Archaeological evidence shows that human activity in the area dates back at least 5,000 years.[5] TheOu people, also known as the Ouyue and part of the widerYue people, established thepolity ofDong’ou by at least the fourth century BC and voluntarily surrendered to theHan dynasty of China in 138 BC.[6][7] The area was successively organised under different administrative names and ranks, including YongningCounty from 138, YongjiaCommandery from 323, and WenzhouPrefecture from 675, later being promoted to Rui’anFu in 1265 and renamed WenzhouCircuit in 1276. In the Ming and Qing periods, it was known as Wenzhou Fu, and in 1914 it was designated Ouhai Circuit. Despite repeated changes in administrative status and territorial extent, the seat of Wenzhouprefecture andYongjia county has remained within thewalled city first established in the 4th century, until 1958 when the county seat ofYongjia moved away.[8]
A birthplace of China’sprivate economy, the city was among the first in the country to experiment withmarket-oriented reforms after 1978, prompting extensive debate over what became known as the “Wenzhou model” of development.[9][10][11] This model is often linked to the city’s long-standing commercial culture and its history as a trading hub.[12] Historically a majorseaport in southeastern China,[8] Wenzhou was authorised as a foreign trade port during theSong (960–1279) andYuan (1271–1368) periods, was designated as atreaty port following the 1876Chefoo Convention,[13] and in 1984 was designated as one of China’s first 14open coastal cities.[14] Wenzhou has been renowned for its developedhandicraft industries,[8] and is recognised as one of the places of origin of Chineseceladon.[15] Noted during theSouthern Song (1127–1279) for theYongjia School, the city has long been associated with apragmatic tradition and a strong pro-business culture.[13]
The city is also known for its religious tradition and widespread overseas communities. Since the 1990s, large numbers ofWenzhou people have migrated to other parts of China and overseas, making Wenzhou a majorhometown of overseas Chinese.[16] By 2025, more than two million people of Wenzhou origin were living worldwide, including over 800,000overseas Chinese across more than 100 countries, forming over 200 Wenzhouchambers of commerce and more than 300 overseas associations, together constituting a vast business network.[17][18] With the highest proportion ofreligious believers among Chinese cities andBuddhism as the predominant religion,[19] the city has also been referred to as “China’sJerusalem”, as it has more Christians than any other Chinese city.[19][20]
Wenzhou was originally inhabited by the Ou people, also known as theOuyue, who formed part of the widerYue people. The Ou established their capital at Dong’ou, and the region was therefore also known as Ou or Dong’ou. The earliest textual reference appears in theClassic of Mountains and Seas, which describes the area as “Ou dwells in the midst of the sea”.[21][22][23]
In 323, the Jin dynasty established Yongjia Commandery,[8] with its territory covered both banks of theOu River, and the name “Yongjia” was taken to mean “long and beautiful waters”.[24] The old city was designed by the Jin dynasty scholarGuo Pu in accordance withfeng shui principles. Observing that the surrounding mountains resembled theNorthern Dipper, Guo based the city’s layout on this configuration, giving rise to the alternative name Doucheng, or the “Dipper City”. According to local legend, when the city was founded a white deer carrying flowers appeared, hence the namesLucheng or the “Deer City”.[8][25]
In 675, the Tang dynasty established WenZhou, or Wenzhou Prefecture. Its name, literally meaning “the warm prefecture”, derived from the area’s location west ofWenqiao Ridge, whereslash-and-burn agriculture was widely practised and the land remained comparatively warm in winter, with severe cold being rare.[8][26]
The prefectural seat of Wenzhou and the county seat of Yongjia were in the same walled city from 675 to 1958, making the two names often interchangeable in the history.[27] In some early European sources, the city's name was transcribed asOuen-tcheou-fou (Wenzhou Fu) orWen-tcheou (Wenzhou).[28] Thepostal romanisation of Wenzhou and Yongjia isWenchow andYungkia respectively,[29][30] which were widely used untilPinyin was popularised in the 1980s.[31]
TheCaowan Mountain site, excavated in 2002, shows that human activity in Wenzhou can be traced back to theNeolithic period around 5,000 years ago.[5] Prehistoric communities survived in an environment shaped by repeated cycles ofmarine transgression andregression and by the interweaving of mountains and sea. Frequent migration gave rise to settlement patterns characterised byfishing andhunting, gathering, and supplementaryearly agriculture. The co-existence ofdolmen-tomb sites,hanging-coffin burial sites, andearthen-mound tomb sites indicates that different ancient cultures interacted and influenced one another locally. This process formed aNeolithic cultural complex represented by theHaochuan culture and ultimately gave rise to the Ou people, or the Ouyue.[7]
The Ou people were originally part of thestate of Yue. AfterChu conquered Yue, Yuearistocrats crossed theQiantang River and moved south, establishing newpolities; however, the precise date of Chu’s conquest is disputed, with estimates centring on either 333 BC or around 306 BC. Dong’ou was among the kingdoms founded by descendants ofKing Goujian of Yue. From the reign after King Wujiang to that of the last king of Dong’ou, Anzhu, the deeds of the Dong’ou kings are largely unrecorded. In 222 BC, Dong’ou was abolished by theQin dynasty whoconquered the Yue people. The Dong’ou king was demoted to a localchieftain underMinzhong Commandery.[6]
In 154 BC, at the persuasion of a Han envoy, the people of Dong’ou killedLiu Pi, who had fled to Dong’ou after his defeat in theRebellion of the Seven States. Liu Pi’s sons escaped toMinyue and urged Minyue to attack Ouyue. In 138 BC, Minyuebesieged Ouyue, prompting Ouyue to seek assistance from Han.Emperor Wu dispatched forces by sea to rescue Dong’ou. Soon afterwards, the Han court permitted the people of Dong’ou to relocate inland to Lujiang Commandery inJianghuai, and the king of Donghai surrendered hisroyal title. From then, the kingdom of Dong’ou ceased to exist.[6][33]
In 111 BC, theHan dynasty conquered Minyue andrelocated its population inland in its entirety, leaving much of southern Zhejiang almost uninhabited. A small number of Yue people who refused to migrate, together withHan Chinese who fled into the mountains to evadeconscription andtaxation, gradually formed the group known as theShanyue, or the Mountain Yue. In 85, the Han government established Dongye and Huipu counties to administer Yue people who had re-emerged from the mountain. In 87, Huipu County was renamed Zhang’an County.[34] In 138, Yongning County was created from the Dong’ou Township of Zhang’an.[34] The county seat was located on the northern bank of the Ou River, marking the firstcounty-level administration in Wenzhou.[35]
Followinghis conquests in Jiangdong in 199,Sun Ce founded theWu regime, which launched continuous military campaigns against the Shanyue until 237, when resistance was largely suppressed.[34] To consolidate control south of theOu River, the Wu regime established Luoyang County from Yongning County in 239.[34] In Luoyang, the government set up the Hengyu naval garrison as apenal colony.[36] In 257, the Wu regime reorganised the Eastern Commandantcy ofKuaiji intoLinhai Commandery; Yongning became one of its subordinate counties, and Luoyang was renamed Anyang. In 280, afterJinconquered Wu, Anyang was renamed Angu, Hengyang County was created, and Yongning, Zhang’an, Angu, and Hengyang were all placed under Linhai Commandery.[37]
White Deer Nunnery Well created during the creation of Wenzhou's walled city in 323
In 323, the Jin dynasty carved out Yongjia Commandery from five counties (Yongning, Angu, Hengyang, Songyang, and Luojiang of Jin’an) located south ofWenqiao Mountain in Linhai. The new commandery was placed underYangzhou, with Yongning designated as the commandery seat, marking the firstprefectural administration in Wenzhou.[38][8]
AnOu ware celadon ox-shaped lamp dating to the Eastern Jin period (317–420)
Ongoing warfare in northern China in the 4th century prompted large-scale southward migration of officials and commoners alike. This influx accelerated local economic development in Wenzhou, expanded the cultivation of coastal plains, and gradually replaced traditional fishing and hunting with settled agriculture.[39][40] Northern literati active in Wenzhou fostered the development oflandscape poetry, further enhancing the national reputation of Wenzhou’s natural scenery.[41]Ou wareceladon gained renown across the empire and for a time exerted greater influence thanYue wares.[42]
Nevertheless, tensions between northern aristocratic families and the local population escalated into the rebellions ofSun En andLu Xun (399–411).[43] The tensions between aristocratic families and lower-status families accumulated and escalated in the next two centuries. From the late Jin period to the early Tang, the region endured successive upheavals and warfare, including the rebellion ofHou Jing (548–552),[44] the separatist regime of Liu Yi (556-562),[45] the revolt of Zhang Dabao (585), leading to severe population decline.[46][47]
The chaos and turmoils eventually enabled theSui dynasty fromnorthern China to conquer the south in 589; however, its rule met with widespread resistance and revolts in areas including Wenzhou, largely provoked by unpopular policies of forcedcultural assimilation.[48] After a series of administrative changes between 621 and 627, following theTang dynasty’s takeover, Yongjia Commandery was dissolved, leaving Yongjia County as its sole remaining administrative unit.[26] Still, Yongjia emerged as a major trading port, of which marine trade with Japan started in 659.[49]
In 675, a resident of Yongjia named Li Xingfu petitioned the imperial court for the establishment of a prefecture.[26] The court approved the creation of Wen Zhou, or Wenzhou Prefecture, from Yongjia and Angu counties.[26] In 689, Yuecheng county was established from Yongjia county. In 701, Hengyang county was established from Angu county.[26] In 742, Wen Zhou was renamed Yongjia Commandery.[50] In 758, Yongjia Commandery was reverted to Wen Zhou. A Jinghai Army Commissioner was appointed to govern Wenzhou, with concurrent authority overTai Zhou andMing Zhou.[50] The court also established theYongjia Salt Inspectorate in Wenzhou, one of ten suchinspectorates nationwide.[51]
As the Tang dynasty fell, regional warlords carved out autonomous domains and waged wars against one another, and Wenzhou experienced repeated military upheavals.[52] As the central government proved unable to exercise effective control over Wenzhou, it instead sought support by conferringformal titles on local powers.[53] Wenzhou eventually fell into theKingdom of Wuyue (907-978), during which maritime trade flourished, and a maritime trading office was established; exports included ceramics, tea,juan paper, lacquerware, and other goods. Because Fujian were ruled by arival regime, Wenzhou’s connections with the south and with overseas markets were obstructed; however, it developed direct trading links with northern coastal cities such asDengzhou andLaizhou.[49]
In 978,Qian Chu, King of Wuyue, surrendered his territory to theSong dynasty.[55] In 997, Wen Zhou was restored and placed under theLiangzhe Circuit.[56] During theSong dynasty (960-1279), as the economy ofsouthern China expanded rapidly, Wenzhou saw growth inrice cultivation, tea and citrus planting, andsalt production. Local manufactures such asjuan paper andlacquerware became more refined,entrepôt trade flourished, andLongquan celadon emerged as a major export commodity.[49] In 1090, ashipyard was established near the Guogong Hill, with annual output reaching 600 vessels, the highest in the country.[57] In 1117, because the Wenzhou-bornDaoist priestLin Lingsu was held in high regard at the court ofEmperor Huizong, Wenzhou was elevated to the status of a regional military command.[55][58]
Archaeological excavations atShuomen Port Site, by far the largest and most complete port site from the Song and Yuan dynasties discovered[59]
In 1130, amid theJurchen invasion of China,Emperor Gaozong fled south by boat, calling at Wenzhou and staying atJiangxin Temple.[55] The upheaval triggered large-scale in-migration, members of the imperial clan, officials, and refugees,[60] while maritime trade became still more buoyant.[49] Thecivil service examinations flourished locally, with a marked rise in the number ofjinshi graduates,[61] enhancing Wenzhou’s reputation for scholars.[62] TheYongjia School, distinguished by its emphasis on practicalstatecraft, also took shape and for a time was seen as a counterweight to the teachings associated withZhu Xi andLu Jiuyuan.[63] In 1166, Wenzhou was struck by a severe flood, resulting in migrants fromFujian. Fujian’s strong scholarly tradition, in turn, further reinforced local enthusiasm for the civil service examinations.[61][64]
In 1265,Emperor Duzong elevated Wenzhou, his formerfief, to the status of Rui’an Prefecture.[55] In 1276, asMongol-ledYuan dynasty forces closed in onLin’an, the dynastic capital, the Wenzhou-bornchancellorChen Yizhong fled to his hometown with Prince Yi and Prince Guang; the two were later enthroned in turn asEmperor Duanzong andEmperor Shaodi, the last two emperors of Song. After Rui’an Prefecture capitulated, the Yuan administration reorganised it as the Wenzhou Circuit. Popular support for Chen, however, fuelled continued resistance toMongol rule,[65] while Wenzhou remained a major port: it was a principal outlet for Longquan celadon and also a key shipbuilding base for theMongol invasion of Java.[66]
In 1367, theMing dynasty took control of Wenzhou from an anti-Yuan revolt.[55] In 1368, the Wenzhou Circuit was redesignated as Wenzhou Fu.[55] Throughout the Ming period,pirates known aswokou were active off the Wenzhou coast, and in the mid-to-late Ming the threat from wokou raids became particularly pronounced. Raiding vessels could ride the northeasterly winds fromSatsuma,Gōtō Islands andNagasaki to the Zhejiang coast.[67] In response, the Ming court progressively established a tightly organisedweisuo garrison system in Wenzhou to strengthencoastal defence.[68]
In 1448, theDeng Maoqi uprising broke out inShaxian, Fujian; rebel forces later entered Wenzhou territory before being suppressed. In 1452,Taishun County was created from the southwestern border areas ofRui’an andPingyang as part of the post-rebellion settlement. After these disturbances, powerful clans openly flouted official prohibitions by engaging insmuggling.[69] In 1547,Zhu Wan was appointedGrand Coordinator of Zhejiang. Stationed in Wenzhou, he cracked down on pirates, attacked theShuangyu port and theNanji Island; however, he was impeached by influential lineages whose interests depended on illicit maritime trade, and he later committed suicide.[70]
In 1552, after his request to lift the maritime ban was rejected,Wang Zhi launched raids along the eastern Zhejiang coast, including Wenzhou.[71] In 1557,Hu Zongxian lured Wang Zhi into captivity; in retaliation, Wang’s loyalists besieged multiple locations around Wenzhou, prompting local communities to build fortified villages such as Yongxing Fort andYongchang Fort for self-protection.[71] The following year,Qi Jiguang moved south and defeated the wokou, largely stabilising the situation in Wenzhou.[71] As coastal defences were strengthened thereafter, although naval fighting continued, pirates generally failed to land in Wenzhou.[71]
In 1646, theQing dynasty took the city without resistance.[72] In 1656, the Qing court imposed asea ban.[72] In 1658,Koxinga landed at Pingyang and attacked Rui’an by land, assaulted Wenzhou by sea, and captured Yueqing; in response, the Qing court stationed the ZhejiangViceroy in Wenzhou.[72] In 1661, the Qing court enforced coastal evacuations tosanction Koxinga.[72] In 1670, the Wenchu Circuit was established, administering Wenzhou andChuzhou prefectures under Zhejiang. In 1674, during theRevolt of the Three Feudatories, forces underGeng Jingzhong entered Pingyang; the Wenzhou garrison commanderZu Hongxun rose in support but was defeated and surrendered the following year.[72]
In 1683, following theconquest of Taiwan, the Qing court lift the sea ban and the coastal evacuation order. In 1685, theZhejiang Customs was established, with branch ports at Wenzhou, Rui’an, and Pingyang.[72] From the Kangxi period onwards, overseas navigation from Wenzhou Port became increasingly frequent, and most vessels engaged in trade with Japan were built in Wenzhou orNingbo.[73] In 1757, the Zhejiang Customs was closed, cutting off overseas trade; thereafter, the smuggling of Southeast Asian goods and opium gradually increased.[74]
Anautical chart of the Taizhou–Wenzhou coast produced by the British navy and published in 1849
From the 1840s, Wenzhou became increasingly entangled in the crises of the late Qing. During theOpium War, British forces raided Yueqing in 1841 but encountered organised local resistance.[33] Domestic unrest associated with secret societies soon followed: in 1855, the Yueqing native Qu Zhenhan joined theTaiping Heavenly Kingdom and briefly seized the county seat.[75][76] In 1861, theJinqian Society uprising spread from Pingyang into Wenzhou itself, but collapsed after internal defections.[75] Around the same time,Christian missions entered the region and were widely suspected of links withsecret societies, triggering repeated clashes between local people and missionaries.[77]
Former Command Headquarters of the Jinqian Society uprising of 1861
In 1876, Wenzhou was designated as a treaty port under theChefoo Convention in the wake of theMargary Affair. A customs office was established the following year.[78] While foreign trade was limited,[79]steamship travel then allowed local scholars, among themChen Qiu,Sun Yiyan, andSun Yirang, to travel widely and return to establish hospitals, schools, and libraries, helping to introduce new educational and social institutions.[80] Nevertheless, tensions persisted: ananti-missionary riot broke out in 1884,[81] andBoxer-related unrest in Rui’an and Pingyang was suppressed in 1900.[82] Amid these tensions, Britain established aconsulate onJiangxin Islet, just across theOu River from Wenzhou, in 1894.[83]
Former British Consulate at Wenzhou, built in 1894
In 1924, theChinese Communist Party established an independent Wenzhou branch and, during theFirst United Front, cooperated with theNationalists to organisewomen’s,student,labour, andpeasant movements locally.[85] During theNorthern Expedition in 1926, defeated warlord forces retreated into Wenzhou, bringing widespread disorder; local society openly welcomed the arrival of theNational Revolutionary Army. After the breakdown of the First United Front, Communist activistswere suppressed.[86] Administrative reforms followed, including the abolition of circuits in 1927 and the establishment of successive regional inspectorates during the 1930s.[87]
Natural disasters in 1929, typhoons, flooding, and pest outbreaks, triggered another surge of overseas migration.[33] Rural unrest spread across southern Zhejiang, and Communist forces organised armed resistance, including theRed Thirteenth Army, which remained active until 1932.[88] Following the failure of theFifth Encirclement Campaign in 1934, Communist guerrilla activity intensified along the Zhejiang-Fujian border, continuing until theSecond United Front was formed in 1937.[89] In 1938, Communist forces in the region were reorganised into theNew Fourth Army.[90] After 1937, and especially following the closure of theBurma Road in 1941, Wenzhou’s coastal position made it an important wartime logistics hub.[84] Several universities relocated to the area, includingNational Yingshi University and theNational Peiyang Institute of Technology.[91] Japanese forces occupied Wenzhou on three occasions between 1941 and 1944.[92] Prolonged warfare, combined withsevere inflation, left the local economy deeply depressed[93][33] Student protests and popular resistance were frequent,[94] while overseas migration resumed with support from established diaspora networks.[33]
A map of Wenzhou from the U.S. military in 1945
On 7 May 1948, following negotiations between local Nationalist commanders and Communist representatives, Wenzhou was taken by the Communists peacefully.[95] Nationalist forces nevertheless remained active along the coast until theevacuation of the Dachen Islands in 1955.[96]
After Communist forces entered Wenzhou, a municipal Military Control Commission was established to take over administration.[97] In the early years, the new authorities launched a succession of political campaigns, including the suppression of local strongmen, thecampaign to suppress counter-revolutionaries, the banning of groups such as theLegion of Mary and various sectarian organisations, socialist transformation, and patriotic production drives.[98][99][100][101]
In May 1956, Yongjia County experimented with thehousehold responsibility in agricultural output, which spread rapidly across Wenzhou. By August 1957, however, the county leadership was instructed to reverse the practice.[102] In 1962, policy adjustment again targeted privately run industry: many locally managed factories were closed, workers were laid off, and the number of such enterprises fell by roughly two thirds.[103]
As a frontline region facingTaiwan, Wenzhou received limited state investment for many years. State-owned industry remained small in scale, and external transport links were poor.[104] Tensions developed between locally rooted cadres, many with guerrilla backgrounds, and officials dispatched from northern China. With limited prospects for promotion and weaker political standing, local cadres sought to protect local interests in order to retain grassroots support. As a result, political campaigns such ascollectivisation and the “Learn from Dazhai” movement were often implemented only superficially.[88] After the outbreak of theCultural Revolution, the Wenzhou Prefectural Commission was attacked, the People’s Liberation Army intervened, and military control was reimposed.[97] Local cadres quietly tolerated the revival and expansion of markets and petty commerce as a means of preserving social support and self-protection.[88]
During theCultural Revolution, state-owned and collective enterprises frequently ceased production, unemployment rose, and social order deteriorated amid factional confrontation and armed clashes.[105] Yet household production and informal markets survived in concealed forms, generating private contracting and significant revenues.[103]
With the end of the Cultural Revolution in 1976, many locally rooted officials, who had been less affected by the turmoil, were able to return to office relatively quickly. Once reinstated, they consolidated political support by backing local private enterprise.[88] The so-called10000-yuan households, meaning the household with over 10,000 yuan savings, that had emerged in the 1970s expanded under reform policies into private businesses.[106]
Reform measures followed in quick succession. On 8 January 1979, Wenzhou reopened elevengrain andedible-oil markets, including Wutian, Zhuangyuan, and Quxi, allowing farmers and production teams that had met procurement quotas to sell surplus grain and oil. In April 1980, Wenzhou piloted greater managerial autonomy for collectively owned industrial enterprises. In May, homes in Puxieshi were put up for sale, pioneering the commercial housing model in China. In October, the Jinxiang Credit Cooperative introducedfloating interest rates, the first such experiment nationwide.[108] In December, Zhang Huamei received China’s firstsole trader licence from the Wenzhou Municipal Administration for Industry and Commerce.[109]
China’s firstsole trader licence, issued in Wenzhou in 1979
Wenzhou’s reform experiments provoked sharply divided reactions. Critics questioned whether they were “socialist orcapitalist” in nature, yet the initiatives nonetheless won backing from senior officials at both local and central levels of theCommunist Party.[110] In 1984, the Wenzhou municipal leadership formally rehabilitated 8 businesspeople who had previously been denounced for “getting rich too conspicuously”.[111] In April,Longgang was established and built through pooled investment by farmers, becoming China’s first “farmer-built city”. In May, Wenzhou was designated one of fourteencoastal open cities. In July, the city launched pilot reforms introducing the factory director responsibility system in state-owned enterprises.[108]In 1985,Jiefang Daily first coined the term “Wenzhou Model”. The following year became known as the “Wenzhou Year”, as the city’s distinctive approach to developing acommodity economy attracted more than 600,000 visitors for field trips and study visits.[9] In 1987, Wenzhou was approved by theState Council as one of the country’s first thirteen pilot areas forrural reform.[112] Between 1978 and 1985, Wenzhou’s combined industrial and agricultural output grew by nearly 200%, while per capita incomes rose sharply; local farmers even earned more than the average universitylecturer.[113] As reform-related tensions surfaced, the State Council formally recognised the legal status of private firms,[10] and theNational People’s Congress enacted legislation toregulate administrative disputes.[108] The surge in visitors became so overwhelming that, in 1988, the State Council issued an order suspending all study visits to Wenzhou.[110]
In the late 1980s, disorder in Wenzhou’s markets, most notably the widespread production of counterfeit and substandard goods, prompted a nationwide clean-up.[110] In 1989, students in Wenzhou echoed thedemocracy movement in Beijing,[114] although local business owners largely remained aloof.[115] Debate over the “Wenzhou Model” intensified, and the city was briefly portrayed as an example of "Peaceful Evolution", where market-driven reform that could ultimately undermine Communist rule.[110] Amid concerns over the political climate, a number of private entrepreneurs voluntarily suspended operations.[10] In response to mounting controversy, the Party Central Committee and the State Council dispatched four investigation teams to Wenzhou; all ultimately reaffirmed support for its reform trajectory.[110]
AfterDeng Xiaoping’s Southern Tour in 1992 reaffirmed reform and opening, the Wenzhou municipal leadership recalibrated its approach. In 1993 it promoted “quality-led development”, followed in 1994 by a call for a “second start-up”, strengthening regulation, curbing counterfeit production, and encouraging industrial upgrading.[110] Private firms in Wenzhou transitioned from shareholding cooperatives to limited liability or joint-stock companies, and business groups began to emerge.[116] In 1995, Wenzhou entrepreneurs founded the Kunming Wenzhou General Chamber of Commerce, the first cross-regional, non-governmentalbusiness association of its kind in China.[117] By the early 2000s, Wenzhou had developed more than twenty industrial clusters each generating over 10 billion yuan in annual output, alongside dozens of nationally designated industrial production bases. For many years, per capitadisposable income ranked first among Zhejiang’s cities and consistently placed among the top three nationwide.[118]
After 1998, Wenzhou’s economic growth began to slow. Meanwhile, large numbers of Wenzhou people started to settle outside the city. By 2001, around 1.6 million were working in other parts of China in commerce or services.[16] Overseas and domestic Wenzhou communities took shape in places such asZhejiang Village inBeijing,Belleville inParis, andPrato inItaly.[119][120] Once commercial opportunities were identified, Wenzhou businesspeople often mobilised kinship and hometown networks to act collectively, with a marked preference for sectors such as real estate and mining.[121] As migration spread,Wenzhou chambers of commerce expanded rapidly across China and abroad.[122]
From 2001 onwards, groups of Wenzhou investors began purchasing residential property collectively in Shanghai which later extended their activities nationwide and overseas.[123][118] After 2004, large volumes of capital flowed into propertyspeculation andprivate lending, contributing to a contraction of the local real economy.[118] Theglobal financial crisis of 2008 further strained small and medium-sized enterprises, while informal finance expanded rapidly.[124] From 2010, tighter national monetary policy reduced bank lending, leading to broken cash flows at some firms. Guarantee companies andmutual-guarantee networks were hit in succession, prompting direct intervention by local government.[124][125]
Following theprivate lending crisis, Wenzhou’s property prices declined continuously from 2012, falling back to around 2007 levels and wiping out large amounts of accumulated private wealth.[118] In July 2011, arear-end collision between two southbound high-speed trains in Wenzhou drew intense domestic and international attention.[126][127][128] From 2014, competitive church construction among local Christian communities prompted government intervention; many churches were forcibly demolished or hadcrosses removed, triggering prolonged disputes.[129][130] In 2020, Wenzhou, as China’s second city to enterCOVID-19 lockdowns, shortly after theoutbreak in Wuhan due to the massivereturning Wenzhou people during theChinese New Year, suffered a severe economic shock.[131][132]
Since the financial crisis in 2011, the municipal government has sought to steer industrial upgrading, shifting from fragmented, low-end production towards more technology-intensive sectors.[118] In March 2012, Wenzhou was approved by the State Council as a pilot zone for financial reforms in China.[133][134] In 2012, theTV dramaFamily On The Go popularised Wenzhou’s entrepreneurial history, attracted nationwide attention, and helped reshape public perceptions of the city’s business culture.[135] In 2013, the municipal leadership launched a campaign encouraging Wenzhou entrepreneurs to return and invest locally.[16]
Since early 2020s, signs of recovery have become clearer: population growth and economic expansion have returned to above the provincial average, while new growth areas, including digital industries and new energy, have taken shape.[136] Wenzhou also established Zhejiang’s first dedicatedartificial intelligence administrative body to support industrial development.[136] In 2025, the city’s GDP exceeded 1 trillion yuan, the 28th in China.[11]
Wenzhou is located in the southeasternZhejiang of China. It borders theEast China Sea to the east, adjoinsFujian to the south, neighboursLishui to the west and northwest, and meetsTaizhou to the north and northeast. The municipality covers a land area of 12,110 km2 (4,680 sq mi) and a maritime area of 8,649 km2 (3,339 sq mi).[138]
Its terrain is dominated by low mountains and hills, with plains and offshore islands as secondary features. The landscape slopes from southwest to northeast, traversed by mountain ranges including the Donggong, Kuocang, andYandang ranges. The highest peak is Baiyunjian inTaishun, at 1,611.3 m (5,286 ft) above sea level. The eastern plains are interlaced with dense river networks, with the Ou River, Feiyun River, and Ao River forming the principal drainage systems. The city has more than 150 rivers in total, a coastline extending 502 km (312 mi), and approximately 714 islands.[138]
Wenzhou has ahumid subtropical climate, with distinct seasons and abundant rainfall. Mean annual temperatures range from 17.3–19.4 °C (63.1–66.9 °F), while average annual precipitation varies between 1,113–2,494 mm (43.8–98.2 in).[138]
Wenzhou lies in a transitional zone between the mountainous regions of southern Zhejiang and the coast of the East China Sea. The overall terrain slopes from south-west to north-east, with mountains, hills, river-valley basins, and coastal plains interspersed. This produces a fourfold geomorphological pattern: mid- to low-mountain areas in the west; low mountains, hills, and basins in the centre; plains and tidal flats in the east; and offshore island zones along the coast. TheOu River,Feiyun River, andAo River constitute the city’s three major drainage systems, with river valleys extending along their main courses and tributaries.[139]
In the SouthernYandang Mountains, incision by the Feiyun and Ao rivers has created a series of intermontane and river-valley basins of varying size, which connect with the surrounding low mountain–hill landscape. Wenzhou’s mountain ranges belong mainly to three systems: the Donggong, Kuocang, and Yandang ranges. After entering Wenzhou, the Kuocang Range extends across much of Yongjia County, forming the watershed between theLing River and the Ou River and abutting the Northern Yandang Mountains. The Donggong Range lies along the Zhejiang–Fujian border; its branches form the watershed between the Xiaoxi, a tributary of the Ou River, and the Feiyun River. The Northern Yandang Mountains run along the Yongjia–Yueqing boundary, separating theNanxi River from eastward-flowing coastal rivers. The Southern Yandang Mountains, a residual branch of the Donggong system, enter from Fu’an in Fujian and extend from Taishun towards westernOuhai. The city contains 17 peaks above 1,000 m (3,300 ft), with Baiyunjian in Taishun County reaching 1,611.3 m (5,286 ft), the highest point in Wenzhou.[139]
The eastern plains are densely interlaced with waterways, including the Wenrui River system, the Ruiping River system, the Pingcang river network, and the Liulehong Plain river network. The Yueqing Plain lies north of the Ou River estuary, stretching from the foothills of the Northern Yandang Mountains in the west to the coast ofYueqing Bay in the east, from Dajing Town in the north to the northern bank of the Ou River estuary in the south, covering about 330 km2 (130 sq mi). The Yongjia Plain, on the northern bank of the lower Ou River and adjoining the Yueqing Plain, has an area of about 145 km2 (56 sq mi).[139]
A view of the Jiangnan Plain seen from space
The Wenrui Plain lies between the southern bank of the Ou River and the northern bank of the Feiyun River, comprising the Sanxi, Coastal, Zhuangyuan, Wutian, Xianyan, and Xincheng plains, with a total area of about 543 km2 (210 sq mi). The Ruiping Plain occupies the lower reaches and southern estuary bank of the Feiyun River, including Xiangjiang and Mayu in Rui’an and Wanquan in Pingyang, covering about 229 km2 (88 sq mi). The Taoshan Plain lies along the northern bank of the Feiyun River and the lower reaches of its tributary Jinchao Harbour, including Taofeng, Tongxi, and Chaoji, with a total area of about 75 km2 (29 sq mi). The Beigang Plain extends along the middle and lower Ao River in Pingyang County, incorporating the Ao River Plain as well as the Xiaojiang, Mabu, and Shuitou plains, and covers about 183 km2 (71 sq mi). TheJiangnan Plain, also known as the Nangang Plain, lies south of the Ao River, encompassingLonggang City and northeasternCangnan County, with a total area of about 297 km².[139]
An aerial view of Lingkun Island at the Ou River Estuary, together with the Dongtou Islands
Wenzhou’s coastline is highly indented, with a mainland shoreline of roughly 514 km (319 mi). Bays and tidal inlets are well developed, and near-shore islands are numerous. Coastal bays include Yueqing Bay, Wenzhou Bay, Yanpu Bay, and Dayu Bay. The islands are mainly arranged in chains or clusters, forming archipelagos such as the Dongtou, Dabei, Beiji, Nanji, and Qixing islands.[139] Extensive tidal flats occur along the coast, with the largest continuous area lying south of the Ou River estuary and extending southwards along the shoreline to the Pipamen area of Cangnan County. These tidal flats are distributed outside river mouths and across near-shore shallow seas. Yueqing Bay contains sizeable inner-bay tidal flats. Around Lingkun Island, encircling shorelines and relatively weak hydrodynamics have produced ring-shaped tidal flats. Near the Dongtou Archipelago, smaller tidal-flat patches occur between islands and in adjacent shallow waters, often connected to reefs and shoals. In Cangnan County, enclosed bays at Dayu Harbour and Yanpu Harbour also contain tidal flats of notable size.[140]
Changes in Wenzhou’s coastal intertidal zone from 1984 to 2016
In April 2003, theWenzhou Peninsula Project was launched, aiming to link the Dongtou Islands with the mainland.[141] TheWenzhou Oufei Project is China’s largest single land reclamation project.[142] Since 2012, a total of 448 km2 (173 sq mi) of land has been reclaimed, accounting for the majority of the city’s recent land expansion.[143] The tideland reclamation was accomplished using avacuum preloading method, with a planned size of 323.4 square kilometers.[144]
There was academic criticism of the project's damage towaterbirdcoastal habitats.[145] Centred on Wenzhou’s coastal wetlands, threatened birds are most at risk because rapid urbanisation and land reclamation along theEast China Sea flyway compress and fragment key stopover and wintering habitats, and the scale is substantial, with coastal cities including Wenzhou hosting 66 threatened species, about 50.77% of China’s threatened birds.[146]
Wenzhou has also experienced widespread and long-termland subsidence, particularly in its coastal urban areas, a pattern that has been linked in part to extensive land reclamation on soft marine sediments and the subsequent intensity of urban development.[147]
Wenzhou lies in the northeastern part of the South China fold belt, and is structurally dominated by the Taishun–Wenzhou fault depression and the Huangyan–Xiangshan fault depression. During theJurassic andCretaceous, theYanshaniantectonic episode was intense, triggering large-scalevolcanic eruptions,magmatic intrusions, andfaulting. Under the control of NNE-trending faults, a series of fault-bounded basins developed. In the Cretaceous, these basins were filled mainly byfluvial–lacustrinesediments, with intermittent volcanic outpourings, forming numerous small volcanic–sedimentary basins such as Xianyan, Fanshan, and the Shanmen–Wencheng–Taishun basins, where redclastic rocks are common. The oldest exposed rocks in the area are shallowly metamorphosed strata of the Lower Jurassic Fengping Formation. Pre-Mesozoic strata are largely absent, aside from scattered exposures of UpperPalaeozoic metamorphosed clastic rocks and marble.Quaternary deposits occur mainly along the coast and riverbanks, comprisingcoastal sediments and fluvialalluvium.[148]
As of 2022, the city had identified and registered onshore mineral resources comprising 19 types of solid minerals across 37 mineral occurrences. Non-metallic minerals predominate; key resources includealunite,pyrophyllite, and construction stone and aggregate. Major construction-stone lithologies includeK-feldspargranite,granodiorite, anddolerite, whiletuff is the most widely distributed source rock for construction aggregate. Ten mineral types are currently exploited, chiefly construction aggregate, with smaller-scale extraction ofpyrophyllite,fluorite, decorativedimension stone, and limited development ofgeothermal resources andmineral water. There are 55mining licences (45 for solid-mineral mines—39 of which are construction-aggregate mines—and 10 for geothermal and mineral-water sites), as well as 9 exploration licences, covering targets such as fluorite, pyrophyllite,lead,silver,beryllium,illite, and geothermal resources.[139]Alunite is so abundant that sometimes Wenzhou claims to be the "Alunite Capital of the World".[149]
The municipality’s principal river systems are the Ou River, the Feiyun River, and the Ao River, all of which flow eastwards into the East China Sea. Together, they account for three of Zhejiang’s eight major river systems. Wenzhou has more than 150 rivers and streams in total; waterways are especially dense across the eastern plains, where coastal plain river networks are well developed.[139]
TheOu River is Zhejiang’s second-largest river. It rises at Guomaojian on the northwestern slopes of Baishanzu, on the boundary between Longquan and Qingyuan, and runs for 388 km (241 mi), draining 17,859 km2 (6,895 sq mi) before reaching the East China Sea. Within Wenzhou, the Ou River is mainly represented by its lower course, about 78 km (48 mi) long with a catchment of 4,066 km2 (1,570 sq mi). Downstream of Meiao, the channel widens markedly, from narrow reaches to roughly 500 to 3,000 m (1,600 to 9,800 ft) in width, and near the estuary it develops a deltaic harbour area; the Nanxi River enters on the left and flows intoWenzhou Bay. The total elevation drop from source to mouth is about 1,250 m (4,100 ft). The Ou is a strongly tidal river: the tidal reach is about 90 km (56 mi), with a mean tidal range of 3.92 m (12.9 ft) and a maximum of 5.7 m (19 ft).[139]
TheNanxi River is the largesttributary of the lower Ou River. It rises at Luoling on the southern flank of the Kuocang Range in northwestern Yongjia, runs from north to south through central Yongjia, and has a main channel length of 139.92 km (86.94 mi) with a basin area of 2,490 km2 (960 sq mi). It joins the Ou River at Qingshuibu.[139]
TheFeiyun River is Zhejiang’s fourth-largest river and Wenzhou’s second-largest. It originates at Zhongxi Village in Jingnan Township, Jingning She Autonomous County, flows through Taishun, Wencheng, and Rui’an, and enters the East China Sea. The main channel is 198.7 km (123.5 mi) long and drains 3,713.9 km2 (1,433.9 sq mi). Its estuary is about 3,000 m (9,800 ft) wide; the tidal reach extends about 59 km (37 mi) inland from the mouth, with a mean tidal range of 4.5 m (15 ft) and a maximum of 6.2 m (20 ft).[139]
TheAo River is Zhejiang’s eighth-largest river and Wenzhou’s third-largest. It rises near Guiku at the foot of Wudi Mountain in Shanxi Town, Wencheng, and flows into the East China Sea. The main channel is 82 km (51 mi) long with a basin area of 1,542 km2 (595 sq mi)[139]
Across the coastal plains, river networks are structured aroundtanghe (canalised waterways), distributary channels, and plain drainage ditches. The Yongle Plain network is distributed around Hongqiao, Lecheng, and Liushi in Yueqing, and the Wuniu area of Yongjia. The Wenruitanghe network collects inflows from multiple mountain streams; its main canal runs from Xiaonanmen in Lucheng to the East Gate of Rui’an’s urban area, with a length of about 36 km (22 mi). The Ruipingtanghe network, whose main channel was formerly known as the Jiangnan Canal, runs from Rui’an via Wuqiao and Sunqiao to Pingyang’s county seat, a total of 17 km (11 mi). The Nangang Jiangnan river network is organised around the Hengyang distributary channel and is distributed across the two major plains of Nangang and Jiangnan.[139]
Wenzhou’s long-term average temperature and precipitation[150]
Wenzhou has ahumid subtropical climate, with a clear alternation between the winter and summer monsoons. Summers are hot and winters are mild, with four distinct seasons and abundant rainfall. Mean annual temperature ranges from 17.3 to 19.4 °C. Average temperatures are 4.9–9.9 °C in January and 26.7–29.6 °C in July. Severe winter cold and extreme summer heat are uncommon. Annual precipitation ranges from 1,113 to 2,494 mm. The region experiences ameiyu (plum-rain) season in late spring and early summer, and tropical cyclones (typhoons) are most common from July to September. The frost-free period lasts roughly 241–326 days, and annual sunshine totals about 1,442–2,264 hours.[151]
Rainfall is highly seasonal. The flood season typically accounts for around two thirds of annual precipitation.[139] Flooding is concentrated in themeiyu period (May–June) and the typhoon season (July–September), when intense downpours can readily trigger flash floods in mountainous areas. Typhoons occur mainly in summer and autumn; in particularly active years, Wenzhou may be affected 5–7 times, bringing damaging winds and heavy rain. Drought is also a recurrent hazard. The most common—and most damaging—type is midsummer drought, followed by autumn drought; midsummer drought persisting into autumn can significantly affect agriculture and daily life. Midsummer drought is often associated with prolonged control by the western Pacific subtropical high, whereas autumn and winter drought more commonly occur under strong continental high pressure with northerly winds and weaker inflows of warm, moist air. Hail occurs occasionally, mainly in mountainous areas and during the warmer season.[151]
Climate data for Wenzhou, elevation 28 m (92 ft), (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1951–present)
On 26 August 1948, the Fifth Special Administrative Region of Zhejiang was established to administer the rural areas around Wenzhou, while the urban areas, namely the Wuyan, Yongqiang, Sanxi, Tengqiao, and Xi’an districts, were separated to form Wenzhou City, placed under the direct administration of Zhejiang. The Fifth Special Administrative Region was later reorganised and became known as Wenzhou Prefecture.[97]
In January 1952,Lishui Prefecture was abolished, and the five counties ofLishui,Yunhe,Longquan,Jingning, andQingyuan were incorporated into Wenzhou Prefecture. In May 1954,Taizhou Prefecture was likewise abolished, withWenling,Huangyan, andXianju counties, as well as theHaimen directly administered area, being reassigned to Wenzhou. Taizhou Prefecture was briefly re-established between 1957 and 1958. Between 1962 and 1963, both Taizhou Prefecture and Lishui Prefecture were successively restored, after which the overall administrative configuration of Wenzhou largely stabilised.[161]
In 1981, Wenzhou City and Wenzhou Prefecture were merged to form the Wenzhou Municipal People’s Government. In June,Cangnan County was created from the southern part ofPingyang County, withLingxi as its county seat; in December, Wenzhou’s suburban district was reorganised asOuhai County. In 1983, Wenzhou’s East, South, and West districts were designated as urban districts and were renamedLucheng District the following year. In December 1984,Longwan District was established from parts of Wenzhou’s inner suburban areas and Ouhai County.[162] Currently, Wenzhou comprises foururban districts and fivecounties, and administers threecounty-level cities.
Wenzhou is a port city with a well-documented trading history. It was officially authorised as a port for foreign trade during the Song and Yuan dynasties, while in the Ming and Qing dynasties, it was developed as a coastal defensive stronghold in response, first towokou raids and piracy and thenKoxinga and anti-Qing forces.[8][13] Historically, Wenzhou was renowned for its highly developed handicraft industries,[8] and is recognised as one of the places of origin ofChinese celadon.[15] Local crafts such asshipbuilding,papermaking,carving,lacquerware,embroidery, andleatherworking were once famous nationwide.[13] In 1876, it was designated as a treaty port under the 1876Chefoo Convention, which initiated the city's industrialisation and modernisation.[8][13]
Before 1978, Wenzhou had a weak industrial base and poor transport links withYangtze Delta hinterland. Largestate-owned enterprises were largely absent, and unemployment remained high. In 1978, manufacturing output in Wenzhou was less than half that ofNingbo orHuzhou within Zhejiang. The local economy relied heavily on agriculture, with farmers consistently accounting for over 80% of the city’s population, yet agricultural development was constrained by a shortage ofarable land. Following the launch of reform and opening up in 1978, Wenzhou rapidly achieved industrialisation and urbanisation during the 1980s through bottom-up, locally initiated reforms led by farmers, and subsequently experienced decades of rapid economic growth.[166]
After the2011 private lending crisis, Wenzhou’s economy suffered a severe setback. In response, the local government promoted industrial restructuring, and economic momentum gradually recovered. By 2019, Wenzhou’s GDP had returned to the national top thirty. In the following years, its GDP exceeded 1 trillion yuan; within Zhejiang, Wenzhou became the third city after Hangzhou and Ningbo to reach this level, and it was the 28th nationwide to do so. In 2025, Wenzhou recorded a regional GDP of 1,021.39 billion yuan, representing year-on-year growth of 6.1%, 1.1 and 0.6 percentage points higher than the national and provincial averages, respectively. The growth rate of value added by industrial enterprises above designated size also ranked among the highest in Zhejiang.[167]
Wenzhou has a highly developed private sector, with particularly active private capital and financial activity.[168] As a major centre of the private economy in China, the private sector has long been a key pillar of the city’s development. By November 2025, Wenzhou had a combined total of 1.564 million registered private enterprises and self-employed businesses; value added by private enterprises accounted for 90.8% of the city’s industrial output.[167] In 2012, in response to the private lending crisis, the State Council established the Wenzhou Financial Reform Pilot Zone, aiming to improve financing for small and medium-sized enterprises, build a financial safety net, and strengthen the insurance system. However, as it did not address core issues such as interest-rate liberalisation, the initiative also drew criticism.[168] Since 2020, annual private investment in Wenzhou has exceeded 200 billion yuan, accounting for nearly 60% of total fixed-asset investment; across indicators such as the number of enterprises, contribution to GDP, industrial value added, employment, and tax revenue, the private economy has accounted for over 90%.[169]
Entrepreneurship is widespread among Wenzhou residents, resulting in large numbers of small firms and family workshops. Because small firms often lack collateral and face difficulties accessing bank credit through formal channels, most local households and businesses participate in informal finance networks structured around kinship ties and trusted acquaintances.[166] Wenzhou’s per capita GDP has often ranked towards the lower end within Zhejiang,[170] yet the ratio of per capita disposable income to per capita GDP has consistently remained above 80%,[171] with residents’ per capita disposable income and annual consumption per capita have frequently ranked among the highest nationwide.[172][173] In 2024, per capita disposable income in Wenzhou reached 70,829 yuan, with urban and rural figures of 81,527 yuan and 44,263 yuan, respectively,[174] while Per capita wage income was 37,521 yuan, including 42,168 yuan for urban residents and 25,980 yuan for rural residents.[175]
Since 2020, Wenzhou’s general public budget revenue has exceeded 60 billion yuan, ranking third within Zhejiang.[176] Across government revenue at different administrative levels in Wenzhou, taxes make up around 80%, with the remainder coming from non-tax revenue.[177] In Wenzhou’s public spending, outlays on people’s wellbeing, including education, culture, science and technology, and health, as well as support for enterprise upgrading and industrial transition, account for more than 70% of total expenditure.[176][178]
Wenzhou has also been approved for several national-level pilot programmes, such as the Wenzhou Financial Reform Pilot Zone, one of the first national demonstration zones supported by central government finance for the development of inclusive finance, and a national pilot for deepening financial services reform for private and micro and small enterprises, thereby receiving central fiscal support aimed at strengthening financing for local small enterprises.[179][176]
In 2024, Wenzhou’s outstanding local government debt balance was 365.414 billion yuan, against a debt ceiling of 365.420 billion yuan. The city’s general public budget revenue totalled 63.258 billion yuan, representing 95.8% of the budget target; major revenue items included value-added tax of 22.814 billion yuan, non-tax revenue of 12.670 billion yuan, and corporate income tax of 6.885 billion yuan. Including transfer revenues of 89.224 billion yuan, total revenue reached 152.482 billion yuan. General public budget expenditure was 117.764 billion yuan, representing 97.1% of the budget target, alongside transfer expenditures of 34.718 billion yuan.[177]
In the 1980s and 1990s, Wenzhou built much of its industrial strength on a handful of well-established manufacturing lines, most notablyelectrical equipment,footwear,garments,automotive components, andpumps andvalves. The rapid expansion of manufacturing during this period materially strengthened the local economy. From the early 2000s, some locally sourced capital shifted towardsreal estate, while parts of the manufacturing base relocated elsewhere. When the private lending crisis hit in 2011, many local firms were exposed to acute cash-flow pressures and disruption. In 2012, Wenzhou pushed to rebalance and upgrade its industrial structure. Policy priorities included faster growth in thedigital economy and new technology-led activities such aslasers andoptoelectronics andrail transit equipment.[167]
In 2024, value added by the primary, secondary, and tertiary sectors was 19.47 billion yuan, 356.83 billion yuan, and 595.58 billion yuan, respectively, corresponding to an output structure of 2.0%, 36.7%, and 61.3%.[174] Wenzhou has developed two major industrial clusters, electrical equipment and green energy, each exceeding 300 billion yuan in scale. Electrical equipment, long a traditional pillar and the city’s first cluster to exceed 100 billion yuan, has grown into an internationally significant base for small and low-voltage electrical appliances; the green energy sector is also competitive at the national level.[167]
By the end of 2024, Wenzhou had 9,291 industrial enterprises above the designated size, producing industrial value added of 173.69 billion yuan. Total industrial sales output was 857.0 billion yuan, with export delivery value of 105.91 billion yuan; total profits of these larger industrial firms reached 45.77 billion yuan. Wenzhou was home to 63 listed companies and 104 companies quoted on theNEEQ. Several Wenzhou-based private firms, includingTsingshan Holding Group,Dofor International,CHINT Group,Delixi Group,Renmin Holding Group, andHuafon Group, were included in the 2024 list of China’s Top 500 Enterprises.[174]
Since the 1990s, Wenzhou city centre has developed a recognisable shopping core, with Renmin Road as a main commercial spine and nearbyWuma Street as the city’s best-knownhigh-street area. The latter was designated in 1984 as one of the first nationally recognised pedestrian streets.[180] The opening of Kaitai Department Store in 1998 marked a shift from traditional market-style retail towards moderndepartment-store shopping, consolidating the established retail areas around Wuma Street while gradually creating new retail centres in the Binjiang area along theOu River.[181] During the 2025 Spring Festival period, both Wenzhou MixC and Wenzhou Binjiang MixC ranked among the national top fifty shopping malls on according toDazhong Dianping.[182]
Outside the city centre, Yueqing was ranked as the county-level jurisdiction with the highest level of urban and county consumption nationwide, according to a report byCCID Consulting. Within Yueqing, Chengnan Subdistrict has concentrated several major retail complexes, including Nanhong Plaza and Zhongjinhui, as well as Songhu Lifang, a provincial-level cultural and creative street district. The area is also served by Xuyang Road Station, one of the busiest stations on theWenzhou rail transitLine S2. In addition, Zhongyi Street and Wuyue Plaza inRui’an have been identified by the Wenzhou municipal government as priority retail districts for further development.
Wenzhou’s tourism sector is dominated by the domestic market. In 2023, the city received about 56.84 million domestic tourist visits, generating roughly 76.5 billion yuan in domestic tourism revenue. In contrast, inbound tourism remained limited, with around 91,000 inbound visitors and inbound tourism income of approximately 36.19 million US dollars.[183]
Wenzhou has three national-level scenic areas, namelyYandang Mountains, theNanxi River, and Baizhangji–Feiyun Lake, with a combined area of 1,637.39 km2 (632.20 sq mi). It also had eight provincial-level scenic areas, namely Yaoxi, Xianyan, Zeya,Dongtou, Zhailiao Stream, the Nanji Islands, Radon Springs–Jiufeng, and the Maritime–Yucang Mountains, covering a combined area of 254.26 km2 (98.17 sq mi).[184]
Wenzhou is known for local produce, includingbayberry,pomelo,loquat,persimmon,chestnut, andpear andtea. Across the municipality, a range of orchard crops are well established, including bayberries, pomelos, loquats, persimmons, chestnuts, and pears, each associated with particular counties and townships. Tea-growing likewise has a long history, with several locally recognised varieties linked to different parts of Wenzhou. Tea has traditionally been produced mainly as pan-fired green tea and black tea for external markets.[185] A notable local speciality isWenzhou citrus, a distinctive citrus variety associated with Wenzhou, valued for its sweet, juicy flavour with a slight bitterness.[186]
Wenzhou has the second-largest population in Zhejiang, after Hangzhou, withmigration constituting the main driver of population growth.[187] At the end of 2024, the city has a resident population of 9.852 million, an increase of 91,000 from the previous year, yet thenatural population growth rate was −0.6‰. During the year, there were 54,000 births, giving abirth rate of 5.6‰, and 61,000 deaths, corresponding to adeath rate of 6.2‰. Theurbanisation rate of the resident population stood at 76.0%.[188]
Data from the2020 Chinese census show that Wenzhou’s population increased by 450,801 over the preceding decade, representing growth of 4.94% and an average annual growth rate of 0.48%. The overall sex ratio was 112.86 males per 100 females. Children aged 0–14 accounted for 15.28% of the population, those aged 15–59 for 68.22%, and people aged 60 and above for 16.5%, including 11.71% aged 65 and over.[189]
According to the2020 Chinese census, the city's resident population included 9,189,267Han people, accounting for 95.99% of the total, whileethnic minority groups totalled 383,636 people, or 4.01%. Compared with the2010 Chinese census, the Han population increased by 368,877, up 4.18%, but its share of the total fell by 0.7%; ethnic minority populations increased by 81,924, up 27.15%, with their combined share rising by 0.7%.[189] Among Wenzhou’s ethnic minorities, theShe people form the largest group, followed by theHui. The She are described as having originated in the mountainous areas around theFujian–Guangdong–Jiangxi border; their presence in Wenzhou can be traced back to theSong dynasty or earlier, with larger-scale migration from Guangdong occurring during theMing andQing periods. She communities in Wenzhou are often interspersed with Han settlements in Cangnan, Taishun, Pingyang and Wencheng.[190] The history of Hui migration to Wenzhou can be traced back to the Yuan dynasty, although most Hui residents today are thought to have moved fromFujian around thetransition from Ming to Qing.[191]
Linguistic variation within Wenzhou is striking, with speech changing markedly from village to village. Several mutually unintelligible varieties are spoken across the municipality. The most widely used isWenzhounese, which is spoken across all counties and districts and has the broadest reach.Hokkien is spoken mainly in southern Wenzhou, especially inCangnan andPingyang, and is close to the Hokkien spoken insouthern Fujian. In Yueqing, the Dajing dialect is spoken north of the Qingjiang River, while areas to the south are predominantly Wenzhounese-speaking. Taishun has six additional mutually unintelligible varieties alongside Wenzhounese, includingManjiang, Hokkien, Luoyang, Jujiang,She, andTingzhou dialects. In Cangnan, in addition to Wenzhounese and Hokkien,Manhua, She, and Jinxiang dialects are also spoken.[192]
Wenzhounese is widely regarded as particularly hard for outsiders to understand.[193][194][195] With mountains on three sides and the sea on the fourth, Wenzhou was historically relatively isolated, which helped preserve a number of archaic features in local languages. Wenzhounese is often noted for retaining features associated withearlier stages of Chinese, such asMiddle Chinese, and is sometimes described in the literature as unusually conservative compared with many other modern varieties.[196][192] Its development is traced back to the lateHan andEastern Wu periods, becoming recognisable by theTang dynasty and reaching maturity by the Northern Song; by theSouthern Song it is considered broadly close to modern usage. Continuities are often illustrated through early sources that record vernacular words and pronunciations, as well as the colloquial language found inSouthern Drama texts.[192]
Education in Wenzhou has a long institutional history dating to 301, when the first prefectural school was established. In the late Qing, modern education began to take shape. In 1885, Chen Qiu founded Liji School in Rui’an, regarded as China’s first modern school oftraditional Chinese medicine.Sun Yirang subsequently established a range of specialised institutions, including schools of mathematics, accounting, and sericulture.[197]
Educational development in Wenzhou accelerated from the 1980s onwards.[197] In December 1984, the Zhejiang provincial government approved the formal establishment ofWenzhou University, whose construction was funded through a combination of government spending, public fundraising, and donations from overseas Chinese.[111] In 2006, Wenzhou University signed an agreement with Kean University in the United States to establishWenzhou-Kean University, which was formally approved in 2014.[198] Wenzhou is currently home to higher education institutions such as Wenzhou University andWenzhou Medical University, though the city’s overall ability to attract and retain high-level talent remains limited.[167]
Since the 1990s,Belleville in Paris has been one of the main centres of settlement for overseas Wenzhou people[199]
Since the 1990s, large-scale migration from Wenzhou to other parts of China and overseas has turned the city into amajor origin of overseas Chinese in China.[16] By 2025, more than 2 million people of Wenzhou origin were living worldwide, including over 800,000 overseas, spread across more than 100 countries. Together they had established more than 200 chambers of commerce outside Wenzhou and over 300 overseas Chinese associations, forming an extensive global network of businesses and communities associated with Wenzhou people.[17][18]Qingtian County inLishui, which neighbours Wenzhou and whose local language is closely related to that of Wenzhou, is often grouped together overseas, with people frequently identifying themselves as “Wenzhou people”.[200][201]Wenzhou people make up a large proportion of theChinese residents in Italy, constituting approximately 90% ofTuscany's Chinese population.[202] Significant concentrations of Wenzhounese also live inNew York City, as well as acrossFrance andSpain.[203]
Wenzhou is often described as having one of the highest proportions of religious believers in China, with Buddhism as the largest religion locally.[19] Traditional religious practice in Wenzhou has also been notably elaborate. Local gazetteers record that, from the time of the Dong’ou ruler Yao, local custom placed strong emphasis on spirits and temple worship. In the Yongjia walled city, there were said to be more than ninety temples and over twenty monasteries. In ordinary households, people commonly venerated a set of domestic deities, such as the kitchen god, eaves god, well god, god of wealth, white tiger god, and earth god, while also worshipping Guanyin, the Three Officials, and other gods.[204]
Prior to 1949, there were 2,000 registered places of worship and 4,500 priests, pastors and monks in the city. But, the state officially designated Wenzhou as an experimental site for an "atheistic zone" in 1958 and during theCultural Revolution (1966–1976), religious buildings were either closed or converted for other uses.[205] Religion revived quickly since the 1980s, and today there are more registered places of worship than before.[206] Specifically, as of 2015[update] the city has 8,569 registered folk religious temples and 3,961 registered places of worship of the five institutional religions (Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism and Protestantism).[207] The city was the forefront in the registration and management of folk religious temples which was started in January 2015 and later extended to all Zhejiang.[207]
Local religious life has long centred on a rich mix of deity worship, ancestral veneration, and everyday ritual practice. Among the most prominent figures in local belief is Yao, the ancient ruler of Dong’ou, who is commonly honoured alongside theCity God in rites concerned with protection,rainmaking, and communal well-being. Theearth god and thegod of wealth also attract widespread devotion, while a wide range of more specialised deities reflects the practical concerns of daily life. Historical and legendary figures have frequently been incorporated into this religious landscape, and local traditions also include forms of animal and nature worship, such as auspicious white deer imagery and tiger spirits.[204]
Ancestral veneration has been equally important. Families place strong emphasis on remembering and honouring the dead, with regular rites held on festivals as well as on the birthdays and death anniversaries of ancestors. In wealthier households, portraits commissioned during a person’s lifetime were sometimes displayed after death as part of domestic ritual practice. Alongside these beliefs, a dense set of everyday taboos has shaped social behaviour， from table etiquette and forms of speech to attitudes towards numbers, animals, and written text, embedding religious sensibilities deeply into ordinary life.[204]
Buddhism has been present in Wenzhou since the Jin dynasty. In 295, aBuddhist pagoda was erected on Luofu Mountain in Yongjia; from theSouthern Dynasties through the Sui and Tang periods, monasteries gradually became more numerous. Over time,Tiantai andChan traditions developed side by side, and in the modern era eminent monks such as Dixian and Hongyi were active in Wenzhou in rebuilding temples and establishing lecture halls and Buddhist academies.[208]
Among local temples,Jiangxin Temple in Lucheng is the most emblematic. It was given the imprial grant of the name “Longxiang Xingqing Chan Temple” in the Song dynasty and was listed in 1983 as a nationally designated key temple open to the public. Other locally significant historic temples includeMiaoguo Temple on Songtai Hill in Lucheng, Miyin Temple on Toutuo Mountain in Ouhai,Lingyan Temple onYandang Mountain in Yueqing, Xianyan Shengshou Chan Temple in Rui’an, and Guoan Temple and the Qianfo Pagoda in Yaoxi, Longwan.[208]
Daoist activity in Wenzhou can be traced back to theThree Kingdoms period. Local tradition holds that, in the Jin dynasty, the alchemistGe Hong travelled to sites such as Dongmeng Mountain in Yongjia and Dongmen in Kunyang to practisealchemy. Daoism flourished at times during the Song and Yuan periods, when numerous temples were established and prominent figures emerged. In the Song, theShenxiao tradition was particularly influential:Lin Lingsu of Yongjia is said to have travelled to the imperial capital to transmit Shenxiao texts and rites, gaining considerable prominence. In the Yuan, theDonghua tradition became notable; Lin Ling-zhen, a native of Lin’ao in Pingyang, promoted Donghua teachings in the early Yuan, and his followers were known as theShuinan lineage, which later gradually merged intoZhengyi Dao. Since the Ming and Qing periods, Daoist lineages in Wenzhou have increasingly consolidated into the two main systems ofQuanzhen and Zhengyi.[209]
Wenzhou’s Daoist temples have undergone repeated cycles of rise and decline since the opening of rock-cut chambers at Daluoyan in Yongjia. Among the best-known surviving sites is the Zixiao Temple at Jingshan Jingshuigu in Ouhai. Tao Gong Cave at Daluoyan in Yongjia is recognised as the twelfth “Blessed Grotto-Heaven” in Daoist geography. From the Tang dynasty onwards, it hosted temples such as Jizhen Temple and Guangfu Lingzhen Palace; many of the existing buildings were rebuilt during the Qianlong reign of the Qing dynasty.[209]
Wenzhou is also frequently noted for having one of the highest proportions of Christians in China.[19] The city has been for centuries a hub of Christian missionary activity; prior to 1949 it was home to 115,000 Christians, more than one-tenth of the total Christians in China at that time.[206] More than 10% and over a million of the city's residents are Christian.[210][211] It has consequently acquired the nickname “China’s Jerusalem”, and is associated with a group sometimes described as “boss Christians”, who combine strong religious commitment with active involvement in business.[20][205]
Recent reporting has described controversial government actions affecting Wenzhou’s Christian community, including church demolitions and large-scale cross removals beginning in 2014,[212] which officials have framed as enforcement of land-use rules, but which journalists and human-rights groups have argued were aimed at reducing Christianity’s public visibility; the campaign has also prompted local resistance, including the jailing of a pastor in 2015 after protests.[213][214]
Protestant Christianity was introduced to Wenzhou in 1866 and gradually developed into six main traditions, including theChina Inland Mission, theMethodist Church, theChina Christian Independent Church, theSeventh-day Adventist Church, the Wenzhou Chinese Christian Independent Church, and theChristian Assembly. In 1950, local believers responded to the call for churches to be self-governing, self-supporting, and self-propagating. A Three-Self Patriotic Movement committee was established in 1956, and in 1958 the six traditions were merged, with denominational names discontinued. Church activities were suspended during the Cultural Revolution, resumed in 1979, and in 1983 the Wenzhou Christian Association was established.[215]
Several Protestant churches are particularly representative in contemporary Wenzhou, including Garden Lane Church, Chengxi Church which now serves as the main church of the municipal Christian organisations, Hongqiao Church, Yahou Church in Rui’an, Yongping Church in Aojiang, Yongling Church in Cangnan, and Zhuyintang Church in Longgang.[215]
Protestantism in Wenzhou was also historically active in education and healthcare. In 1897, Dingley Hospital was founded as the city’s first Western-style hospital. In 1905 it was incorporated into Whiteley Hospital, and in 1953 it was taken over by the government, becoming what is now Wenzhou Central Hospital.[215]
Wenzhou’sRoman Catholic tradition is linked in local accounts to earlier forms of Christianity dating back to 1304. Modern missionary activity resumed after 1846 as the Vincentians expanded their work in Zhejiang. After the founding of the People’s Republic of China, church administration in Wenzhou was reorganised under the WenzhouCatholic Patriotic Association.[216]
Wenzhou is reported to have around 100,000 Catholic believers, accounting for roughly 70% of Zhejiang’s total.[217] Besides Zhouzhai Cixiang Catholic Church, other major churches include Yongqiang Catholic Church, Fenglin Catholic Church in Yongjia, Hongqiao Catholic Church in Yueqing, Chengguan Catholic Church in Rui’an, Kunyang Catholic Church in Pingyang, Qianku Catholic Church in Cangnan, and Hedigao Catholic Church in Longgang, many of which were first built during the Republican period.[216]
The Catholic Church in Wenzhou also ran schools and medical services. In 1913, the John de God infirmary began offering clinical services and later became known as the John de God Hospital. In 1951, it was taken over by the municipal government and became today’s Wenzhou People’s Hospital.[216]
Literary activity in Wenzhou can be traced back to poetry of the Northern and Southern Dynasties. During the Eastern Jin,Xie Lingyun served as prefect of Yongjia and, inspired by the local landscape, helped pioneer the tradition of Chineselandscape poetry.[218]
TheYongjia School, which emerged from Wenzhou, was one of the most importantConfucianschools of thought of the Southern Song period. It developed alongside, and in debate with, other major strands of thought associated withZhu Xi andLu Jiuyuan. The school is best known for its stress on practical statecraft and real-world results, arguing thatmaterial benefit andmoral principle could be aligned rather than treated as opposites. Its thinkers maintained that advantage should be pursued within an ethical framework, and criticisedmoral philosophy that, in their view, became detached from social and economic realities.Ye Shi is generally regarded as the leading figure and the most fully developed representative of the school. Because Wenzhou produced a notable number of scholars in theSouthern Song, it acquired a reputation as a major cultural and intellectual centre in southeast China.[62]
Yongjia School is arguably the only major Chinese school of thought of which the main teachings emphasisecurrency,commerce, andprivate economy, which has a strong influence on Wenzhou people.[219][220] Wenzhou people are often thought to be equipped with business sense and a commercial culture more dominant than anywhere else in China.[221] In 2009, theChinese Academy of Social Sciences ranked Wenzhou as China’s most culturally competitive city, sparking wider discussion of what was often characterised as the Wenzhou capacity for recognising commercial opportunities and willingness to seek livelihoods beyond the local area.[222] Entrepreneurship and business life associated with Wenzhou people have become a recurring theme in film and television. The most prominent example is the TV drama seriesFamily on the Go, which attracted national attention.[223]China Daily also notes that investments from Wenzhounese buyers play a disproportionately large role in the increased property prices all over China.[224]
TheBook of Sui records that Yongjia “favoured singing and dancing”.[226] Nanxi, or the southern drama, is often described as one of the earliest forms of Chinese theatre.[227][228][229] It originated in Wenzhou from the late Northern Song through the Yuan period and into the early Ming, and was especially influential across southern China. Because it was performed with singing and dance, using southern melodies (nanqu), it became known as the southern drama (nanxi). In the Ming and Qing periods, dance and music likewise remained popular. After a decline during the Republican era, these traditions revived after 1949 alongside the development of organised music and performance.[230][231] In addition to Nanxi,Kunqu, Gaoqiang,Ou opera,Peking opera andglove puppetry were also popular in Wenzhou.[232]
Wenzhou cuisine forms a distinct branch withinZhejiang cuisine. Its overall character can be summarised asseafood-centred, light in flavour, and focused on preserving the natural taste of ingredients. Benefiting from abundant coastal resources,fish,shellfish, and other seafood feature prominently in everyday cooking. Common techniques include steaming, blanching, quick stir-frying, and light thickening, all of which emphasise freshness, tenderness, and balance rather than heavy seasoning or strong spices.[233] In coastal areas, traditional practices of eating raw or lightly cured seafood have been preserved. These are often paired withpickled vegetables, which help balance flavour and texture and reflect long-standing local food customs shaped by maritime life.[233]
Wenzhou also has a highly developed tradition of local snacks, characterised by a wide variety of items, strongstreet-food culture, and clear regional identity. These range from rice- and wheat-based staple snacks to sweets and soups, generally favouring soft, chewy textures and a balance of savoury and sweet flavours, with an emphasis on freshly prepared food.[233][234]
Wenzhou’s folk crafts are closely tied to both everyday life and religious or festive traditions, and many local forms later developed into recognised fine and decorative arts with wider markets. Several traditions originated as practical or ceremonial embellishments, such as decorations for lantern festivals, temples, household furnishings, and clothing, before being refined by specialist artisans and adapted into collectible, display-oriented works.[235]
Dongpo Admiring an Inkstone, a Qing-dynastyboxwood carving by Zhu Zichang, in the collection of the Wenzhou Museum
A distinctive feature of Wenzhou craftsmanship is its strong material and technique basis.Woodcarving, especially the Yueqing tradition ofboxwood carving, evolved from festival ornamentation into an independent art form in the late Qing, gaining broader recognition through awards at major exhibitions in the early 12th century. Modelling in oil-based clay, traditionally used for temple decoration, was later reworked into decorative screens and hanging pieces.Textile arts also became important: local embroidery developed into one of China’s major embroidery traditions, expanding from workshop production to export-oriented craft industries by the late Qing and Republican periods, and later benefiting from more organised production after 1949. Rural needlework traditions, includingcross-stitch lacework, were valued for their delicacy and became notable export items.[235]
Stone-based crafts form another strand. Local stone carving, related to the wider tradition ofQingtian stone carving, combined practical uses, such as seals and ritual or decorative objects, with architectural ornamentation.Inlay work became a hallmark, particularly colour-stone inlay set into hardwood, which connected carving with furniture and decorative objects and reached overseas markets; bamboo-filament inlay later emerged as a distinctive local technique and was revived in the mid-12th century. Finally, the fine-cutpaper-cutting tradition of Yueqing developed from festive and household decoration into a highly detailed craft used for patterns and ornamental motifs.[235]
Seasonal customs in Wenzhou traditionally followed the rhythm of the year. The calendar opened in the firstlunar month withlantern displays andNew Year visits. In the second and third months, spring was welcomed through outdoor games and activities such as kite flying and playing simplewind instruments made from wheat stalks. During spring, the city also observedLan Jie Fu, a rotating street-based ritual held from the first day of the second lunar month to the fifteenth day of the third, with different neighbourhoods taking turns to host festivities. Early summer was marked most prominently by theDragon Boat Festival, which extended beyond the day itself to include dragon boat racing and processional performances. In autumn, attention shifted to theQixi festival andMid-Autumn moon viewing. Winter customs centred on preparing for the cold season, making New Year rice cakes at year’s end, staying up onNew Year’s Eve, and givinglucky money. Since 1949, some of these practices have gradually declined or continued in modified forms.[236]
In 1995, Wenzhou was designated the “City of Chess” byChina Qiyuan, the national body overseeing board and card games in mainland China.[238] In 2020, the city marked the 25th anniversary of the title. To mark the occasion,FIDE PresidentArkady Dvorkovich sent a congratulatory letter praising Wenzhou for producing outstanding players such asYe Rongguang,Zhu Chen, andDing Liren.
Wenzhou Sports Centre: The complex covers more than 200 mu, with a total floor area of 70,319 square metres and an investment of 280 million yuan. Its main facilities include an indoor arena with 5,000 seats, a swimming and diving hall with 2,000 seats, and a stadium with a capacity of 20,000.[239] Construction of the arena began on 8 November 1994 and was completed on 8 December 1995, with a total build period of 395 days. The stadium, designed by the Wenzhou Architectural Design Institute, started construction on 8 June 1995 and was completed in July 1997.
Wenzhou Olympic Sports Centre: Located at the foot ofDaluo Mountain, south of the Longwan administrative centre, the complex includes a main stadium with a capacity of 50,000, a multi-purpose indoor arena seating 5,000, and a swimming venue with seating for around 1,000. It hosted football matches during the 2022 Asian Games.
Wenzhou has a long tradition ofmathematical education. In 1896, the Wenzhou scholarSun Yirang established what is described as China’s first institute dedicated to mathematics in Rui’an. In 1897, Huang Qingcheng founded China’s first periodical dedicated to mathematics in Wenzhou, and in 1899 Wenzhou saw the formation of an organised mathematics society, often cited as the country’s earliest regional mathematical association.[240][241]Wenzhounese scholars subsequently played an outsized role in the rise of modern mathematics in China. Over the 20th century, the city produced more than 200 mathematicians of national and international standing, includingJiang Lifu,Su Buqing,Jiang Boju,Shu Shien-Siu andLee Peng Yee.[241] In 2003, during a visit to Wenzhou at the invitation ofGu Chaohao,Shiing-Shen Chern openly praised the city as a “Home of Mathematicians”.[242]
Historically, Wenzhou was one of the most remote and poorly connected cities in Zhejiang, being the farthest from the provincial capital, Hangzhou. In earlier times, travelling overland from Wenzhou to Hangzhou often took at least two weeks, although transport conditions improved gradually in the modern era.[243] From the 1990s onwards, the opening of the airport, railway links, and expressways progressively strengthened the transport network, whilewater transport gradually declined.[244]
A stop on theShanghai–Guangzhou route operated byChina National Aviation Corporation from 1932, Wenzhou was the first city in Zhejiang to establish air transport links, until the route and the airfield was destroyed during theSecond Sino-Japanese War.[245] In 1984, Wenzhou was designated by the State Council as one of China’s 14 coastal open cities, which gave rise to plans for airport construction. With total investment of 132 million yuan, including more than 60 million yuan raised from the public, Wenzhou Airport was China’s first airport built primarily through locally raised funds. Construction began in May 1987, and the airport opened on 12 July 1990.[246] In 1991,Wang Junyao contracted theChangsha–Wenzhou route, pioneering privately operated charter services in China’s civil aviation sector.[117] The airport has since undergone repeated expansion and upgrading, with arail transit station within the airport built in 2019.[246][247]
Terminal 2 of Wenzhou Longwan International Airport
As of 2025[update], the airport covered approximately 5,682 mu (378.8 ha) and was classified as a 4E airport. It operated a single runway 3,200 m (10,500 ft) long and 45 m (148 ft) wide, with 60 m (200 ft) shoulders, together with a parallel taxiway of the same length. Peak-hour capacity was 28 aircraft movements. The apron covered about 581,000 m2 (6,250,000 sq ft) and provided 66 parking stands and 29 passenger boarding bridges. The airport had two terminals, T1 and T2, with a combined floor area of around 156,000 m2 (1,680,000 sq ft). Terminal 1 primarily handled international and regional flights, with an annual capacity of about 500,000 passengers, while Terminal 2, at 116,000 m2 (1,250,000 sq ft), mainly served domestic routes and was designed for annual throughput of around 13 million passengers. A dedicated cargo terminal of roughly 30,000 m2 (320,000 sq ft) supported an annual cargo and mail capacity of up to 200,000 tonnes.[248]
In 2024, the airport handled 12.53 million passengers and 123,000 tonnes of cargo and mail. From 2021 to 2025, it opened a cumulative total of 127 domestic passenger routes and newly launched or resumed 14 international routes. Among airports of comparable size in China, it was the only one to operate direct intercontinental services toRome,Milan, andMadrid.[249]
Wenzhou’s modern railway links date to the early 1990s. TheJinhua–Wenzhou Railway was built through a public–private joint venture formed in 1992 between the Wenzhou municipal government andNan Huaijin, a Wenzhou-born Taiwanese scholar, and opened in full on 11 June 1998, bringing railway service to southern Zhejiang for the first time.[250][251] In September 2009, theNingbo–Taizhou–Wenzhou andWenzhou–Fuzhou railways opened, bringinghigh-speed services to Wenzhou for the first time.[252] In 2015, theJinhua–Wenzhou high-speed railway was opened.[253] In 2024, theHangzhou–Wenzhou high-speed railway entered service, introducing 350 km/h (220 mph) high-speed rail within the city and cutting the fastest journey to Hangzhou to about one hour.[252]
Wenzhou currently operates twocommuter rail lines. Line S1 began construction on 11 November 2011, runs for 51.9 km, and entered service on 23 January 2019.[254][255] Line S2 started construction on 30 December 2015 and opened on 26 August 2023.[256] Line S3 broke ground on 27 March 2023 and is expected to open in the second half of 2027. In addition, three metro lines, M1, M2, and M3, have been proposed but have not yet received approval.[257]
Wenzhou’s first external road link dates to October 1934, when theWenzhou–Qingtian–Lishui road opened.[243] For much of the 20th century, external connections still relied heavily on waterways, but from the 1990s the expanding road network gradually reduced the role of inland water transport.[244] In May 1998, theWenzhou Bridge opened, marking the first expressway-standard road infrastructure in the city. Wenzhou’s first full expressway route followed in 2003, when the Wenzhou section of theNingbo–Taizhou–Wenzhou Expressway opened.[258] In 2020, the opening of theWencheng–Taishun Expressway helped complete expressway access across all county-level areas in Wenzhou and, more broadly, across Zhejiang.[258] By 2025, Wenzhou had a total road length of 17,700 km (11,000 mi), with all natural villages of 100 residents or more connected by graded roads. Its expressway mileage ranked among the top three in Zhejiang.[259]
Yueqing bus route 312 running from Yueqing East Station to Nantang Town Government
Intercity coach services began in 1935, with scheduled buses operating between Wenzhou and Yiwu.[243] The city introduced its first urban bus route in 1956.[260] In December 2010, the Wenzhou Public Transport Group and Changyun Group merged to form Wenzhou Transport Group. In 2015, Wenzhou opened its first bus rapid transit line and later expanded the network to five routes; by 2018, the B1 line and its extensions carried an average of 1.389 million passenger trips per month, reported as the highest-ridership bus route in Zhejiang.[260] By 2025, daily bus patronage in Wenzhou exceeded 700,000 passenger trips.[259]
ThePort of Wenzhou is located on China’s southeast coast, south of thePort of Ningbo and north of thePort of Fuzhou. Across the sea to the southeast lie the ports ofKaohsiung andKeelung. The port forms part of theYangtze Delta economic zone. With a coastline of about 350 km (220 mi), Wenzhou Port serves as the principal hub for coastal and deep-sea shipping in southern Zhejiang and is one of China’s 25 major coastal ports.[261]
The port is organised into seven port areas. The core areas are Zhuangyuan’ao, Yueqing Bay, and Daxiaomen Island, supported by four auxiliary areas along the Ou River, Rui’an, Pingyang, and Cangnan.[262] Before 2010, the main facilities were concentrated along the Ou River and lacked deep-water berths, prompting the development of the Zhuangyuan’ao and Yueqing Bay port areas.[263] In 2017, the WenzhouZhuangyuan’ao International Cruise Terminal inDongtou District entered service, becoming Zhejiang’s second international cruise home port after Zhoushan.[264]
Wenzhou Port maintains shipping and trade links with ports in more than ten countries and regions, including Japan, South Korea, Kuwait, Russia, Singapore, and Hong Kong. Regular routes connect it with Busan, Singapore, Qingdao, Guangzhou, Ningbo, Shanghai, and Yingkou, as well as ports along China’s northern and southern coasts and the Yangtze River.[265] In 2025, cargo throughput at Wenzhou Port exceeded 100 million tonnes for the first time.[263]
^Figures for Longwan District include four subdistricts under the Southern Zhejiang Industrial Agglomeration Area; figures for Dongtou District include Lingkun Subdistrict under the Oujiangkou Industrial Agglomeration Area.
^2024年温州经济运行情况.Wenzhou Municipal Bureau of Statistics (in Simplified Chinese). 24 January 2025.Archived from the original on 14 August 2025. Retrieved10 February 2025.
^You, Chengyong; Wu, Yong (26 September 2008).温州正式归入长三角区域 [Wenzhou Formally Incorporated into the Yangtze River Delta Region].Wenzhou Net (in Simplified Chinese). Retrieved25 January 2026.
^ab我与长三角有个约｜当长三角遇上海西区，会产生哪些化学反应 [When the Yangtze River Delta Meets the Western Taiwan Straits: What Kind of Chemical Reaction Will Occur?].Tide News (in Simplified Chinese). 3 June 2024. Retrieved25 January 2026.
^ab"老鼠山遗址：史前温州人的探寻遥望" (in Chinese (China)). Wenzhou Daily. 22 May 2010. Archived fromthe original on 29 August 2014. Retrieved1 January 2012.
^abcd历史上曾先后有两个东瓯国，“方国”和“藩国”有何区别？ [Two Dong’ou Polities in History: What Was the Difference between an Independent State and a Vassal Kingdom?].Wenzhou Net (in Simplified Chinese). 5 July 2024.Archived from the original on 18 July 2024. Retrieved17 January 2026.
^abYang, Yadong (11 May 2015).温州模式30年｜“温州模式”是怎么横空出世的？ [Thirty Years of the “Wenzhou Model”: How Did the “Wenzhou Model” Emerge?].The Paper (in Simplified Chinese).Archived from the original on 20 August 2024. Retrieved20 August 2024.
^abc中国首批私营企业主说市场变迁 温州模式成时代缩影 [China’s First Generation of Private Entrepreneurs Reflect on Market Changes: The Wenzhou Model as a Microcosm of the Era].Zhejiang Online (in Simplified Chinese). 29 December 2007. Retrieved25 January 2026.
^ab中国民营经济发祥地温州GDP破万亿 [Wenzhou, the Cradle of China’s Private Economy, Sees GDP Surpass One Trillion Yuan].Lianhe Zaobao (in Simplified Chinese). 20 January 2026.Archived from the original on 20 January 2026. Retrieved22 January 2026.
^Shi et al., p. 14-21. sfn error: no target: CITEREFShiJinZhaoLuo (help)
^Jin, Shuai (1 March 2025).如何建设新时代“世界的温州”？温州出台《实施方案》 [How to Build a “Global Wenzhou” in the New Era? Wenzhou Releases an Implementation Plan].Wenzhou Daily (in Simplified Chinese). Retrieved25 January 2026.
^abcdChen, Baosheng; Ren, Zongqiang (2015). "Wenzhounese's Economy: History Evolution,Theoretical Logic and Research Significance"温州人经济：历史演进、理论逻辑与研究意义.Technology Economics (in Chinese) (8):123–129.doi:10.3969/j.issn.1002-980X.2015.08.017.
^ab关税风暴下，温州企业如何以“地瓜式”韧性突围 [How Wenzhou Enterprises Break Through Tariff Shocks with “Sweet Potato–Style” Resilience].CCTV News (in Simplified Chinese). 29 April 2025. Retrieved25 January 2026.
^abKe, Rui (17 March 2025).第十五届中国国际园林博览会将于明年在温州举行 [The 15th China International Garden Expo to Be Held in Wenzhou Next Year].Beijing News (in Simplified Chinese). Retrieved25 January 2026.
^温州为何古称东瓯？“瓯居海中”又隐藏了哪些文化“密码”？ [Why Was Wenzhou Historically Known as Dong’ou? What Cultural Meanings Are Hidden in the Phrase “Ou Dwelling in the Sea”?].Wenzhou Net (in Simplified Chinese). 27 July 2021.Archived from the original on 22 December 2025. Retrieved18 December 2025.
^何谓“永嘉”？ [What Does “Yongjia” Mean?].Wenzhou Net (in Simplified Chinese). 9 April 2023.Archived from the original on 9 April 2023. Retrieved31 January 2026.
^Chao, Yuen Ren (1943)."Languages and Dialects in China".The Geographical Journal.102 (2):63–66.doi:10.2307/1790133.ISSN0016-7398.Archived from the original on 28 April 2024. Retrieved3 February 2026.The Wu-dialects (including Shanghai and Yungkia (Wenchow)) and the Hsiang group (including most of Hunan, though Changsha is not typical) are characterized by their retaining ancient voiced or sonant initials [...]
^abcdJi, Yongjiao (7 January 2026).温州地区古越土著是怎样汉化的？ [How Were the Indigenous Yue Peoples in the Wenzhou Region Sinicised?].Wenzhou Net (in Simplified Chinese). Retrieved17 January 2026.
^Weng, Jiangang; Xie, Xiaoyan (2016).横屿船屯的设立与建制问题探析 [An Analysis of the Establishment and Administrative System of the Hengyu Ship Garrison].Wenzhou Cultural Relic (in Simplified Chinese) (2):24–28.
^Qian, Zhixi (2014).唐代溫州地域內外詩歌創作活動考論 [A Study of Poetic Composition Activities within and beyond the Wenzhou Region in the Tang Dynasty].Studies in Sinology國學研究 (in Traditional Chinese) (1):1–47.
^Cai, Gangtie (2001). "Ancient Pottery and Porcelain in Wenzhou"温州陶瓷考古与温州博物馆藏陶瓷器 [Ceramic Archaeology in Wenzhou and the Wenzhou Museum’s Ceramics Collection].Ancient Pottery and Porcelain in Wenzhou温州古陶瓷 (in Simplified Chinese). Beijing: Wenwu Chubanshe. pp. 1–14.ISBN7-5010-1294-6.
^Wu, Feng (2011). "Eastern Zhejiang Factors in Sun En and Lu Xun' Uprising during East-Jin Dynasty"东晋孙恩、卢循起事的浙东因素.Journal of Zhejiang Ocean University(Humanities Sciences) (in Chinese).28 (6):43–46, 65.
^Li, Lei (2025). "Cultural Centripetal Force and Political Identity Shaping During the Process of the Chen Dynasty Unifying the South"陈朝统一南方过程中的文化向心力与政治认同塑造.Academic Journal of Zhongzhou (3):119–127.doi:10.3969/j.issn.1003-0751.2025.03.015.
^Yongkang City Gazetteer Compilation Committee, ed. (2017).第四章 缙州驻地 [Chapter 4: The Seat of Jinzhou].Yongkang Shizhi永康市志 (in Chinese). Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House.ISBN978-7-208-14119-3.
^Jia, Fayi (2016). ""Guanzhong Standard" Cultural Policy in the Early Years of the Sui Dynasty and Southern Rebellion".Journal of Shanxi University (Philosophy and Social Science Edition) (in Chinese).39 (6):23–28.doi:10.13451/j.cnki.shanxi.univ(phil.soc.).2016.06.004.
^abcdTeng, Yupeng (2013). "Historical Transition of Wenzhou Harbor Trade"温州港贸易的历史变迁.Journal of Wenzhou Vocational & Technical College.13 (4):22–28.
^Wu, Qi, ed. (2007).历代盐业 [Salt Administration Through the Dynasties].温州市盐业志 [Wenzhou Gazetteer of the Salt Industry] (in Chinese). Zhonghua Book Company.ISBN978-7-101-05465-1.
^Zhu, Ruming (8 April 2023).这位唐代温州刺史是“修城达人”，温州、福州两地子城都与他有关！ [This Tang-dynasty Prefect of Wenzhou Was a Master of City Construction, with Inner Cities in Both Wenzhou and Fuzhou Linked to Him].Wenzhou Net (in Simplified Chinese). Archived fromthe original on 8 April 2023. Retrieved23 January 2026.
^Huang, Hancheng (2022). "New Research of Wenzhou Sea Guarding Army Commander in the Period of Tang and Five Dynasties and Correction of Magistrate of Wenzhou as Seen So Far"唐五代温州静海军新考及目前所见温州刺史补正.Journal of Wenzhou Polytechnic (in Chinese).22 (4):27–29, 35.doi:10.13669/j.cnki.33-1276/z.2022.061.
^Li, Shizhong (2006).宋代东南山区的农业开发——以温州为例 [Agricultural Development in the Southeastern Mountain Regions during the Song Dynasty: The Case of Wenzhou].Zhejiang Social Sciences (in Chinese) (1):174–180.doi:10.3969/j.issn.1004-2253.2006.01.032.
^abZhu, Haibin (2015). "The Prosperity of the Imperial Civil Examination and Its Background of Wenzhou in Song Dynasty"宋代温州科举的兴盛及其背景.Journal of Hangzhou Normal University (Humanities and Social Sciences) (in Chinese) (5):50–57.doi:10.3969/j.issn.1674-2338.2015.05.006.
^ab“皇祐三先生”与“东南邹鲁” [The “Three Scholars of Huangyou” and Wenzhou’s Reputation for Scholarly Culture] (in Chinese (China)). Wenzhou Daily. 15 May 2003. Archived fromthe original on 29 August 2014. Retrieved13 January 2012.
^Chen, Anjin (2020). "Study of "Cultural Consciousness" of Wenzhou in the Southern Song Dynasty: Focusing on the Yongjia School"论南宋时期温州的“文化自觉”——以永嘉学派为中心.Journal of Wenzhou University (Social Science Edition) (in Chinese).33 (6):1–9.doi:10.3875/j.issn.1674-3555.2020.06.00 (inactive 1 February 2026).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of February 2026 (link)
^大罗山这处摩崖题刻 记录温州史上最大水灾 [Cliff Inscription on Daluo Mountain Records the Largest Flood in Wenzhou’s History].Wenzhou Net (in Simplified Chinese). 15 June 2020.Archived from the original on 27 May 2023. Retrieved27 May 2023.
^Lian, Jiajia (23 June 2022).“海禁”下的明代温州城 [Wenzhou City under the Ming Sea Bans].Wenzhou Net (in Simplified Chinese).Archived from the original on 21 April 2025. Retrieved20 January 2026.
^You, Yuhao (2018).温州沿海卫所及其地域亚文化考察 [Coastal Garrisons in Wenzhou and Their Regional Subcultures](PDF).中国地方志 (in Simplified Chinese) (4):95–104,127–128. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 22 January 2026.
^Yang, Guozhen; Hong, Yulin (2024). "The Deng Maoqi Uprising and Social Governance in the Mid-Ming Dynasty"邓茂七起义与明中叶的社会治理.Social Science Front (in Chinese).353 (11):98–110.
^Pan, Mengbu (2014). "Zhu Wan and the Jiajing-Era Maritime Crisis in Wenzhou"朱纨与嘉靖温州海患.Journal of Wenzhou Vocational & Technical College (in Chinese).14 (1):12–16.doi:10.3969/j.issn.1671-4326.2014.01.003.
^abcdCai, Ruixia (2010).明代温州倭寇研究 [A Study of Wokou Raids in Ming-Dynasty Wenzhou].Zhejiang Academic Journal (in Chinese) (5):41–46.doi:10.3969/j.issn.1003-420X.2010.05.007.
^Wang, Xingwen; Su, Song (2014). "Wenzhou Shipbuilding Industry in the Early and Middle Period of the Qing Dynasty"清前中期温州造船业.Journal of Wenzhou Vocational & Technical College (in Chinese).14 (4):1–5.doi:10.13669/j.cnki.33-1276/z.2014.073.
^Lo, Shih-Chieh; Zhao, Xiaowei (2010). "How a Local God Pacified Rebellion: Yangfujun (Lord Yang) and Wenzhou Local Politics, 1830–1860"地方神明如何平定叛乱：杨府君与温州地方政治（1830-1860）.Journal of Wenzhou University (Social Sciences) (in Chinese).23 (2):3–15.doi:10.3875/j.issn.1674-3555.2010.02.002.
^Zhang, Xianwen (1994). "Some Historical Materials on the Jiashen Religious Case and the Boxer Movement"甲申教案及拳民运动的几则史料.Wenzhou Cultural and Historical Materials, No. 9温州文史资料 第9辑 (in Chinese). Hangzhou: Zhejiang People’s Publishing House.ISBN7-213-01076-X.
^Chang, Linyao (2023).英国驻温州领事馆旧址的历史沿革 [The Historical Evolution of the Former Site of the British Consulate in Wenzhou].Wenzhou Cultural Relic (in Simplified Chinese) (1):23–31.
^abcFeng, Xiaocai (2024). "Wenzhou in the Republic of China: The Changing Trajectory of a Regional History"民国温州：一个区域历史的变化脉络.Journal of Wenzhou University (Social Science Edition) (in Chinese).37 (3):11–22.doi:10.20107/j.wzus.202403031.
^县政督察专员制与行政督察区-中国行政区划通史 [The System of County Administrative Inspectors and Administrative Inspectorates].Huigan Net (in Simplified Chinese). Archived fromthe original on 16 August 2016. Retrieved21 July 2016.
^Jin, Yanfeng (8 July 2020).新中国建立近五年之后，蒋介石竟然回到过浙江？ [Did Chiang Kai-shek Really Return to Zhejiang Nearly Five Years after the Founding of the People’s Republic of China?].Wenhui Daily (in Simplified Chinese). Archived fromthe original on 22 January 2026. Retrieved20 January 2026.
^Yi, Fang (29 October 2008).温州——敢为天下先（上） [Wenzhou: Daring to Be the First in the World (Part I)].CCB Daily (in Simplified Chinese). Archived fromthe original on 22 January 2026.
^abc温州改革开放大事记 [Chronology of Wenzhou’s Reform and Opening-up].Wenzhou Net (in Simplified Chinese). 17 January 2008. Retrieved21 January 2026 – via A Comprehensive Record of China's Reform and Opening Up.
^abcdefYu, Hongxia; Jiang, Weidong (8 December 2011).“温州模式”的历史考察 [A Historical Examination of the “Wenzhou Model”].Zhejiang Party History and Documentation Network (in Simplified Chinese). Archived fromthe original on 22 January 2026.
^ab温州改革开放40年十大突破性事件 [Ten Breakthrough Events in Wenzhou over 40 Years of Reform and Opening-up].Wenzhou Daily (in Simplified Chinese). 9 November 2018.Archived from the original on 16 September 2025. Retrieved21 January 2026.
^Xie, Sisi; You, Doudou; Zhuge, Fangfang (6 October 2024).时光宝藏｜温州供销大军闯天下 [Time Capsule: Wenzhou’s Supply and Marketing Force Goes Nationwide].Wenzhou News (in Simplified Chinese). Photography: Yi Weidong.Archived from the original on 12 September 2025. Retrieved22 January 2026.
^Yuan, Yu (1 June 1987).中國大陸最有錢的城市－溫州 [Mainland China’s Richest City: Wenzhou].Global Views Monthly (in Traditional Chinese).Archived from the original on 26 December 2025. Retrieved23 January 2026.
^中華民國年鑒 [Republic of China Yearbook] (in Chinese). Taipei: Cheng Chung Book. 1990. p. 1231. Retrieved22 May 2025.
^Xue, Jie (5 November 2008).温州——敢为天下先（下） [Wenzhou: Daring to Be the First in the World (Part II)].CCB Daily (in Simplified Chinese). Archived fromthe original on 22 January 2026.
^ab75年，温州原来有这么多“全国第一” [75 Years: How Many “National Firsts” Has Wenzhou Had?].Wenzhou Net (in Chinese). 7 October 2024.Archived from the original on 28 December 2025. Retrieved22 January 2026.
^abcdeZheng, Na (25 January 2022).炒房团全国扫货，房价曾高过上海 温州楼市20年潮起潮落｜楼市地理（十五） [Speculative Property Buyers Sweeping the Country: When Wenzhou Home Prices Once Exceeded Shanghai, and the Ups and Downs of Wenzhou’s Property Market over 20 Years, Real-estate Geography (15)].Yicai (in Simplified Chinese).Archived from the original on 31 January 2022. Retrieved22 January 2026.
^Chen, Liangrong (15 April 2004).溫州人憑什麼稱霸中國？— 像台商的衝、猶太人的敢 [Why Have Wenzhou People Dominated China? With the Drive of Taiwanese Entrepreneurs and the Boldness of Jews].CommonWealth Magazine (in Traditional Chinese).
^Lin, Cheny; Hu, Zhaowei (22 July 2010).溫州「狼」繞著地球跑 [Wenzhou “Wolves” Running Around the Globe].Business Today (in Traditional Chinese).Archived from the original on 6 October 2025. Retrieved25 January 2026.
^Yu, Jianxing; Lyu, Mingzai (2004).温州商会的兴起：温州模式研究的政治社会学范式转型 [The Rise of Wenzhou Chambers of Commerce: A Shift towards a Political-sociological Paradigm in Studies of the Wenzhou Model](PDF).Academic Monthly (in Simplified Chinese) (5):30–36, 42.
^Chen, Xueling (21 August 2008).從杜拜到台灣 最會炒樓的中國猶太人 [From Dubai to Taiwan: China’s “Jews” in Property Speculation].Business Today (in Chinese).Archived from the original on 20 June 2025. Retrieved23 January 2026.
^abHuang, Yue (2012). "An Analysis on the Causes and Countermeasures of Private Loans Crisis: Taking the Private Loans of Wenzhou as an Example"民间借贷危机的成因及治理对策——以温州民间借贷为例.Journal of Changzhou University (Social Science Edition) (in Chinese).13 (1):42–45.doi:10.3969/j.issn.2095-042X.2012.01.011.
^Yang, Fangru; Qianlonglai (6 October 2011).直擊黑暗溫州 [Inside “Dark Wenzhou”].Business Today (in Traditional Chinese). Retrieved23 January 2026.
^Wang, Ping; Xie, Yungeng (2012).突发公共事件中微博意见领袖的实证研究——以“温州动车事故”为例 [An Empirical Study of Weibo Opinion Leaders in Public Emergencies: The “Wenzhou High-Speed Rail Accident” as a Case Study].Modern Communication (Journal of Communication University of China) (in Chinese).34 (3):82–88.doi:10.3969/j.issn.1007-8770.2012.03.018.
^Wen, Hao; Lin, Luyang; Chen, Daqing; Wu, Fan; Zhu, Lielie (2011). "Features of Surviving Casualties and Treatment after the "July 23" EMU Railway Accident at Wenzhou Station"“7·23”温州动车事故存活伤员损伤特点及救治分析.Chinese Journal of Emergency Medicine (in Chinese).20 (12):1248–1250.doi:10.3760/cma.j.issn.1671-0282.2011.12.005.
^温州宣布实施严厉出行管制 [Wenzhou Announces the Implementation of Strict Travel Restrictions].Voice of America (in Chinese). 2 February 2020.Archived from the original on 29 March 2025. Retrieved23 January 2026.
^Qiu, Liyan (3 February 2020).大陸餐飲業恐掀倒閉潮！武漢肺炎衝擊，光春節就損失逾2兆台幣 [Mainland China’s Catering Industry May Face a Wave of Closures: The Wuhan Coronavirus Shock, with Spring Festival Losses Exceeding NT$2 Trillion].Global Views Monthly (in Traditional Chinese).Archived from the original on 23 October 2020. Retrieved23 January 2026.
^温家宝主持国务院常务会议决定设立温州市金融综合改革试验点 [Premier Wen Jiabao Chaired a State Council Executive Meeting and Decided to Establish a Pilot Zone for Wenzhou Financial Reform] (in Simplified Chinese). People’s Daily Online. 29 March 2012.Archived from the original on 3 April 2012. Retrieved30 March 2012.
^Yang Ming (28 March 2012).中国金融改革在温州开始试行 [China’s Financial Reform Begins Pilot Implementation in Wenzhou].Voice of America (in Chinese). Retrieved23 January 2026.
^Wang Yimin (5 November 2013).文化温商巡礼 打拼文化新产业的在京温商 [Cultural Wenzhou Entrepreneurs: Beijing-Based Wenzhou Businesspeople Developing the Cultural and Creative Industries].Zhejiang Daily. Retrieved22 January 2026.
^abHuang, Jiaqi (21 January 2026).新GDP万亿之城悬念：温州已入列，徐州有多远？ [The New Trillion-Yuan GDP City Question: Wenzhou Has Joined the Ranks, How Far Away Is Xuzhou?].Shanghai Observer (in Simplified Chinese). Retrieved22 January 2026.
^Xie, Jinfang (22 December 2023).平阳通福门 [Tongfu Gate of Pingyang].Xin Pingyang Daily (in Simplified Chinese). Photograph by Shao Hangle. Retrieved29 January 2026.
^abc市发展改革委、市自然资源和规划局关于印发《浙江省温州市地质灾害防治“十四五”规划》的通知 [Notice on Issuing the “14th Five-Year Plan for Geological Disaster Prevention and Control in Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province”](PDF) (Report) (in Simplified Chinese). Wenzhou Municipal Development and Reform Commission; Wenzhou Municipal Bureau of Natural Resources and Planning. 31 August 2021.
^从“瓯江时代”到“东海时代”——温州半岛工程纪实 [From the “Ou River Era” to the “East China Sea Era”: A Chronicle of the Wenzhou Peninsula Project].Wenzhou Net (in Simplified Chinese). 11 April 2006.Archived from the original on 7 February 2012. Retrieved16 December 2011.
^School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University."Introduction of Wenzhou".Wenzhou Medical University.Archived from the original on 28 July 2025. Retrieved28 July 2025.
^张振丰 简历 [Zhang Zhenfeng: Biography].People’s Daily Online (in Simplified Chinese). People’s Daily Online. Archived fromthe original on 27 June 2022. Retrieved27 April 2022.
^张加波当选温州市人大常委会主任 周一富、白洪楞当选副主任 [Zhang Jiabo Elected Chair of Wenzhou Municipal People’s Congress Standing Committee; Zhou Yifu and Bai Hongleng Elected as Vice Chairs].China Economic Net (in Simplified Chinese). 23 January 2025. Archived fromthe original on 17 June 2025. Retrieved23 January 2025.
^张文杰任温州市代市长 [Zhang Wenjie Appointed Acting Mayor of Wenzhou].Beijing News (in Simplified Chinese). Archived fromthe original on 25 December 2023. Retrieved19 December 2023.
^施艾珠当选温州市政协主席 木力当选副主席 [Shi Aizhu Elected Chairwoman of the Wenzhou Municipal Committee of the CPPCC; Mu Li Elected Vice Chair] (in Simplified Chinese). China Economic Net. Archived fromthe original on 17 February 2025. Retrieved22 January 2025.
^Lawrence, Susan; Martin, Michael (20 March 2013)."Understanding China's Political System"(PDF).Federation of American Scientists. Congressional Research Service.Archived(PDF) from the original on 8 January 2012. Retrieved28 September 2019.
^图说温州“成长史”（下）：温州的诞生 你见证了多少？ [An Illustrated “Growth History” of Wenzhou, Part 2: The Birth of Wenzhou and What You Have Witnessed].Wenzhou Net (in Simplified Chinese). 23 June 2022.Archived from the original on 23 June 2022. Retrieved20 January 2026.
^Ministry of Civil Affairs of the People's Republic of China (October 2018).Concise Handbook of Township-level Administrative Divisions of the People's Republic of China (2018). China Social Sciences Press.ISBN978-7-5087-5594-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: year (link)
^abcdeLiu Yanning (26 January 2026).GDP突破万亿，温州如何留住“出走”的温州人？ [After GDP Surpassed One Trillion Yuan, How Can Wenzhou Retain Its “Departed” People?].Economic Observer (in Simplified Chinese). Retrieved27 January 2026.
^温州市促进民间投资工作典型经验 [Exemplary Experience from Wenzhou in Promoting Private Investment].National Development and Reform Commission (in Simplified Chinese). 28 September 2023. Archived fromthe original on 4 May 2024. Retrieved27 January 2026.
^Ding, Chengcheng; Xu, Ying (2011).民间借贷对温州地方经济的效用分析 [The Impact of Private Lending on Wenzhou’s Local Economy]. In Shan, Dong (ed.).Yearbook of the Non-Public Sectors of the Economy in Zhejiang浙江非国有经济年鉴 (in Chinese). Zhonghua Book Company. pp. 489–492.ISBN978-7-101-08254-8.
^Lin, Xiaozhao (9 June 2023).40大城市2022年人均收入：京沪逼近8万大关，长沙领跑中西部 [Per Capita Income in 40 Major Cities in 2022: Beijing and Shanghai Near 80,000 Yuan; Changsha Leads Central and Western China].Yicai (in Simplified Chinese). Retrieved27 January 2026.
^Xie, Shiqi (17 April 2023).这项消费温州排第八 温州人均花钱比北京人还多 [In This Type of Spending, Wenzhou Ranks Eighth: Per Capita Spending in Wenzhou Exceeds Beijing].Wenzhou Evening News (in Simplified Chinese). Retrieved27 January 2026 – via Zhejiang Online.
^abcXie, Tianquan (21 March 2025).2024年温州经济社会发展“交卷亮分” [Review of Wenzhou’s Economic and Social Development Performance in 2024].Tide News (in Simplified Chinese). Retrieved27 January 2026.
^Wang, Yan (1 December 2025).太能买了，山姆盒马都盯上了温州中产 [Wenzhou’s Middle Class Is Spending So Much That Sam’s Club and Hema Are Taking Notice].Jiemian News (in Simplified Chinese). Retrieved27 January 2026.
^abc温州“财力”解读丨以财政硬核担当助推高质量发展 [Understanding Wenzhou’s Fiscal Strength: Robust Public Finances Supporting High-Quality Development].Wenzhou Net (in Simplified Chinese). 28 June 2021. Retrieved27 January 2026.
^abWenzhou Municipal Finance Bureau (20 January 2025).关于温州市2024年全市和市级预算执行情况及2025年全市和市级预算草案的报告 [Report on the Execution of the 2024 Municipal and City-Level Budgets of Wenzhou and the Draft Budgets for 2025](PDF) (Report) (in Simplified Chinese). Retrieved27 January 2026.
^Ke, Zheren (21 January 2025).坚持以“千万工程”为牵引缩小“三大差距” 今年继续将财政支出增量的三分之二以上用于民生 [Using the “Thousand Villages Demonstration and Ten Thousand Villages Renovation Project” as a Lever to Narrow the Three Major Gaps, with More than Two-Thirds of Fiscal Spending Increases Allocated to Public Welfare This Year].Wenzhou Daily (in Simplified Chinese). Retrieved27 January 2026.
^聚焦高质量发展丨浙江温州以财政力量保障大发展 [Focus on High-Quality Development: Zhejiang’s Wenzhou Uses Fiscal Strength to Support Large-Scale Development].Xinhua Net (in Simplified Chinese). 4 September 2023. Retrieved27 January 2026.
^Xiao, Yin (8 January 2026).如何打开温州商业千年“宝盒” 让街区焕发持久魅力 [How to Unlock Wenzhou’s Thousand-Year-Old Commercial “Treasure Box” and Revitalise Urban Districts with Lasting Appeal] (in Simplified Chinese). Wenzhou Daily.
^立体都市新范本，重塑温州商业版图 [A New Model of a Multi-Level City: Reshaping Wenzhou’s Commercial Landscape].Wenzhou Daily (in Simplified Chinese). 5 June 2025. Retrieved30 January 2026.
^春节消费力地图：大虹桥这两座商场位列榜单前三 [Spring Festival Consumption Power Map: Two Hongqiao Mega Malls Rank Among the Top Three].Shanghai Hongqiao International Central Business District (in Simplified Chinese). 7 February 2025.
^Zhejiang Provincial Bureau of Statistics; Zhejiang Survey Office of the National Bureau of Statistics, eds. (2024). "Tourism by City (2023)"17-16 各市旅游事业情况（2023年）.Zhejiang Statistical Yearbook浙江统计年鉴 (in Chinese). Beijing: China Statistics Press.ISBN978-7-5230-0502-6.
^Xie, Tianquan (13 March 2025).温州常住人口新增9.1万人，他们都在哪？ [Where Are the 91,000 New Residents of Wenzhou Living?].Tide News (in Simplified Chinese). Retrieved26 January 2026.
^Wenzhou Municipal Bureau of Statistics; National Bureau of Statistics Wenzhou Survey Team (21 March 2025).2024年温州市国民经济和社会发展统计公报 [2024 Wenzhou Statistical Bulletin on National Economic and Social Development].Zhejiang Provincial Statistical Survey Team (in Simplified Chinese). Retrieved1 February 2026.
^abcWenzhou Municipal Bureau of Statistics; Office of the Leading Group for the 2020 Chinese Census in Wenzhou (14 May 2021).温州市2020年第七次全国人口普查主要数据公报 [Bulletin of Main Results from the 2020 Chinese Census in Wenzhou].Wenzhou Municipal Bureau of Statistics (in Simplified Chinese).Archived from the original on 9 February 2023. Retrieved24 July 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^abc考考你：温州有多少种方言？ [Quiz: How Many Distinct Dialects Are There in Wenzhou?].Wenzhou Net (in Simplified Chinese). 17 March 2025. Retrieved26 January 2026.
^Yu, Guoning (23 December 2013).“难懂方言榜”有科学依据吗？ [Is the “Most Difficult Dialects” Ranking Scientifically Grounded?].People’s Daily Overseas Edition (in Simplified Chinese). p. 5. Retrieved30 January 2026.
^Jiang, Xun (4 April 2005).透視｜學會說「話」 [An Insight: Learning How to Speak].BBC Chinese (in Traditional Chinese). Retrieved30 January 2026.
^温州话，古汉语的活化石 [Wenzhounese: A Living Fossil of Old Chinese] (in Simplified Chinese). Wenzhou Daily. 30 December 2010. Archived fromthe original on 11 September 2014. Retrieved13 January 2012.
^Wu, Huanqing; Yu, Wan; Wei, Yijun (14 June 2024).一“桥”架中美，相知无远近——温州肯恩大学设校十年记 [Building a “Bridge” Between China and the United States: A Decade of Wenzhou–Kean University].Xinhua News Agency (in Simplified Chinese). Retrieved30 January 2026.
^中國移民的歐洲夢：溫州人成功的秘訣 [Chinese Immigrants’ European Dream: The Secret of Wenzhounese Success].BBC Chinese (in Traditional Chinese). 19 July 2001. Retrieved23 January 2026.
^Zhou, Feng (8 November 2017).二战前后意大利青田华侨兴衰转折及流向 [The Rise, Decline, and Migration Shifts of Qingtian Chinese Communities in Italy Before and After World War II].Qing Tian Qiao Bao (in Simplified Chinese). Retrieved27 January 2026 – via ChinaQW.
^He, Xiwei (25 May 2008).中国天主教信徒为地震灾民祈祷 [Chinese Catholics Pray for Earthquake Victims].Lianhe Zaobao (in Chinese).Archived from the original on 15 January 2012. Retrieved17 December 2011.
^温州市叶适与永嘉学派研究会 [Wenzhou Ye Shi and Yongjia School Research Association].Wenzhou Social Sciences Network (in Simplified Chinese). Wenzhou Social Sciences Network. 29 June 2017.
^第三节 永嘉学派的发祥地 [Section 3: The Birthplace of the Yongjia School].Yongjia Net (in Chinese). 4 March 2010.
^He, Xiwei (6 May 2009).联合早报：从一则故事看中国的“东方犹太人” [Lianhe Zaobao: Understanding China’s “Jews of the East” Through a Story].China News Service (in Simplified Chinese). Retrieved27 January 2026.
^《温州三家人》拿下多日全国收视冠军 温二代有啥不同？ [Family on the Go 3 Tops National TV Ratings for Several Days: What Sets the Second Generation of Wenzhou Entrepreneurs Apart?].Qianjiang Evening News (in Simplified Chinese). 16 May 2021. Retrieved29 January 2026.
^南戏博物馆：戏曲故里寻声腔遗韵 [Nanxi Museum: Tracing the Legacy of Local Opera in Its Place of Origin].People's Daily Online (in Simplified Chinese). 3 January 2014. Archived fromthe original on 16 September 2014. Retrieved15 January 2022.
^南戲的活化石：婺劇高腔 [A Living Fossil of Nanxi Opera: Wuju Gaoqiang].China Wu Opera Network (in Traditional Chinese). Archived fromthe original on 30 May 2015. Retrieved29 March 2015.
^温州南戏的研究 [Studies on Nanxi Opera in Wenzhou].Wenzhou Opera History (in Simplified Chinese). Archived fromthe original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved29 March 2015.
^溫州南戲：佰戲之祖 [Wenzhou Nanxi Opera: The Ancestor of All Operatic Forms].Zhejiang Intangible Cultural Heritage (in Simplified Chinese).Archived from the original on 30 May 2015. Retrieved29 March 2015.
^Hua, Xiaolu (19 April 2024).看戏了！“戏从温州来”南戏经典文化周启幕 [Curtain Up: “Chinese Opera Comes from Wenzhou” Nanxi Opera Classics Cultural Week Opens].Wenzhou Daily. Retrieved29 January 2026.
^温州小吃重磅攻略，没吃20种以上不算来过温州哦！ [A Definitive Guide to Wenzhou Snacks: If You Haven’t Tried at Least 20, You Haven’t Really Been to Wenzhou].Wenzhou Net (in Simplified Chinese). Wenzhou Municipal Bureau of Culture, Radio, Television and Tourism. 12 April 2021. Retrieved29 January 2026.
^Huang, Jiajia; Xia, Yueqiao; Zhang, Ling (14 August 2024).“全国游泳之乡”，何以温州？ [Why Wenzhou Has Become China’s “Home of Swimming”].Xinhua Net (in Simplified Chinese). Retrieved1 February 2026.
^二十年，棋城铸棋魂 [Twenty Years: A Chess City Forges Its Chess Spirit].Wenzhou Net (in Simplified Chinese). 24 July 2015.
^温州体育中心概况 [Overview of Wenzhou Sports Centre].Wenzhou Sports Bureau (in Simplified Chinese).Archived from the original on 14 September 2021. Retrieved16 June 2021.
^解读温州数学家群体的科学文化意义 [Interpreting the Scientific and Cultural Significance of the Wenzhou Mathematicians Group] (in Simplified Chinese). Science Press Magazine. Archived fromthe original on 30 May 2015. Retrieved19 May 2015.
^ab涌现教授200余人 温州何以成"数学家之乡"引人关注 [More Than 200 Professors Emerged: Why Wenzhou Has Become Known as a “Hometown of Mathematicians”].Xinhua Net (in Simplified Chinese). 21 August 2002. Archived fromthe original on 21 March 2005. Retrieved18 May 2015.
^Hu, Yuda (2005).温籍数学家十院士 [Ten Academicians Among Wenzhou-Born Mathematicians].Studies in College Mathematics (in Chinese) (3):58–61.
^abYang, Bingjie; Zhang, Hui (30 August 2019).渐行渐远的十大地标 它们的故事沉淀为最美的温州乡愁 [Ten Landmarks Fading from View: Their Stories Have Settled into Wenzhou’s Most Evocative Nostalgia].Wenzhou Net (in Chinese). Retrieved22 January 2026.
^温州飞机场的前世今生：曾几时 温州领先空中航线 [The Past and Present of Wenzhou Airport: When Wenzhou Once Led in Air Routes].Wenzhou Net (in Chinese). 1 August 2014.Archived from the original on 23 October 2017. Retrieved22 October 2017.
^abXia, Jingying (14 July 2020).三十而立再出发——写在温州龙湾国际机场通航30周年之际 [Standing at Thirty and Setting Off Again: On the 30th Anniversary of Wenzhou Longwan International Airport’s Opening].Wenzhou Daily (in Chinese). Retrieved30 January 2026.
^轨道交通S1线全线贯通，温州机场实现飞机地铁零换乘 [Metro Line S1 Fully Opened, Enabling Seamless Plane–Metro Transfers at Wenzhou Airport].Ouhai News (in Chinese). 29 September 2019.Archived from the original on 19 January 2021. Retrieved9 January 2020.
^机场概况 [Airport Overview].Wenzhou Airport Group Co., Ltd. (in Chinese). Retrieved30 January 2026.
^Zhang, Chen (11 December 2025).温州龙湾国际机场枢纽能级“硬核”彰显 振翅浙南 链通全球 [Wenzhou Longwan International Airport’s Hub Capacity Demonstrates Its “Hard-Core” Strength, Spreading Wings over Southern Zhejiang and Connecting the World].Wenzhou Daily (in Chinese). Retrieved30 January 2026.
^Hu, Fangsong; Lin, Hongwei (19 March 2018).一代宗师南怀瑾的家乡情怀 [The Hometown Affections of Grand Master Nan Huaijin].Wenzhou Net (in Chinese). Retrieved22 January 2026.
^Xia, Jingying (7 December 2023).牢记嘱托、扛起使命，温州持续大干交通、干大交通——逐梦的通途 [Heeding the Instructions and Shouldering the Mission, Wenzhou Keeps Pushing Major Transport Projects: A Road Towards the Dream].Wenzhou Daily (in Chinese).
^abLv, Jinke (7 September 2024).冲破关山千万重——写在杭温高铁开通之际 [Breaking Through Mountains and Passes: On the Opening of the Hangzhou–Wenzhou High-Speed Railway].Wenzhou Metropolitan Daily (in Chinese). Retrieved30 January 2026.
^金温铁路12月26日开通运营 现已开始售票 [Jinhua–Wenzhou Railway to Open on 26 December, Ticket Sales Already Underway].Zhejiang News (in Chinese). 25 December 2015. Archived fromthe original on 25 December 2015.
^S1线石坦隧道开工建设 温州驶向市域铁路时代 [Construction begins on the S1 Shitan Tunnel, marking Wenzhou’s move towards a suburban rail era].Wenzhou Net (in Chinese).Archived from the original on 13 November 2011. Retrieved10 December 2011.
^Liu, Jianmin (27 October 2011).温州城市轨道交通建设吸收35亿民资 国内首例 [Wenzhou Urban Rail Transit Construction Attracts RMB 3.5 Billion in Private Investment, a National First].Xinhua Net (in Chinese). Archived fromthe original on 28 October 2015. Retrieved27 October 2015.
^温州市投资达百亿元的24个重点交通项目年内开工 [Twenty-four Major Transport Projects in Wenzhou with Investment of RMB 10 Billion to Break Ground Within the Year].Ministry of Transport of the People's Republic of China (in Chinese). 16 February 2011. Archived fromthe original on 19 February 2011. Retrieved26 December 2011.
^温州将建5条轨道交通 128个站点的方位区间确定 [Wenzhou to Build Five Urban Rail Lines, with Alignments and Sectional Ranges for 128 Stations Confirmed].Wenzhou Net (in Chinese). 24 February 2011.Archived from the original on 6 September 2011. Retrieved16 November 2011.
^abXu, Yajing (16 February 2023).从零起步到全省第二：“老交通”眼里的温州“新速度” [From Starting from Scratch to Second in the Province: Wenzhou’s “New Speed” Through the Eyes of a Veteran Transport Worker].Wenzhou Evening News (in Chinese).Archived from the original on 20 June 2025. Retrieved22 January 2026.
^abXu, Yajing (10 December 2025).“十四五”温州交通15项指标提前完成 海港冲刺亿吨大关 空港客流跻身全国前列 [During the 14th Five-Year Plan Period, Wenzhou Completed 15 Transport Indicators Ahead of Schedule as the Seaport Approached the 100-Million-Tonne Mark and Airport Passenger Throughput Ranked Among the National Leaders].Wenzhou Evening News (in Chinese).
^abXu, Zaijie (2 July 2019).从“2”到“219”，看温州公交如何实现跨越式发展 [From “2” to “219”: How Wenzhou’s Bus Services Achieved Leapfrog Development].Wenzhou Net (in Chinese). Retrieved30 January 2026.
^温州自然地理 [Physical Geography of Wenzhou].Wenzhou Municipal People's Government (in Chinese).Archived from the original on 21 January 2012. Retrieved14 December 2011.
^港口介绍 [Port Overview].Wenzhou Port Group (in Chinese).Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved13 January 2012.
^abLiu, Xinyu (30 January 2026).从“瓯江时代”到“亿吨大港”——变局中破局：温州港十六年 [From the “Ou River era” to a 100-million-ton port: Wenzhou Port’s 16 years of change].Wenzhou Daily (in Chinese). Correspondents: Dong Wei; Ying Xiaojun; Fan Wulei.
^温州状元岙国际邮轮港开港迎来首批客人 [Zhuyuan’ao International Cruise Port in Wenzhou opens and welcomes its first passengers].Zhejiang Online (in Chinese).Archived from the original on 22 December 2017. Retrieved22 December 2017.
^温州港 [Port of Wenzhou].China Ports (in Chinese).Archived from the original on 3 February 2012. Retrieved12 December 2011.
Chen, Caiyun (2011).元代温州研究 [The study of Wenzhou in the Yuan dynasty] (in Chinese). Hangzhou: Zhejiang People's Publishing House.ISBN978-7-213-04769-5.
Jin, Yongxing (2002).聚集与扩散：温州建制镇城市化研究 [Agglomeration and Dispersion: A Study of Urbanisation in Wenzhou’s Incorporated Towns] (in Chinese). Beijing: Social Sciences Academic Press.ISBN7-80149-679-5.
Lin, Yixiu (2009).温州族群与区域文化研究 [The study of Wenzhou's ethnic and regional culture] (in Chinese). Shanghai: Shanghai Sanlian Bookstore.ISBN978-7-5426-2995-1.
Liu, Jianguo; Tan, Guitao, eds. (2018).瓯江风云：温州革命斗争史纪实 [Storms on the Ou River: A Documentary Account of Wenzhou’s Revolutionary Struggles] (in Chinese). Hangzhou: Zhejiang University Press.ISBN978-7-308-18004-7.
People's Government of Lucheng District (1987).鹿城地名志 [Lucheng Gazetteer] (in Chinese). Hangzhou: Zhejiang New China Printing Factory.
Shi, Jinchuan; Jin, Xiangrong; Zhao, Wei;Luo, Weidong (2002).制度变迁与经济发展：温州模式研究 [Institutional Change and Economic Development: A Study of the Wenzhou Model] (in Chinese). Hangzhou: Zhejiang University Press.ISBN7-308-02992-1.
Wang, Zan (2006) [1503].Wenzhou Choronicles in Hongzhi Era弘治温州府志 (in Chinese). Edited by Cai, Fang; Proofread by Hu, Zhusheng. Shanghai: Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences Press.ISBN7-80681-841-3.
Wenzhou City Annals Compiling Committee, ed. (1998).Wenzhou City Annals温州市志 (in Chinese). Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company.ISBN7-101-01852-1.
Wenzhou Yearbook Editorial Department (2000).温州4500年历史大事记 [A Chronological Record of Major Events in Wenzhou’s 4,500-Year History] (in Chinese). Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company.ISBN9787101026382.
Xu, Jiagui (2018).乡国之际：晚清温州府士人与地方知识转型 [Between the County and the State: Scholar-Elites of Late Qing Wenzhou Prefecture and the Transformation of Local Knowledge] (in Chinese). Shanghai: Fudan University Press.ISBN978-7-309-13619-7.
Zhang, Renshou; Li, Hong (1990).温州模式研究 [The study of Wenzhou Model] (in Chinese). Beijing: China Social Sciences Press.ISBN7-5004-0538-3.
.jpg)
.svg)
%2c_Published_1849.jpg)
_-_btv1b531895412.jpg)
.jpg)
.svg)
_logo.svg){kind=logo}
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
