Wen Dan (文單) | |||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 580–9th century | |||||||||||||||
 Proposed locations of ancient kingdoms inMenam andMekong Valleys in the 7th century based on the details provided in the Chineseleishu,Cefu Yuangui, and others. | |||||||||||||||
| Capital | |||||||||||||||
| Religion | Buddhism | ||||||||||||||
| Monarch | |||||||||||||||
• c. 785 | Lin Jong | ||||||||||||||
• c. 800s | Lin Thong | ||||||||||||||
| Historical era | Post-classical | ||||||||||||||
• Established | 580 | ||||||||||||||
• Broke away fromChenla | 681 | ||||||||||||||
• First tribute to China | 717 | ||||||||||||||
| 722 | |||||||||||||||
• Last tribute to China | 799 | ||||||||||||||
• Disestablished | 9th century | ||||||||||||||
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Wén Dān (Chinese:文單;Thai:เหวินตัน), proposed to correspond toMūladeśa,[2]: 87 a toponym attested in the K.187 Inscription,[3]: 90 refers to a group of earlyTaipolitical entities[4]: 44, 53 that existed between the 6th and 9th centuries CE in the interior ofmainland Southeast Asia, primarily distributed across the centralMekong Valley in what is nownortheast Thailand.[1][5][6] It was mentioned in the Chinese annals of theTang period (618-907 AD) as a dependency on the trans-Mekong trade route from the ancient city of Chiaochih (jiāo zhǐ 交趾; Giao chỉ; near the present-dayVinh of Vietnam) to India.[1]: 25–72 It sent representatives to China in 717, 750, 753, 771, 779, and 799.[1][2] Some scholars have identified Wen Dan with Bhavapura,[7]: 59, 123 whose location remains debated,[8] and have suggested that it may have been the place from which a unified Chenla emerged.[7]: 59, 123 However, this view is disputed. Other scholars place the formation of Chenla in the southernTonlé Sap Basin rather than inNortheast Thailand or southernLaos,[9]: 29–30 a position consistent with Claude Jacques’s argument thatSambor Prei Kuk itself was Bhavapura.[8]
Initially, Wen Dan was believed to beVientiane,[1][5][10]: 16 but according to the location given in the Chinese annals as well as archaeological evidence, it is supposed to be in theChi River basin,[1][5][11]: 22 centered inKantharawichai — which was called the Chinese asPó Lòu (婆鏤)[4]: 41 — withMueang Fa Daet Song Yang as outer center andChampasri as the vassal.[1] It was alleged that these three communities had a close relationship throughDvaravatiBuddhism, which was subsequently supplanted by the Angkorian beliefs in the 10th century.[12]: 655 Several historical evidences supports the connection between Wen Dan andSi Thep in central Thailand.[2]: 91–92 Its capital's location atKantharawichai corresponds to the details provided in the Chinese text ofTang Huiyao says Wen Dan was a state located 6 days' travel by land northwest ofDvaravati-influencedKeoi Lau Mì[13][14] of theKuy people.[15]
According to theDvaravati Buddhist boundary stones (Bai sema) dated the 8th century, found onMt. Kulen,Woodward (2003) proposes that Wen Dan once controlled the Angkor region beforeJayavarman II proclaimed the independence of the Kambujadesa fromJava in 802.[2]: 87–88 Jayavarman II probably either defeated Wen Dan and then moved the capital fromIndrapura toYaśodharapura to the north,[2]: 87 or formed ally with the communities inMun andChi watersheds to againstSi Thep to the west.[2]: 93
Wen Dan had two vassals, includingDàomíng to the north in modern Laos, andCān Bàn in the upperPasak River Valley in central Thailand.[4]: 40 Some academics equate Wen Dan with Bhavapura,[7]: 59 centered atVat Phou in modern southern Laos, which is opposes to the location of Wen Dan provided in the Chinese source.[7]: 163
It was proposed by Pierre Dupont thatChenla was originated in theMun Valley, and was ruled by theBhavavarman I, who, together with his successorMahendravarman I, expanded territory southward to theBassac-Pakse region, which considered the original land of theKhmer people that later known asSreshthapura. The expansion campaign continued deep south along theMekong Basin, and they successfully established the new capital atSambhupura in 618. The reign of their successor,Isanavarman I, was considered the golden period of the kingdom, as he was able to subdue the maritime trade polity ofFunan, which previously was their suzerainty, as well as vassalizing several polities to the northwest in theTonlé Sap Basin, extending the influence to theMenam Valley in moderncentral Thailand, where theDvaravati culture dominant. Following the reign ofIsanavarman I, Chenla declined and eventually broke apart in the 8th century.[7]: 59
The aforementioned presupposition; however, has recently been questioned as Khmer inscriptions that date pre-7th century are found to be concentrated in present-day central to southern Cambodia and theMekong delta in southern Vietnam. In contrast, northeastern Thailand has no Khmer inscription dated before the 8th century, as well as the adjacent area of southern Laos and northwest Cambodia, previously stated to be the original homeland of Khmer, were instead dominated byCham inscriptions. Thus,Bhavavarman I andMahendravarman I probably originated in the southern plain of theTonlé Sap,[9]: 29–30 to be specific – theSambor Prei Kuk,[16]: 461 and later expanded their influence northward to Bassac-Pakse and theChi-Mun Valley.[9]: 29–30 [17]: 50 However, these expeditions or exploratory ventures appear to have had little lasting political impact,[17]: 50 as regional inscriptions for several subsequent centuries make no reference to rulers from theTonlé Sap Basin following the period associated withMahendravarman.[7]: 103
The origin ofBhavavarman I remains disputed; he was potentially a prince ofSi Thep's king,Prathivindravarman, as cited in the K.978 Ban Wang Pai Inscription.[18][19]: 17–19 This assumption is corroborated by numerous archaeological findings in the proposed regions of Wen Dan, encompassingKantharawichai,Mueang Fa Daet Song Yang, andChampasri, showing a substantial connection toDvaravati'sSi Thep in central Thailand.[2]: 91–92 [20][21]
Attributing the secession of Upper Chenla orWen Dan to weakened authority atSambhupura, Pierre Dupont proposed that it broke away in 707 and that the resulting polity was named "Bhavapura" in honor of its first prominent ruler,Bhavavarman I.[7]: 59 By contrast,George Cœdès identified this polity with "Mūladeśa",[2]: 87 a toponym attested in the K.187 inscription,[3]: 90 and dated the separation to the end ofJayavarman I’s reign, around 681.[7]: 123 Tatsuo Hoshino has suggested thatKantharawichai was likely the principal city of Wen Dan,[1] while other scholars have proposed alternative locations, includingThakhek orMueang Fa Daet Song Yang. The remaining loosely associated polities of Lower Chenla –Sambhupura, Vyādhapura, and Bālādityapura – are generally understood to have dissolved by the late 8th century.[7]: 59
Following the secession, Wen Dan was probably ruled by Bhavavarman I's offspring. It was believed that Sri Jayasimhavarmman, cited in theMonic K.404 Stèle de Phu Khiao Kao found inChaiyaphum province, dated 7th–8th century, was the first Wen Dan king.[22]: 90 [23]: 77 The sole historical documentations concerning Wen Dan during this period are the Chinese records from theTang Dynasty, which provide more insight into Wen Dan's relations with China than its dealings with the lower Chenla. The travel route to China clearly through theAnnamite mountain passes to Nghean, and thereafter toJiaozhou.[7]: 59
Wen Dan first sent tribute to China in 717. Subsequently, in 722, Wen Dan assisted a native Nghean lord – probably aTai or aHmong – in the wars against the Chinese governor atJiaozhou, which they won, conquering Jiaozhou, and the native lord enthroned himself asHei-ti (lit. 'Black Emperor'). This royal connection allowed theTai–Lao people to start migrating to theKhorat Plateau during this time.[4]: 38 The tribute to China was probably sent again in 750. Three years later, Wen Dan's crown prince, together with 26 relatives, visited the Chinese court, and the prince was given the title "Protector Firm and Persevering" for Wen Dan's assistance in helping to guard its southeastern frontier.[7]: 59 Following theTang dynasty's defeat in the trade routes conflicts by King Kolofong ofNanzhao in 753 and 755, Wen Dan's king dispatched his crown prince and generals to support China, but the Chinese armies were routed.[1][6]
Due to several unsuccessful wars againstNanzhao, to strengthen the southern region,Jiaozhou was placed under a military commandant in 756. Ten years later, in 766, a Tang army of 70,000, led by General Li Mi fromSichuan, invadedNanzhao. Vietnamese Governor "He Lu Guang" joined Wen Dan in attacking the south Nanzhao, but Kolofeng, the Nanzhao king, captured General Li and won. Wen Dan's army returned home. The following year, the citadel ofLo-than near the modernHanoi was constructed after the region was raided by Melayu, the viceroy of Wen Dan, with his wife, then came to court to pay 11 trained elephants. In 771, Wen Dan's prince went to China and was titled "Special Highest Local Commander," equal to the King ofNanzhao, and was even higher than the Chinese governors in Vietnam andGuangzhou.[1][6] Another embassy is said to have been sent in 779, and the last one in 799. A Chinese merchant namedChia Tan paid a visit to the Wen Dan capital in the late 8th century. His itinerary for the journey also cursorily provides the location of Wen Dan, whose capital is potentially in theChi River Basin in Thailand or nearThakhek in the present-dayLaos.
No record mentions Wen Dan after the last tribute sent to China in 799. If Wen Dan was Bhavapura as proposed by some scholars, it was probably under the ancestors ofRajendravarman II, who, through his dynasty, later brought the kingdom underYaśodharapura during his reign at Angkor from 944 to 968.[7]: 94 Hiram W. Woodward proposed that after Kambujadesa' kingJayavarman II moved the capital to the north of theTonlé Sap in the late 9th century, he probably formed alliances with polities in theChi–Mun basin, which includes Wen Dan, to counterpoiseSi Thep in thePasak basin to the west.[2]: 93
Japanese scholar Tatsuo Hoshino suggests that, following the end of the Wen Dan or trans-Mekong confederated city-states period around the 800s, the region entered a new period, known asJava, and its successors were standing at the threshold for the new era for Tai-speaking people of Southeast Asia.[4]: 61–2
Despite its disappearance from the historical record after the early ninth century, if Wén Dān is to be identified with Bhavapura, it may have continued to exist in a subordinate or dependent capacity until the accession ofRajendravarman II (r. 944–968)—himself a member of the Bhavapura lineage—to the Angkorian throne in 944.[7]: 83 Through his lineage, Bhavapura was brought underYaśodharapura during his reign,[7]: 91 expanding the Angkor territory to Laos and the easternMenam Valley incentral Thailand, as far north as southern China – possibly through an alliance formation with local chiefdoms to defend againstNanzhao in the 8th century – and also won overChampa.[24][25]: 56 Rajendravarman II was followed by his ten-year-old sonJayavarman V,[26]: 367 during whose rule royal politics were dominated by aristocratic families,[27] which led some vassals to break away.[i] The kingdom then entered a nine-year civil war, and the throne was won by an usurperSuryavarman I in 1006.
Another proposed center of Wen Dan atKantharawichai, or Gandharath in the local chronicle, was abandoned following the fall of theDvaravati civilization in the 10th century.[29] Its southern vassal,Champasri, evolved toYamanadvipa but was later deserted in the 14th century,[30] due to the invasion by KingFa Ngum ofLuang Phrabang after he successfully reunited the Laotian Kingdoms,[31] whereas, the outer center atMueang Fa Daet Song Yang, founded in 621, was maintained until its decline in importance in the 17th century. Wen Dan was probably replaced by a semi-legendaryLaotian kingdom ofKuruntha, centered at Saket Nakhon (present-dayRoi Et), as local legend claims its territory covered two former Wen Dan polities,Mueang Champasri to the west andMueang Fa Daet Song Yang to the north.[32]: 2
Following the decline of theDvaravati culture, Angkorian influence began expanding to the Chi basin and severalLaotian semi-legendary polities emerged, such asKuruntha,Gotapura [th], Nong Han Noi (หนองหานน้อย), andNong Han Luang [th], as mentioned in theMemory of the World of thePhra That Phanom Chronicle, which was compiled by Laotian king around 1638–1641.[33] Although the text provided gives the date about the 1st century CE,[34]: 1 various details in the text, including references to Inthapat Nakhon (อินทปัตย์นคร), which has been identified withYaśodharapura or Angkor,[35] suggest that the events in the chronicle likely transpired post-11th century,[36] when Angkor influence began to infiltrate the region. The other two series of early Laomuangs that coexisted with theCham'sYamanadvipa in the Mun-Chi Basin are cited in the legends ofPhadaeng Nang Ai and Fa Daet Song Yang.[37]: 498–502
The first section of the chronicle depicts the dynastic relationships between the ancient polities in moderncentral Vietnam and the central and lowerMekong Valleys of present-day Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia during the construction ofPhra That Phanom, dated before the 1100s.[35] Meanwhile, the latter part tells the story of the formation of the Kuruntha Kingdom, in which two allied kings, Yothika (พญาโยธิกา) of Kuruntha Nakhon and Sri Amornnee (พญาศรีอมรณี) of Saket Nakhon, give their thrones to Suriyawongsa Sitthidet (พญาสุริยวงศาสิทธิเดช), who was Sri Amornnee's son. Both former kings went on to rule another kingdom.[33] This throne merger enabled the Kuruntha Kingdom, centered at present-dayRoi Et, to reach its peak, with several surrounding city-states becoming under Suriyawongsa Sitthidet's authority. Its territory was said to be reached Mueang Bua (เมืองบัว) inKaset Wisai District to the south,Mueang Fa Daet Song Yang to the north,Mueang Champasri to the west, and Mueang Prai (เมืองไพร) inSelaphum District to the east.[32]: 2
The Kuruntha polities probably lost prominence following the decline ofAngkor, and their chief center eventually was abandoned. During the Lan XangChampasak period, former Kuruntha Nakhon was known as a small village namedBan Kum Hang (บ้านกุ่มฮ้าง) governed byMueang Thong Sri Phum [th]) (ทุ่งศรีภูมิ; later known as Suwannaphum). After the conflict over the succession at Mueang Thong Sri Phum in 1765, the polity pledged allegiance to Siam, which acted as the negotiator. In 1775, the two opponents divided Mueang Thong Sri Phum into two, with the northern territory becoming another principality named MueangRoi Et (formerlyBan Kum Hang). Former Mueang Thong Sri Phum nobleTont (ท้าวทนต์) was enthroned as the first Roi Et's ruler.[38]
Meanwhile, the proposed center of Wen Dan atKantharawichai or Gandharath, which was abandoned around the 10th century, was repopulated by the Vientiane'sLao people around the 17th century, as evidenced by the oldest Lan Xang-style temple, which was built in 1702. The village was namedBan Kan Thang (บ้านกันทาง), then renamed "Kantharawichai" by the Siamese kingRama V in 1874 and was governed fromKalasin.[39]
Japanese scholar Tatsuo Hoshino proposes that Wen Dan was possibly an early polity ofTai-speaking people.[4]: 39, 53 The linguistic evidence to support the presence of the Tai or earlyDaic in the centralIsan region is that, in the toponym "wén dān"文單, the characterwén文 can also be transliterated asman4 in Cantonese, which is widely used byDaic dialects to refer tovillage across the area inYunnan and northernMyanmar.[4]: 39 Meanwhile, another characterdān單 can be pronouncedsin6,sin4,sim4, orsham,[4]: 68 which possibly means the proto-Siamese people.[4]: 39 They — evidenced to have resided in the northernChampa in the present-dayNghệ An andThanh Hóa as well as theNorthwest provinces of modern Vietnam — likely commenced their migration to the centralMekong Valleys around the 5th–6th centuries and successfully capturedMuang Sua in 698. This relocation continued via the trans-Mekong trade network, and they then spread throughout the Isan region around the 8th century.[4]: 38
Moreover, the system of two chief centers —Kantharawichai (Nèi Chéng内 城;lit. 'inner city')–Fa Daet Song Yang (Wài Chéng外城;lit. 'outer city') of Wen Dan andChampasri (Zhān瞻)–Muang Bua (Bó博) ofZhān Bó — which usually used by the latter Tai kingdoms, such asSukhothai–Si Satchanalai of theSukhothai Kingdom, Xieng Dong–Xieng Thong of theLan Xang Kingdom,Wiang Chieng Mai–Wiang Kum Kam of theLan Na Kingdom,Ayodhya–Lopburi of theAyutthaya Kingdom, and several early Lao petty kingdoms mentioned in the legends ofPhadaeng Nang Ai and Fa Daet Song Yang, as well as Wen Dan's ambassador' name sent to China, further substantiates the presence of the Tais in the Isan region during the specified period.[4]: 44, 71
In addition to Wen Dan andZhān Bó, another medieval kingdom,Cān Bàn, in the upperPasak River Valley in the present-dayLom Sak—Lom Kao inPhetchabun province of Thailand, has also been identified as an early Tai city-state.[4]: 39–41, 45, 68 As well, the Tai potentially presented in numbers in theWén Yáng district (文陽), Changzhou prefecture (長州 or裳州) of theTang Dynasty in modernSakhon Nakhon,Nakhon Phanom,Bueng Kan provinces of Thailand, andKhammouane province of modern Laos.[4]: 49–51 TheWen Yang district is identified as the present-dayThakhek in Laos.[4]: 50
| Name | Reign | Notes | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Śrīmānaya?[ii] | 6th–7th century | Found the name in Pallava Sanskrit inscriptions on sandstone statue in Ban Wan (บ้านหว้าน),Rasi Salai District.[40]: 275 | |||
| Under the united Chenla until 681. | |||||
| Tai-speaking people began to settle in the Isan region around the 8th century.[4]: 38 | |||||
| Jayasimhavarmman[22]: 90 [23]: 77 | 681? – 717? | Bhavavarman (I?)'s relative. | |||
| Ts’ie-k’i-wou (Tsekiu;屈子) | 717 –754 | ||||
| Probable son (or successor) of Tsekiu | 754 – 771 | Allied with China againstNanzhao | |||
| Probable heir-apparent Pomi (婆彌) | 771 – ? | Son of the previous, who assisted China in the wars againstNanzhao | |||
| Lin Jong (ลินจง) | c. 785 |
| |||
| Lin Thong (ลินทอง) | Usurper king of Gandharath, based on local legend. Son of the previous.[39] | ||||
| As per local legend, after Lin Thong overthrew his father, Lin Jong, Gandharath faced several circumstances during his reign, and Lin Thong eventually died shortly after he acceded to the throne.[41] However, some believe that this story is influenced by the Buddhism story ofBimbisara and his sonAjatashatru. | |||||
| The region entered the Java period (Yamanadvipa) around the 9th century. | |||||
| No records on Wen Dan after the 9th century; however, there are several semi-legenday Laotian polities, such asKuruntha,Gotapura [th], Nong Han Noi (หนองหานน้อย), andNong Han Luang [th], emerged in theChi,Songkhram Basins, and others, as cited in theLaotianPhra That Phanom Chronicle or Urangkhathat (อุรังคธาตุ) and the well known legend ofPhadaeng Nang Ai, both dated 10th–13th centuries. | |||||
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