colonel Raaff, Sultan Arifin Muningsyah returned to Pagaruyung, but in 1825, Sultan Arifin Muningsyah, the last king in Minangkabau, died and was later buried in Pagaruyung.[33] Sultan Tangkal Alam Bagagarsyah on the other hand wanted to be recognized as the king of Pagaruyung, but theDutch East Indies government had limited his authority and only appointed him the Regent of Tanah Datar.[33] Because of the policy it encouraged Sultan Tangkal Alam Bagagarsyah to start thinking about expelling the Dutch from the region.[35]
After emerging victorious from theDiponegoro War in Java, the Dutch then tried to conquer the Padri with shipments of soldiers fromJava,Madura,Celebes and theMoluccas.[46] But the Dutch colonial ambitions caused the Adat and the Padri to forget their differences in secret to drive the Dutch away. On 2 May 1833 Sultan Tangkal Alam Bagagarsyah was captured by Lieutenant Colonel Elout inBatusangkar on charges of treason. He was exiled toBatavia (present-day Jakarta) until his death, and was buried in the Mangga Dua cemetery.[47] After the fall, the influence and prestige of the kingdom of Pagaruyung remained high, especially among Minangkabau people who were overseas. One of Pagaruyung's royal heirs was invited to become a ruler inKuantan, Malaysia.[48] Likewise when Raffles was still on duty in theMalay Peninsula, he met Pagaruyung's relatives who were inNegeri Sembilan, and Raffles intended to appoint Yang Dipertuan Ali Alamsyah who he considered to be the direct descendant of the Minangkabau kings as a king under British protection.[35] After the end of the Padri War, Tuan Gadang of Batipuh asked the Dutch East Indies government to give a higher position than just as the Tanah Datar Regent which he held after replacing Sultan Tangkal Alam Bagagarsyah, but this request was rejected by the Dutch, this later included one of the drivers of the outbreak of the 1841 rebellion in Batipuh in addition to thecultuurstelsel problem.[49][33]
The residence of the governor ofWestkust van Sumatra
The name West Sumatra originated in the Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie (VOC) era, where the designation of the area for the west coast of Sumatra wasHoofdcomptoir van Sumatra's Westkust. Then with the strengthening of the political and economic influence of the VOC, until the 18th century this administrative region included the west coast of Sumatra fromBarus toInderapura.[50] Along with the fall of the Kingdom of Pagaruyung, and the involvement of the Dutch in the Padri War, the Dutch East Indies government began to make the interior of Minangkabau a part ofPax Nederlandica, an area under Dutch supervision, and the Minangkabau region was divided into theResidentie Padangsche Benedenlanden and theResidentie Padangsche Bovenlanden.[35] Furthermore, in the development of the colonial administration of the Dutch East Indies, this area was incorporated in theGouvernement Sumatra's Westkust, including theResidentie Bengkulu region which had just been surrendered by the British to the Dutch. Then expanded again by including Tapanuli andSingkil. But in 1905, the status of Tapanuli was upgraded toResidentie Tapanuli, while the Singkil area was given toResidentieAtjeh. Then in 1914,Gouvernement Sumatra's Westkust, was demoted toResidentie Sumatra's Westkust, and added theMentawai Islands region in the Indian Ocean intoResidentie Sumatra's Westkust, and in 1935 the Kerinci region was also incorporated intoResidentie Sumatra's Westkust. After the breakdown of theGouvernement Sumatra's Oostkust, theRokan Hulu andKuantan Singingi regions were given toResidentieRiouw, andResidentieDjambi was also formed in almost the same period.[50]
During theJapanese occupation,Residentie Sumatra's Westkust changed its name toSumatora Nishi Kaigan Shu. On the basis of military geo-strategy, theKampar area was separated fromSumatora Nishi Kaigan Shu and incorporated into the territory ofRhio Shu.
At the beginning ofIndonesian independence in 1945, the West Sumatra region was incorporated in the Sumatra province based inBukittinggi. Four years later, Sumatra Province was divided into three provinces:North Sumatra,Central Sumatra, andSouth Sumatra. West Sumatra, Riau and Jambi were part of the residency within the province of Central Sumatra. During thePRRI rebellion, based on emergency law number 19 of 1957, Central Sumatra Province was further divided into three provinces: West Sumatra Province, Riau Province, and Jambi Province. The Kerinci region which was previously incorporated in the South Sumatra Regency ofKerinci, was incorporated into Jambi Province as a separate regency. Likewise, theKampar,Rokan Hulu andKuantan Singingi areas are designated as part of Riau Province.
Communism inSumatra has historically had an influence in the politics and society ofSumatra.Padang,Pariaman,Silungkang,Sawah Lunto,Alahan Panjang andSuliki of West Sumatra have been cited as areas which were particularly active in communism.[51] During the PRRI rebellion, the insurgents arrested leftist activists and placed them in detention camps in West Sumatra. PKI cadres were detained at Situjuh and Suliki, while followers of thenational communistMurba Party and other groups were detained at the Muara Labuh camp.[52] Incidentally,Hadji Abdullah Ahmad, a noted anti-communist and religious leader was from theMinangkabau Highlands, where communism was active.[53] Numerous examples of anti-communist resentment also occurred, for instance during theIndonesian killings of 1965–1966, PKI-organised squatters' movements and campaigns against foreign businesses in Sumatra's plantations provoked quick reprisals against Communists.[54] Repression against alleged PKI members and sympathizers continued for several years. As late as 1976 mass lay-offs of former members of the communist plantation workers' unionSarbupri members took place in Sumatra, actions motivated by the communist past of these individuals.
West Sumatra lies in the middle of the western coast ofSumatra, and has an area of 42,119.54 km2. Geographic features includeplains, mountainous volcanic highlands formed by theBarisan mountain range that runs from north-west to south-east, and an offshore island archipelago called theMentawai Islands. The West Sumatran coastline faces the Indian Ocean and stretches 375 km fromNorth Sumatra province in the north-west toBengkulu in the south-east. The lakes of West Sumatra include:Maninjau (99.5 km2),Singkarak (130.1 km2),Diatas (31.5 km2),Dibawah (14.0 km2) andTalang (5.0 km2). Most of the rivers in West Sumatra flow into theStrait of Malacca, include:Batanghari,Kampar,Ombilin andSinamar, and others flow into the Indian Ocean, include:Kuranji,Anai andArau. The mountains and volcanoes of West Sumatra include:Kerinci (3,805 m),Talakmau (2,912 m),Marapi (2,891 m),Singgalang (2,877 m),Talang (2,572 m),Tandikat (2,438 m) andSago (2,271 m).
This region has atropical monsoon climate, similar to most other Indonesian provinces. Throughout the year the province is only affected by two seasons, namely the rainy season and the dry season. The air temperature varies from 24.7 to 32.9 degrees Celsius with air humidity levels ranging from 82% to 88%. The relative rainy season falls from October to April. Variation in rainfall ranges from 2,100 mm to 3,264 mm. The month December is the month with the most rainfall. While the dry season usually starts in June to September.
The season in West Sumatra is similar to other regions in Indonesia, only known for two seasons, namely the dry season and the rainy season. From June to September wind flows from Australia and do not contain much water vapor, resulting in a dry season. Conversely in December to March many wind currents contain water vapor from Asia and the Pacific Ocean during the rainy season. Such conditions occur every half-year after passing the transition period in between April – May and October – November.
As in most other province of Indonesia, West Sumatra has atropical rainforest climate (Köppen climate classificationAf) bordering on a tropical monsoon climate. The climate is very much dictated by the surrounding sea and the prevailing wind system. It has high average temperature and high average rainfall.
The province includes two national parks:Siberut National Park andKerinci Seblat National Park, as well as a number of nature reserves: Rimbo Panti Nature Reserve, Batang Palupuh Nature Reserve, Lembah Anai Nature Reserve, Lembah Harau Nature Reserve, Bung Hatta Grand Forest Park, and Beringin Sakti Nature Reserve.
The Province of West Sumatra is led by a governor who is elected directly with his representative for a 5-year term. In addition to being a regional government, the Governor also acts as a representative or extension of the central government in the province, whose authority is regulated in Law No. 32 of 2004 and Government Regulation number 19 of 2010.
While the relationship between the provincial government and the regency and city governments is not a sub-ordinate, each of these regional governments governs and manages government affairs according to the principle of autonomy and co-administration.
Minangkabau settlement in Nagari Koto Baru, now known as Seribu Rumah Gadang.
Until 1979, the smallest administrative unit in West Sumatra was called anagari, which had existed beforeIndonesian independence. With the enactment of Law No. 5 of 1979 concerning village governance, the status of nagari was eliminated and replaced with villages, and several jorong statuses were upgraded to villages. The position of nagari guardians was also removed and government administration was carried out by village heads. But since the onset ofgovernment reform and regional autonomy, since 2001, the termnagari has been used again in this province.
The political culture that lived in the West Sumatra village government since the policy of uniformity (Law No. 5 of 1979) was applied to the parochial political culture. this condition is seen through the power system, the ruling system, the terms of the ruler, and the role of the ruler in the village government.
The kinship system in developing participant political culture began to shift, in terms of the level of sensitivity, the form of tolerance in kinship, and the role of seniority in kinship. This means that the lack of togetherness in the kinship power system.
Nagari government is an autonomous government structure, has a clear territory and adheres to adat as a regulator of the life of its members. the regency replaced the term village government that was used previously. Whereas for the nagari in the city government system still as a traditional institution, it has not become part of the regional government structure.
Opportunities that occur in village government are the emergence of individualistic economic growth. This condition is a result of dependence on the central government, resulting in lack of independence. This condition can weaken the resilience of the area of the economy itself. However, now the villages of West Sumatra have tried to build efforts to facilitate the political policies of the village government or since exchanging back into nagari, namely changing the structure and process between village government structures made under Law No. 5 of 1979.[56]
Nagari was initially led jointly by the princes ordatuk in thenagari, then during theDutch East Indies government one of the princes was chosen to become the guardian of the Nagari. Then in running the government, the nagari guardians are assisted by a number of jorong or jorong guardians, but now assisted by thenagari secretary and civil servants depending on the needs of eachnagari. Thisnagari guardian was chosen by theanak nagari (nagari residents) democratically in direct elections for six years in office.
West Sumatra Province is subdivided into twelveregencies and seven autonomous cities, which lie outside any regency. The regencies and cities are listed below with their areas and their populations at the 2010 Census[57] and 2020 Census,[10] together with the official estimates as at mid 2024.[1]
Cities of West Sumatra
The city ofPadang is the administrative center of the province.
The cities and regencies are together sub-divided into 179 districts (kecamatan) and thence into 1,265 villages (kelurahan anddesa) as at 2025. The coastal cities and regencies include 219 offshore islands (those large enough to have individual names), of which 111 comprise the Mentawai Islands Regency, 26 are in West Pasaman Regency, 2 in Agam Regency, 2 in Padang Pariaman Regency, 4 in Pariaman City, 21 in Padang City and 49 in South Pesisir Regency.
Cities and Regencies in West Sumatra in order of theHuman Development Index (HDI). The figures come from the 2024 West Sumatera Human Development Report,[58] published byStatistics Indonesia.
As a new regency, Dharmasraya got the highest score (59.43) in 2011 from a possible 100 among other new regencies.[59]
Before the reforms of 1999 and the implementation of regional autonomy in 2001, the lowest local government unit under the district administrations was the Javanese model of the village, thedesa. Under regional autonomy, the traditional Minangkabaunagari, which are larger than villages elsewhere in Indonesia, have been reintroduced in place of thedesa.[60][61]
The province comprises two of Indonesia's 84 national electoral districts to elect members to thePeople's Representative Council. TheWest Sumatra I Electoral District consists of seven of the regencies in the province (Mentawai Islands, Pesisir Selatan, Solok, Sikunjung, Tanah Datar, South Solok and Dharmasraya), together with four cities (Padang Panjang, Padang, Solok and Sawahlunto), and elects eight members to the People's Representative Council. TheWest Sumatra II Electoral District consists of the remaining five regencies (Padang Pariaman, Agam, Lima Puluk Kota, Pasaman and West Pasaman), together with the three cities of Bukittinggi, Pariaman and Payakumbuh, and elects six members to the People's Representative Council.[62]
The Census population of West Sumatra was 2.8 million in 1971, 3.4 million in 1980, 4.0 million in 1990, 4.25 million in 2000, 4.85 million in 2010,[57] and 5.53 million in 2020, of whom 2,786,360 were male and 2,748,112 were female.[10] In 2010, 88% were recorded by theBadan Pusat Statistik asMinangkabau people.Batak people, mainly fromMandailing sub-ethnic group, andJavanese comprised 4% of the population respectively, whileMentawai people, who live in the Mentawai islands, made up 1%.The population as at mid 2024 was officially estimated at 5,836,160 and it was projected to reach 5,914,300 at mid 2025.[1]
In 2015, about 44.2% of West Sumatran lived in urban areas.[63] Most of the urban population of West Sumatra is concentrated in the centre-west coast of province andMinangkabau Highlands. West Sumatra has three cities with populations over 100,000.Padang is the major metropolitan areas with a city population of 954,170 in mid 2023; Minangkabau highlands cities ofPayakumbuh andBukittinggi rank as West Sumatra's next most populous cities, with populations of 145,730 and 125,020 respectively in mid-2024.[1]
West Sumatra is the native homeland of Minangkabau people. They speakMinangkabau language and predominantlyMuslim. West Sumatran have historically played the important role within the Muslim community in Indonesia.[64] Up until today the region is considered one of the strongholds of Islam in Indonesia. They have a reputation as traders, intellectuals as well as politically savvy people who have successfully exported their culture, language, cuisine and beliefs throughout Indonesia.[65]
Mentawaians live on the Mentawai Islands, off the western coast of Sumatra, and are also part of the native people of province. They speakMentawai languages, which are intelligible with neither Indonesian nor Minangkabau. A small minority of the Mentawais are Christians. In the Mentawai Islands, where the majority of the population is Mentawai, it is rare to find Minangkabau people.Chinese Indonesian are mostly only found in big cities, such as Padang, Bukittinggi, and Payakumbuh. In Padang and Pariaman, there are also small numbers ofNias andTamil people.[66]
The language used in everyday life in West Sumatra is theMinangkabau language which has several dialects, such as the Bukittinggi dialect, Pariaman dialect, South Coastal dialect, and Payakumbuh dialect. In the Pasaman and West Pasaman regions bordering North Sumatra, the Batak Mandailing dialect is also spoken. Meanwhile, in the Mentawai archipelago, theMentawai language is widely used.Tamil is spoken by Tamils in Padang.
Indonesian is widely understood as a second-language. It is used as the language of education as well as interethnic communication.
Islam is the majority religion adopted by 97% of the population of West Sumatra. Christians, concentrated in theMentawai Islands, number around 2.2%, Buddhists are around 0.26%, and Hindus are around 0.01%, the two latter being adopted by immigrant communities.
Various places of worship, which are dominated by mosques and musallas, can be found in every district and city in West Sumatra. The largest mosque is the Grand Mosque of West SumatraGrand Mosque of West Sumatra in Padang. The oldest mosques include theGanting Grand Mosque inPadang and theTuo Kayu Jao Mosque inSolok Regency. The typical Minangkabau architecture dominates both the form of the mosque and the musala. TheGrand Mosque of West Sumatra has a gonjong-shaped building, decorated with Minang carvings and calligraphy. There is also a mosque with a roof consisting of several levels, which are getting smaller and more concave.
Tuo Kayu Jao Mosque inSolok, one of oldest mosques in Indonesia
Two Datuks, Minangkabau tribal or village leader, are chatting among the preparation of cultural ceremony called Batagak Datuak or Batagak Penghulu (Inauguration of the Leader) in District of Kamang Magek, Agam, West Sumatra.
The nuances of Minangkabau in every West Sumatra music mixed with any type of music at this time will definitely be seen from every song that circulates in the community. This is because Minang music can be formulated with any kind of music that makes it pleasant to hear and acceptable to the public. The musical elements giving the nuance consist of traditional musical instruments,saluang,bansi,talempong,rabab,pupuik,serunai, andgandang tabuik.
There is also asaluang jo dendang, which is the delivery of chanting accompanied bysaluang, also known assijobang.[67]
Minangkabau music in the form of instrumental and songs from this area are generally melancholy. This is closely related to the structure of the community which has a sense of brotherhood, kinship relations and love of a high homeland supported by the habit of going abroad.
The music industry in West Sumatra is growing with the emergence of Minangkabau artists who can blend modern music into traditional Minangkabau music. The development of modern Minang music in West Sumatra dates back to the 1950s, marked by the birth of the Gumarang Orchestra. Elly Kasim, Tiar Ramon and Nurseha are well-known West Sumatra singers in the 1970s to the present. At present the singers, songwriters and music stylists in West Sumatra are under the auspices of the PAPPRI organization (Association of Indonesian Singer Music Songwriters) and PARMI (Indonesian Minang Artist Association).
Record companies in West Sumatra that support the Minang music industry include: Tanama Record, Planet Record, Pitunang Record, Sinar Padang Record, Caroline Record located inPadang and Minang Record, Gita Virma Record located inBukittinggi.
Broadly speaking, dance from West Sumatra is from the customs of theMinangkabau people and theMentawai people. The peculiarities of Minangkabau dance are generally influenced by the Islamic religion, the uniqueness of matrilineal customs and the habit of migrating their communities also give a great influence on the soul of a classical dance that is classic, includingtari pasambah,Tari Piring,tari payung, and thetari indang. Meanwhile, there is also a performance typical of other Minangkabau ethnic groups in the form of a unique blend of martial arts calledsilek with dancing, singing and acting known asRandai.[68]
As for the typical Mentawai people dance is calledTuruk Laggai. ThisTuruk Langai dance generally tells about animal behavior, so the title is adjusted to the names of the animals, for exampletari burung (bird),tari monyet (monkey),tari ayam (chicken),tari ular (snake) and so on.[69]
Balai, council chamber, on Sumatra's west coast, dated c. 1895Pagaruyung Palace
The traditional house of West Sumatra, especially from theMinangkabau people, is calledRumah Gadang. Therumah Gadang is usually built on a plot of land belonging to the parent family in the tribe and people from generation to generation.[70] Not far from therumah gadang complex is usually also built asurau that functions as a place of worship and a place of residence for unmarried adult men. Therumah gadang is made in the form of a rectangle and is divided into two front and rear parts, generally made of wood, and at first glance it looks like a stilt house with a distinctive roof, prominent like a buffalo horn, the local people call itGonjong and the roof was formerly made from palm fiber before changing to a zinc roof.[71] Thisrumag Bagonjong according to the local community was inspired by theTambo, which tells of the arrival of their ancestors by boat from the sea. Another distinctive feature of this traditional house is not using iron nails but using wooden pegs, but strong enough as a binder.[72][73]
While theMentawai people also have a traditional house in the form of a large stilt house with a floor height of up to one meter of land calleduma.[74]Uma is inhabited jointly by five to ten families. In general, this uma construction was built without the use of nails, but it was cooked with wood and a cross-linking system.
Tari Piring ("plate dance") from Minangkabau region of West Sumatra
Traditional, West Sumatra weapons areKeris andKerambit shaped like tiger nails. Keris are usually used by men and placed on the front, and are generally used by the princes, especially in any official event, especially in the event of a gala or inaugural title, but it is also commonly used by the bridegroom in the community wedding ceremony the local called itbaralek. While kerambit is a small sharp weapon that curves like a tiger's nails, because it is inspired by the hooves of the beast. This deadly weapon is used by Minangsilat warriors in short-range battles which are usually secret weapons, especially those using tiger martial arts moves. Various other types of weapons have also been used such as spears, long swords, arrows, chopsticks and so on.
Gradually, the economy of West Sumatra began to move positively after experiencing pressure due to the impact of the2009 earthquake that hit the region. The impact of this disaster was seen in quarter IV-2009, where economic growth only reached 0.90%. But now the economy of West Sumatra has improved, with growth rates above the national average. In 2022 the West Sumatra economy grew by 4.36%, better than the previous year which was only 3.29%. The high economic growth of West Sumatra in the past three years has reduced poverty in the province from 6.28% (2020) to 5.92% (2022).[75] For the Gross Regional Domestic Revenue (GRDP), in 2022 the province had a GRDP of Rp 285.4 trillion, with a GDP per capita of Rp 50.6 million.
Along with the growth of the economy of West Sumatra, the number of workers needed is also increasing. This has led to a decline in unemployment rate in the province. Between February 2023 – February 2024, the number of unemployed people increased from 176,970 people to 178,840 people. The openUnemployment Rate declined from 5.90% to 5.79%. This figure is above the national average in February 2024 which reached 4.82%. In February 2024, the number of West Sumatra's workforce reached 3.09 million people, an increase of 86,780 people compared to the total workforce in February 2023.
Most of the population working is absorbed in the agricultural sector. Employment in this sector is able to absorb 29.27% of the existing workforce. However, this absorption percentage increase compared to the previous year which was 28.36%. Meanwhile, the percentage of working population absorbed in the trade sector again increased, from 19.83% in February 2023 to 22.81% in February 2024.
In the fourth quarter of 2012, the agricultural sector experienced relatively high growth, driven by the stretching of the food crops subsector. In this quarter the growth of the agricultural sector reached 4.14%, higher than the previous quarter of 2.05%. The good performance of the plantation sector in 2012 has sustained the growth of the agricultural industry by 4.07%.
The West Sumatra industry is dominated by small scale industries or households. The number of industrial units is 47,819 units, consisting of 47,585 small industrial units and 234 large medium industrial units, with a ratio of 203: 1. In 2001 large medium industry investment reached Rp 3,052 billion, or 95.60% of total investment, while small industries the investment is only Rp. 1,412 billion or 4.40% of the total investment. The value of the production of large medium industries in 2001 reached Rp. 1,623 billion, which is 60% of the total production value, and the value of small industrial production only reaches Rp. 1,090 billion, or 40% of the total value of production.
For the cement processing industry, in 2012 West Sumatra produced 6,522,006 tons, higher than last year's 6,151,636 tons. While the sales volume in 2012 was 6,845,070 tons, an increase of 10.20% compared to last year which was 6,211,603 tons.
The return of the economy of West Sumatra in the aftermath of the earthquake and the recovery of the global economy, especially in the central Sumatra zone, was also a driving factor for the re-moving of the service sector (7.38%). The service sectors that are quite important in this province are finance, hotels, restaurants and travel agents. The growth of hotels in West Sumatra in the last three years has been quite rapid. This is in line with the increasing number of tourists who come to this province. During 2012 there were 36,623 foreign tourists visiting West Sumatra, an increase of 8.27% compared to last year which was 33,827 tourists.
West Sumatra has the potential of group A, B and C mining materials. Group A mining materials, namely coal, are found in the city ofSawahlunto. While group B mining materials consisting ofmercury,sulfur,iron sand, copper, lead and silver are spread inSijunjung,Dharmasraya,Solok,South Solok,Limapuluh Koto,Pasaman, andTanah Datar Regencies. Group C mining materials spread throughout all districts and cities, mostly consisting of sand, stone and gravel.
The development of various banking indicators in the fourth quarter of 2012 showed improvement in line with the recovery in the post-earthquake economic conditions. In 2012, the total assets of commercial banks in the province reached Rp. 40.1 trillion with the value of lending by commercial banks amounting to Rp. 33.8 trillion. While the total assets of rural banks in the province reached Rp 1.53 trillion with the value of lending by the bank amounting to Rp 1.03 trillion.
The province is served byMinangkabau International Airport, opened in July 2005, 23 km north-west ofPadang in Ketaping,Padang Pariaman regency. The airport has direct international services toKuala Lumpur in Malaysia, as well as servicing most large cities in Indonesia.
Significant roads include theTrans-Sumatran Highway which runs the length of the province, heading north-west towardsMedan and south-east towardsJakarta, the road between Padang andBukittinggi, and the road between Bukittinggi andPekanbaru. The provincial government plans to upgrade the later two roads over the next few years to improve traffic flows.[76]
In January 2012, theKelok Sembilan 970-meter long overpass was ready to be opened to the public and was in the trial stage which will be opened for vehicles in April 2012. Kelok Sembilan means 9 sharp turns is an area through which a road with tight bends passes through hilly terrain in the middle of a valley, a nice scenery, but cause congestion.[77] After the overpass opens, the old Kelok Sembilan road is still open together with the new Kelok Sembilan for tourists.
Regular bus services run between Padang and Bukittinggi, and the other major cities of Sumatra. Other public transport options within the province include train,oplet,taxi and horse cart (bendi).
Teluk Bayur port in Padang is the largest and busiest on the western coast of Sumatra. It is used for exporting goods from West Sumatra as well as from some areas of the neighboring provinces.
Train services operate betweenPadang andPariaman with round trips four times daily andairport rail link serves routes to Padang and Kayutanam.
The prime tourist attractions of West Sumatra are the natural environment, and the culture and history of the Minangkabau andMentawai people.
Natural attractions of the mainland include the tropical forests, mountains, volcanos, lakes, valleys, rivers & waterfalls in the highlands, the fauna and flora, and the beaches around Padang. Many areas are protected as part of national parks and reserves. The city ofBukittinggi is a popular central location in the highlands from which to explore the culture and history of the Minangkabau people, including architecture, crafts, dances, music and food. There are a number of museums and cultural centers. Pariaman has one of the famous festivals,Tabuik. The Mentawai Islands are a popular destination for surfers and those looking to experience the culture and more primitive lifestyle of the Mentawai people. For developing West Sumatra tourism, in 2006 the government opened tourist train railway service run between Padang – Padang Panjang – Sawahlunto. TheTour de Singkarak international cycling race had boosted the number of the foreign tourists to West Sumatra.[78] The majority of the foreign tourists are Malaysians and Australian.
There are 25 islands at Pesisir Selatan Regency potential to be tourist sites. Cubadak Island (9 hectares), Pagang Island (12 hectares) and Pulau Penyu (Turtle Island) have been developed well. At the northern part will be developed Semangki Besar Island, Semangki Kecil Island, Marak Island, Setan Terusan Island, and Karao Island. At the southern part will be developed Kerabak Ketek Island, Kerabak Gadang Island, and Kosong Island.[79]
The traditional dance is "Tari Piring" or Plate Dance which is originally came from Solok, West Sumatra.[citation needed]
Education is highly valued in the Minangkabau culture,[80] therefore West Sumatra was once a center of education on the island of Sumatra, especially in the education ofIslam by mosque as the main base place.[81] During the colonial rule Islamic schools of education are so marginalized in comparison with theDutch East Indies model which is considered more modern.[82] Since Islamic scholars sponsored many village schools, West Sumatra had one of the highest literacy rates in Indonesia.
West Sumatra is home to several universities, the most notable of which isAndalas University. It is the oldest university in Indonesia outside Java.
West Sumatra is also home of several professional soccer clubs. The most popular of them isSemen Padang, which regularly plays its matches inHaji Agus Salim Stadium, the biggest stadium in West Sumatra. After 1 season of an impressive season, in 2024 Semen Padang FC returned to compete inBRI Liga 1 (Indonesia's premier league).[83]
An array ofNasi kapau dishes, Minangkabau Bukittinggi cuisine.
Padang food is the cuisine of theMinangkabau people. Padang food is famous for its rich taste of succulentcoconut milk and spicy chili.[84] Minang cuisine put much emphasis in three elements;gulai (curry),lado (chili pepper) andbareh (rice). No traditional Padang meal is complete without the three—spicy chili sauce, thick curry, and perfect steamed rice.[85] Among the cooking traditions inIndonesian cuisine, Minangkabau cuisine and most ofSumatran cuisine, demonstrateIndian andMiddle Eastern influences, with dishes cooked incurry sauce with coconut milk and the heavy use of spices mixture.
Because most Minangkabau people areMuslims, Minangkabau cuisine followshalal dietary law rigorously. Protein intake are mostly taken from beef, water buffalo, goat, lamb meat, and poultry and fish. Minangkabau people are known for their fondness of cattle meat products includingoffal. Almost all the parts of a cattle, such as meat,ribs,tongue,tail,liver,tripe, brain,bone marrow,spleen,intestine,cartilage,tendon, and skin are made to be Minangkabau delicacies. Seafood is popular in coastal West Sumatran cities, and most are grilled or fried with spicy chili sauce or in curry gravy. Fish, shrimp, and cuttlefish are cooked in similar fashion. Most of Minangkabau food is eaten with hot steamed rice or compressed rice such askatupek (ketupat). Vegetables are mostly boiled such as boiledcassava leaf, or simmered in thin curry as side dishes, such asgulai of youngjackfruit or cabbages.
In Padang food establishments, it is common to eat with one's hands. They usually providekabasuah, a bowl of tap water with a slice oflime in it to give a fresh scent. This water is used to wash one's hands before and after eating. If a customer does not wish to eat with bare hands, it is acceptable to ask for aspoon andfork.
Authentic Minangkabau rendang is dark in colour, served withketupat
The cuisine is usually cooked once per day. To haveNasi Padang in restaurants customers choose from those dishes, which are left on display in high-stacked plates in the windows. During a dine-inhidang (serve) style Padang restaurant, after the customers are seated, they do not have to order. The waiter immediately serves the dishes directly to the table, and the table will quickly be set with dozens of small dishes filled with highly flavored foods such as beefrendang, curried fish, stewedgreens, chilieggplant, curried beefliver,tripe, intestines, or foottendons, fried beeflung, friedchicken, and of course,sambal, the spicy sauces ubiquitous at Indonesian tables. Customers take—and pay for—only what they want from this array.[86] The best known Padang dish isrendang, a spicy meat stew.Soto Padang (crispy beef in spicy soup) is local residents' breakfast favorite, meanwhilesate (beefsatay incurry sauce served withketupat) is a treat in the evening.
The serving style is different inNasi Kapau food stalls, a MinangkabauBukittinggi style. After the customer is seated, he or she is asked which dishes they desire. The chosen dishes will be put directly upon the steamed rice or in separate small plates.
There are myriad Padang food establishments throughout Indonesia and the region, according toIkatan Warung Padang Indonesia (Iwapin) or Warung Padang Bonds. In GreaterJakarta alone there are at least 20,000 Padang restaurant establishments.[87] Several notable Minangkabaurestaurant chains are Sederhana, Garuda, Pagi Sore, Simpang Raya, Sari Ratu, Sari Minang, Payakumbuah and Natrabu.
The importance of Padang food establishments (warung orrumah makan Padang) for Indonesian workers' lunch break in urban areas, was demonstrated in 2016; when Jakarta municipal civil servants demanded the raise ofuang lauk pauk (food allowance, as a component of civil servant's salary), following the raise ofNasi Padang price in Greater Jakarta area.[88]
^Djamaris, Edwar (1991).Tambo Minangkabau. Jakarta: Balai Pustaka. pp. 220–221.ISBN978-979-1477-09-3.
^Hill, A.H. (1960).Hikayat Raja-raja Pasai. London: Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland.
^Brandes, J.L.A. (1902).Nāgarakrětāgama; Lofdicht van Prapanjtja op Koning Radjasanagara, Hajam Wuruk, van Madjapahit, Naar Het Eenige Daarvan Bekende Handschrift, Aangetroffen in de Puri te Tjakranagara op Lombok.
^Mahāwitthayālai Sinlapākō̜n; Phāk Wichā Phāsā Tawanʻō̜k (2003).Sanskrit in Southeast Asia. Sanskrit Studies Centre, Silpakorn University.ISBN974-641-045-8.
^Casparis, J.G. (1989). "Peranan Adityawarman Putera Melayu di Asia Tenggara".Tamadun Melayu.3:918–943.
^Suleiman, S. (1977).The archaeology and history of West Sumatra. Pusat Penelitian Purbakala dan Peninggalan Nasional, Departemen P & K.
^Muljana, S. (2005).Runtuhnya Kerajaan Hindu-Jawa dan Timbulnya Negara-negara Islam di Nusantara. Yogyakarta: PT LKiS Pelangi Aksara.ISBN9789798451164.
^Poesponegoro, M.D.; Notosusanto, N. (1992).Sejarah nasional Indonesia: Jaman kuno. Jakarta: PT Balai Pustaka.ISBN979-407-408-X.
^abcdeAmran, Rusli (1981).Sumatra Barat hingga Plakat Panjang. Penerbit Sinar Harapan.
^Haan, F. de, (1896),Naar midden Sumatra in 1684, Batavia-'s Hage, Albrecht & Co.-M. Nijhoff. 40p. 8vo wrs. Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, Deel 39.
^Raffles, Sophia (1835). "Chapter V".Memoir of the life and public services of Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles. Vol. I. J. Duncan.
^abMarsden, William (1784).The history of Sumatra: containing an account of the government, laws, customs and manners of the native inhabitants, with a description of the natural productions, and a relation of the ancient political state of that island.
^Andaya, B.W. (1993).To live as brothers: southeast Sumatra in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. University of Hawaii Press.ISBN0-8248-1489-4.
^Raffles, Sophia (1835). "Chapter XII".Memoir of the Life and Public Services of Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles: Particularly in the Government of Java, 1811–1816, Bencoolen and Its Dependencies, 1817–1824: With Details of the Commerce and Resources of the Eastern Archipelago, and Selections from His Correspondence. Vol. 1. London: James Duncan.
^Francis, E. (1859).Herinneringen uit den Levensloop van een Indisch Ambtenaar van 1815 tot 1851: Medegedeeld in briefen door E. Francis. van Dorp.
^Stuers, H.J.J.L.; Veth, P.J. (1849).De vestiging en uitbreiding der Nederlanders ter westkust van Sumatra (in Dutch). Amsterdam: P.N. van Kampen.
^Teitler, G., (2004),Het einde Padri Oorlog: Het beleg en de vermeestering van Bondjol 1834–1837: Een bronnenpublicatie, Amsterdam: De Bataafsche Leeuw.
^Hamka (12 Februari 1975). Pidato Prof. Dr. Hamka dalam upacara pemakaman kembali Sultan Alam Bagagar Syah di Balai Kota Jakarta. Jakarta:Penerbit Pustaka Panjimas.
^Franz and Keebet von Benda-Beckmann, "Recentralization and Decentralization in West Sumatra," in Holtzappel and Ramstedt (eds.),Decentralization and Regional Autonomy in Indonesia: Implementation and Challenges, Singapore and Leiden, 2009, pp. 233ff. at 302.
^Law No. 7/2017 (UU No. 7 Tahun 2017) as amended by Government Regulation in Lieu of Law No. 1/2022 and Regulation of General Elections Commission No. 6/2023.
^Graves, Elizabeth E., (2007),Asal usul elite Minangkabau modern: respons terhadap kolonial Belanda abad XIX/XX, Jakarta:Yayasan Obor Indonesia,ISBN978-979-461-661-1.
^Azinar Sayuti, Rifai Abu, (1985),Sistem ekonomi tradisional sebagai perwujudan tanggapan aktif manusia terhadap lingkungan daerah Sumatra Barat, hlm. 202, Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, Proyek Inventarisasi dan Dokumentasi Kebudayaan Daerah.
^Navis, A.A.,Cerita Rakyat dari Sumatra Barat 3, Grasindo,ISBN979-759-551-X.
^Mengenal Rumah Adat, Pakaian Adat, Tarian Adat, Dan Senjata Tradisional, PT Niaga Swadaya,ISBN979-788-145-8.
^Schefold R., (1991),Mainan bagi roh: kebudayaan Mentawai, PT Balai Pustaka,ISBN979-407-274-5.
^Central Statistics Agency West Sumatra Province (2017-2022)
^Delmus Puneri Salim (2015).The Transnational and the Local in the Politics of Islam: The Case of West Sumatra, Indonesia. Cham: Springer.ISBN978-3-319-15413-8.
.jpg)
.jpg)
