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Welsh-language literature (Welsh:Llenyddiaeth Gymraeg) has been produced continuously since the emergence of Welsh from Brythonic as a distinct language in around the 5th century AD.^[1] The earliest Welsh literature waspoetry, which in its very earliest examples shows many of the features of what became known ascynghanedd or thestrict metres.^A Poetry was followed by the first British prose literature in the 11th century (such as that contained in theMabinogion). Welsh-language literature has repeatedly played a major part in the self-assertion ofWales and its people. It continues to be held in the highest regard, as evidenced by the size and enthusiasm of the audiences attending the annualNational Eisteddfod of Wales (Eisteddfod Genedlaethol Cymru), probably the largest amateurarts festival in Europe,^[2] at which prestigious prizes are given to both amateur and professional writers for compositions in a range of literary fields.

Welsh poetry of the mediaeval period is usually dividied into three chronological stages of poetry: The earliest poets (Cynfeirdd),^[3] covering poetry from the sixth to eleventh centuries, the Poets of the Princes, from the12th century and13th, and the Poets of Nobility in the14th century.^[4] Additionally, storytelling practices were continuous throughout the Middle Ages in Wales; the surviving body of medieval Welsh prose literature (in the form of theMabinogion) is generally believed to date to the period straddling the first two of these poetic periods.^[5]

Written examples ofBrittonic, the linguistic ancestor of Welsh, are limited to a very few inscriptions and the earliest known examples of writtenOld Welsh aremarginalia such as theSurexit memorandum in latin manuscripts such as theJuvencus Manuscript.^[6] Dating the earliest examples of Welsh literature is a complex question due to the interplay betweenoral tradition and the written word: texts such asY Gododdin are believed by some to have their origins as early as the6th century but were not written down until centuries later and the extent to which these texts can or should be accepted as genuine examples of literature from these earlier centuries remains a debated point.^[7] A similar difficulty affects the dating of many early Welsh texts, such as theMabinogion.^[5]

The earliest extant poets wrote praise poems for rulers and lords of Welsh dynasties from Strathclyde to Cornwall.^[8] The linguistic differences between these texts and those known to date to the time of the creation of the manuscripts in which they are found, as well as believed references to plausibly historical individuals or events within the texts themselves, may provide evidence for earlier origin; texts were often copied from each other and earlier copies lost. If the earliest common estimates for origin of key texts are accepted, then the oldest Welsh literature, in the form of the poetry of plausibly historical poetsAneirin andTaliesin, dates to the6th century;^[7] further examples in the form ofCanu Llywarch Hen andCanu Heledd from the8th or9th century alongside numerous anonymous poems which may be from a similar period. The earliest definitively datable poetry dates from the10th century, namely themarginalia of theJuvencus Manuscript.

TheCynfeirdd (lit. 'Pre-Poets' but perhaps more accurately 'Early poets') is a modern term which is used to refer to the earliest poets that wrote in Welsh and Welsh poetry dating before 1100. These poets (beirdd) existed in the modern geographical definition of Wales in addition to the Old North (Yr Hen Ogledd) and the language of the time was a common root calledBrittonic, a precursor to theWelsh language.^[9] The namesTaliesin andAneirin are among nine poets mentioned in the 9th centuryHistoria Brittonum and they are the earliest two plausibly historical figures to whom specific surviving texts are attributed (other texts are attributed toMyrddin) although definitive statements about this period in Welsh literature are impossible. There is also a body of anonymous poetry that survives from theCynfeirdd period.

The dominant themes or "modes" of the period are heroic elegies that celebrate and commemorate heroes of battle and military success.^[10] This is exemplified in the poetry ofTaliesin (6th century), believed to be the court poet ofUrien Rheged, to whom (as well as his sonOwain ab Urien) a number of his poems refer.

In addition to the poets werecyfarwyddiaid (sing.cyfarwydd), storytellers. These were also professional, paid artists; but, unlike the poets, they seem to have remained anonymous. It is not clear whether these storytellers were a wholly separate, popular level class, or whether some of the bards practised storytelling as part of their repertoire. Comparatively little of this prose work has survived, but it provides the earliest British prose literature. These native Welsh tales (alongside some hybrids with French/Norman influence) form a collection known in modern times as theMabinogion.^[11] The name became established in the 19th century but is based on a linguistic mistake;^[12] a more correct term isMabinogi, but this strictly only refers to the so-calledPedair Cainc, the 'Four Branches'.

In the 11th century,Norman influence and challenge disrupted Welsh cultures, and the language developed intoMiddle Welsh.^[13]

The next period is thePoets of the Princes, which is the period from c. 1100 until the conquest of Wales by King Edward of England in 1282–83.^[4]

The poets of the princess is heavily associated with the princes of Gwynedd includingGruffudd ap Cynan,Llywelyn the Great andLlywelyn ap Gruffudd. Tradition states that Gruffydd ap Cynan helped to develop the tradition and regulation of poetry and music in Wales. The ArglwyddRhys ap Gruffydd (Lord Rhys) is also associated with this development inCardigan, Ceredigion and one chronicler describes how an assembly where musicians and bards competed for chairs.^[14]

The society of the court poets came to a sudden end in 1282 following the killing of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, the last of native Welsh princes. Llywelyn was slain in an ambush and his head was placed on the Tower of London "with an iron pole through it". The poets of the princes describe the grief surrounding his death, for example Gruffydd ap yr Ynad Goch (translated from Welsh), "Cold is the heart under my breast for terror and sadness for the King," and he goes on: "Woe is me for my lord, a hero without reproach,/ Woe is me for the adversity, that he should have stumbled .... Mine it is to praise him, without break, with- out end,/ Mine it is to think of him for a long time,/ Mine it is to live out my lifetime sad because of him,/For mine is sorrow, mine is weeping."^[15]

The next stage was thePoets of the Nobility which includes poetry of the period between the Edwardian Conquest of 1282/3 and the death of Tudur Aled in 1526.^[4]

The highest levels of the poetic art in Welsh are intensely intricate. The bards were extremely organised and professional, with a structured training which lasted many years. As a class, they proved very adaptable: when the princely dynasties ended in 1282, and Welsh principalities were annexed by England, they found necessary patronage with the next social level, theuchelwyr, orlanded gentry. The shift led creatively to innovation – the development of thecywydd metre, with looser forms of structure.^[16]

The professionalism of the poetic tradition was sustained by a guild of poets, or Order of bards, with its own "rule book". This "rule book" emphasised their professional status, and the making of poetry as a craft. An apprenticeship of nine years was required for a poet to be fully qualified. The rules also set out the payment a poet could expect for his work – these payments varied according to how long a poet had been in training and also the demand for poetry at particular times during the year.^[17]

Welsh literature in the Middle Ages also included a substantial body oflegal texts that have become (perhaps erroneously) associated with the 10th-century kingHywel Dda (Hywel the Good); as well as extensive genealogies, religious and mythical texts, histories, medical and gnomic lore, and practical works, in addition to literature translated from other languages such as Latin, Breton or French. Most of these fall outside the scope of this article; however beyond the conventional categories of poetry and creative prose of note are the distinctiveTrioedd Ynys Prydein, 'The Triads of the Isle ofBritain'. These short lists of (usually) three items may have been used as aids to memory.^[18] The earliest were written down in the thirteenth century, but as with many early Welsh texts they may have origins much earlier.^[19] They include amongst them many lists of heroic figures, many of whom are familiar from theMabinogion,Gododdin and other early texts, but among them also are a large number not otherwise known in Welsh literature, a fact which alongside the knowledge that only a small fraction of medieval manuscripts survived to the modern period^[20] perhaps hints at a much larger body of legend and literature than has survived in written form.^[19]

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The 16th and 17th centuries in Wales, as in the rest of Europe, were a period of great change. Politically, socially, and economically the foundations of modern Wales were laid at this time. In theLaws in Wales Acts 1535-1542 Wales was annexed and integrated fully into the English kingdom, losing any vestiges of political or legal independence.^[21]

From the middle of the 16th century onwards, a decline is seen in the praise tradition of the poets of the nobility, thecywyddwyr. It became more and more difficult for poets to make their living — primarily for social reasons beyond their control.

TheDissolution of the Monasteries, which had become important sources of patronage for the poets, and the anglicisation of the nobility during theTudor period, exemplified by the Laws in Wales Acts, meant that there were fewer and fewer patrons willing or able to support the poets. But there were also internal reasons for the decline: the conservatism of the Guild of poets, or Order of bards, made it very difficult for it to adapt to the new world ofRenaissance learning and the growth of printing.

However, the Welsh poetic tradition with its traditional metres andcynghanedd (patterns ofalliteration) did not disappear, but came into the hands of ordinary poets who kept it alive through the centuries.^[22]Cynghanedd and traditional metres are still used today by many Welsh-language poets.^[23]

By 1571Jesus College, Oxford, wasfounded to provide an academic education for Welshmen, and the commitment of certain individuals, both Protestant andRoman Catholic, ensured that the Welsh language would be part of the new Renaissance in learning.^[24]

In 1546 the first book to be printed in Welsh was published,Yny lhyvyr hwnn ("In this book") by SirJohn Price ofBrecon. John Price (c. 1502–55) was anaristocrat and an importantcivil servant. He served as Secretary of theCouncil of Wales and the Marches and he was also one of the officers responsible for administration of the Dissolution of the Monasteries in the area. He was also a scholar who embraced the latest ideas relating to religion and learning: reform andhumanism. It is also known that he was a collector of manuscripts on various subjects, including the history and literature of Wales.^[25]

Shortly afterwards the works ofWilliam Salesbury began to appear. Salesbury was an ardent Protestant and coupled his learning with the new religious ideas from the Continent; he translated the New Testament into Welsh and compiled an English-Welsh dictionary, among other works. On the other hand,Gruffudd Robert was an ardent Catholic, but in the same spirit of learning published an important Welshgrammar while in enforced exile inMilan in 1567. A huge step forward for both the Welsh language and its literature was the publication, in 1588, of a full-scale translation of theBible byWilliam Morgan.

Most of the works published in the Welsh language for at least the next century were religious in nature.Morgan Llwyd, aPuritan, wrote in both English and Welsh, recounting his spiritual experiences. Other notable writers of the period includedVavasor Powell.

During this period, poetry also began to take a religious turn.William Pugh was a Royalist and a Catholic. By now, women as well as men were writing, but little of their work can be identified.Katherine Philips ofCardiganPriory, although English by birth, lived in Wales for most of her life, and was at the centre of a literary coterie comprising both sexes.

The first definitive evidence for the performance of anAnterliwt can be dated to 1654,^[26] though the appearance of the word in a dictionary in the sixteenth century suggests the origins of the form are much older.^[27] Associated primarily with North-East Wales, these werefolk stage works, typically in verse, derived from theMorality play but with a greater emphasis on secular elements as well as on bawdiness,innuendo,slapstick andsatire (the nameanterliwt is derived from the English "interlude", referring to lighter passages in a biblicalMorality play). They would be performed at fairs and other public occasions, such as aGŵyl Mabsant. The earliest survivingAnterliwt is entitledY Rhyfel Cartrefol ("The Civil War") and appears to have been written in 1660 to commemorate theRestoration; it satirises theCommonwealth of England and is likely the work ofHuw Morus (1622–1709).^[26]Anterliwtiau typically contained stock characters such as theFool and theMiser alongside a story with a historical, biblical or mythological basis.^[28] Due to their bawdy elements performances ofAnterliwtiau were condemned by the more socially conservative elements of Welsh society, and performances were banned during theCommonwealth: the earliest known reference to the performance of anAnterliwt is in the record of a trial in 1654 when a nobleman was accused of having one performed in private.^[26] While theAnterliwt was clearly a common fixture in Welsh life during the seventeenth century, comparatively few examples of the genre survive from this early, and it was not until the eighteenth century that the form would reach its apogee.^[27]

The seeds of Anglo-Welsh literature can also be detected, particularly in the work ofHenry Vaughan and his contemporary,George Herbert, bothRoyalists.^[29]

Though individual members of the Welshgentry continued to patronise bards following theAct of Union 1536, this practice had been slowly dying out over the course of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries as the Welsh aristocracy became increasingly anglicised,^[30] and by the first decades of the 18th century the old noble patronage networks which had sustained the bardic tradition of previous centuries had almost disappeared. It has been suggested thatOwen Gruffydd (1643–1730) may have been the last travelling poet in the traditional Welsh mould, though he was a weaver whose poetry supplemented his income rather than a full-time professional poet.^[31]

Rather than a decline however, the new century saw the emergence of two significant new cultural movements which, though they would not come to a full flowering until the 19th century, would both provide new cultural and conceptual frameworks for Welsh culture to replace the tradition of patronage. Both would reinvigorate Welsh-language literature in different ways. The first of these was the activity of the Welsh societies, particularly theCymmrodorion and theGwyneddigion. Thesebourgeois societies – initially inLondon but with branches later established in Wales itself – revolved around prominentamateur scholars such as brothersLewis (1701–1767) andRichard Morris (1703–1779) and laterIolo Morgannwg (1747–1826). These societies functioned to rediscover, maintain and reinvigorate practices and traditions, particularly formal poetical traditions. This activity, related to theCeltic revival, included the publication of the poetry of previous eras, a newneoclassical poetical renaissance (exemplified byGoronwy Owen (1723–1769) and others) and, by the end of the 18th century, the establishment of theEisteddfod in something approximating its modern form. The Welsh societies were also a means through which the ideas of theAge of Enlightenment could impact on, and find expression in, Welsh literature.

The second trend, roughly contemporaneous but entirely independent of the societies, was theWelsh Methodist revival and the gradual emergence ofNonconformism as the dominant religious force in Wales. Diverging from EnglishWesleyan Methodism comparatively early in its development, the WelshCalvinistic Methodist Church, initially led by preachers such asHowell Harris andDaniel Rowland, would later come to be the largest of the nonconformist denominations in Wales, and both nonconformism generally and Methodism specifically would come to increasingly dominate Welsh cultural life, including its literature.

While prose remained a comparatively small part of the total output of Welsh-language literature in the eighteenth century, the century saw the publication of a number of canonical prose works which would have a lasting influence on the Welsh literary tradition. The first of these,Gweledigaetheu y Bardd Cwsc ('Visions of the Sleeping Bard') byEllis Wynne (1671–1734), dates to the opening years of the century, having first been published inLondon in 1703. Though a partial adaptation ofSir Roger L'Estrange's translation of the Spanish satiristFrancisco de Quevedo'sLos Sueños ('The Visions'; 1627), it is not a direct translation and Wynne thoroughly reworked the source material, creating a work "thoroughly Welsh in nature as well as language".^[32] A clergyman andOxford graduate, Wynne's work is a religiousallegory depicting a series of dreams or visions consisting of savage pictures of contemporary evils^[33] as well as ofHell.^[32] At least 32 editions had appeared up to 1932, and at least three translations into English were made.^[34] The title page bears the wordsY Rhann Gyntaf ('The First Part') and it has been suggested that Wynne wrote a second part, but if it was ever completed it has not survived. Wynne's reputation rests entirely onGweledigaetheu y Bardd Cwsc, yet he has been described as "the most famous Welsh prose writer of the period between the Middle Ages andDaniel Owen".^[35]

Another clergyman,Theophilus Evans (1693–1767), was the author ofDrych y Prif Oesoedd ('A Mirror to the Main Ages'; originally published in 1716 but heavily expanded and revised in 1740).^[36] This important prose work purported to be a history of theWelsh people, though as it draws heavily on sources such asGeoffrey of Monmouth it is a work of historiography or historical fiction that falls well short of modern standards of scholarship; nevertheless as a source in its own right it provides a fascinating window into into Welsh self-conception in the 18th century. The book portrays historical events in a narrative style, often featuring imagined dialogue between historical characters, and many individual passages anticipate the later development of the Welsh-languagenovel.^[36] It would go through several editions over the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, playing a significant part in the preservation of myths and traditions relating to Welsh identity.^[36]

Both Ellis Wynne and Theophilus Evans had been clergy in the establishedChurch of England, and while the majority of the population were members of the established church the religious character of Wales would change markedly over the next century and a half as a result of theWelsh Methodist revival. The relationship between theMethodists and the Welsh language was in part a question of practicality – Welsh was the only language of the majority of the population in the eighteenth century,^[37] a fact any mass religious movement would have needed to reflect – but also reflected its native origins and genuinegrassroots support. The Methodists' theological emphasis on a personal relationship with God strongly encouraged literacy so that congregations could read the Bible for themselves,^[38] and a need was identified for new texts to explore and spread the new faith among all parts of society.Hymns were a practical, theologically acceptable and popular form of creative expression and a new generation of Welsh hymn-writers emerged, among themDafydd Jones (1717–1777),Dafydd William (c. 1720–1794) and, by the end of the century,Ann Griffiths (1776–1805;see below). Undoubtedly the most important poet of the revival however wasWilliam Williams Pantycelyn (1717–1791), who would become undoubtedly one of the most important Welsh literary figures of the eighteenth and indeed of any century.^[39]

Williams had joined the Methodist movement during its early years while training to be a curate (when it was still a movement within the established church) and became one of the leaders of the movement in Wales himself.^[40] He was copiously prolific in various literary fields, producing two epic poems –Golwg ar Deyrnas Crist ('A Look at Christ's Kingdom'; 1756) andBywyd a Marwolaeth Theomemphus ('The Life and Death of Theomemphus'; 1764) – and a large number of poetic elegies and prose works, but he is particularly noted as Wales's chief writer of hymns,^[40] a tradition of which he can justifiably be considered the founding figure. He remains a major figure in the Welsh literary canon even to figures unsympathetic to his religious perspective, such asSaunders Lewis.^[41] Pantycelyn's work exemplified the revival in two respects: the first is that effectively all of it is religious, serving to celebrateChristianity and promote the teachings of Methodism alongside any literary functions, and the second is that it owed little to nothing to the pre-existing literary tradition in Welsh.^[42]

Indeed, some have suggested that the Methodists were indifferent or even actively hostile to some older forms of literature and culture, which became marginalised as a result. These included not only secularfolk culture and theanterliwt, which were perceived as corrupting influences,^[43] but also much of the native religious culture associated with the Established Church, such as theplygain andcarol singing.^[44]

The Methodists were also active in prose-writing with Pantycelyn once more to the fore, producing a number of prose works in the later part of his career.^[40] As with all Pantycelyn's work his prose is religiously themed, and while many of these works can be characterised more as didactic tracts or practical advice for living a Christian life rather than genuine literary works, others, such asTri Wŷr o Sodom a'r Aifft ('Three Men ofSodom andEgypt'; 1768) are religious allegories, using fiction to explore Christian morality. Though they have this in common withGweledigaetheu y Bardd Cwsc, as with Pantycelyn's poetry he did not draw on the existing Welsh tradition and a more likely influence isJohn Bunyan'sThe Pilgrim's Progress, which had appeared in Welsh translation as early as 1688 under the titleTaith y Pererin and was one of the most popular and influential books of the period in Welsh.^[26]

Ever since theGlyndŵr rebellion and particularly from theTudor period onwards,London had been a focal point for theWelsh diaspora and by the eighteenth century this was manifested in the establishment of London-based societies which served a social function but were also a means to promote Welsh culture and literature. These helped fill the void left by the disappearance of the traditional model of noble patronage, as well as maintaining for Wales some kind of profile within the wider British intellectual millieu.^[45] One early such society was theHonourable and Loyal Society of Antient Britons (1715), but more important was theCymmrodorion founded by theAnglesey brothersLewis (1701–1767),Richard (1703–1779) andWilliam Morris (1705–1763). Lewis, the eldest and most prominent of the brothers, was an important poet in his own right, but perhaps the Morrises' main legacy was asantiquarians andmanuscript collectors, and as enablers and champions of other poets. By the middle of the century Lewis Morris was recognised as the highest authority in the world on the Welsh language.^[46]

The Morris brothers championed poetry, especially strict-metre poetry incynghanedd,^[46] and the support and opportunities they provided to poets either directly or via the Cymmrodorion was a key contribution to the careers of significant figures such asHuw Jones o Langwm (c. 1700–1782), a popular and prolificballadeer and composer ofanterliwtiau (see below);Goronwy Owen (1723–1769); andIeuan Fardd (1731–1788). Ieuan Fardd was an influential strict-metre poet but also an important scholar who publishedSome Specimens of the Poetry of the Antient Welsh Bards (1764), which contained the first ever publication ofY Gododdin, perhaps intended to capitalise on the popularity of theOssian forgeries. Of the names associated with the Cymmrodorion,curate Goronwy Owen was perhaps the greatest and undoubtedly the most influential poet in his own right. Much of his poetry discusses religious themes but also discusseshiraeth for his home and poems to his friends and associates. Perhaps more than any of the figures of this period he was aclassicist, writing almost all his poetry incynghanedd with a distinctlyAugustan flavour.^[47] In 1760, however, having fallen out with Lewis Morris,^[46] Owen would emigrate to theUnited States where he lived out the last part of his life, never returning to Wales.^[48] During his own lifetime his poetry would not have been known outside the circles of the Cymmrodorion; nevertheless he would go on to be perhaps the single largest influence on the poets of the following century,^[49] who would attempt to realise Owen's great ambition of writing anepic poem to serve as a Welsh equivalent toParadise Lost,^[49] an ambition he would never achieve himself, coming perhaps closest inCywydd y Farn Fawr ("TheJudgement DayCywydd"), which captures something of the same grandeur on a much smaller scale.

While the Cymmrodorion would continue for some time after the death of Lewis Morris in 1765, it was perceived by some to be elitist, and was resented by some for its narrow conception of literature and its focus oncynghanedd.^[46] This contributed to the establishment of theGwyneddigion in 1770, with the two societies running in parallel for some time. Although the latter society's name (meaning 'Gwynedd scholars') suggests a particular link with the region ofGwynedd, its affiliations were from the start with the whole ofNorth Wales, and later with all parts of Wales.^[50][51]Foremost among the founders was the antiquarianOwain Myfyr (1741–1814), who became the society's first president.^[52] Myfyr, a successful businessman, was the group's enabler, sponsoring much of their activities at considerable personal expense.^[53] Other notable members included many of the key literary figures of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries: the antiquarian and lexicographerWilliam Owen Pughe (1759–1835) and the poetsTwm o'r Nant (1739–1810),Siôn Ceiriog (1747–1792),Iolo Morganwg (1747–1826),Edward Jones ("Bardd y Brenin"; 1752–1824), andJac Glan-y-gors (1766–1821).

The influence of the Gwyneddigion on Welsh literature was not entirely positive. Later critics would particularly condemn the lasting influence of well-meaning lexicographerWilliam Owen Pughe's fabricated neologisms,^[53] as well as the forgeries ofIolo Morgannwg (see below).

The major collective achievement of the Gwyneddigion was the establishment of theEisteddfod tradition in the form it exists today. While there had been documented examples ofeisteddfodau being held at leastas far back as 1176, little is really known about their form other than that they were public competitions between bards and musicians. Ad-hoc eisteddfodau were also known to have been held throughout the century, typically small meetings held in taverns. The Gwyneddigion took these traditions and formalised them with sets of rules which have remained a core part of Eisteddfodau ever since, such competing underpseudonyms, and setting the subjects of competitions centrally and in advance.^[54] The first Eisteddfod organised by the Gwyneddigion inBala in 1789 is therefore often described as the first modern Eisteddfod,^[49] though it was not until much later (1860) that theNational Eisteddfod, which continues today, was established.

Perhaps the most famous name associated with the Gwyneddigion was that of the poet andmysticIolo Morganwg (1747–1826). A fascinating, complex and controversial figure, as well as writing his own poetry he published collections of the work of earlier poets such asDafydd ap Gwilym and establishedGorsedd y Beirdd. A bardic society, Iolo claimed that Gorsedd y Beirdd was based on ancient Celticdruidic rituals; it held its first meetings in London in 1791-2.^[55] By the Carmarthen Eisteddfod of 1819 Iolo had succeeded in making the Gorsedd a major part of the Eisteddfod tradition.^[56] Celebrated in his lifetime and for much of the nineteenth century as a significant authority on bardic and druidic learning, by the twentieth century it became widely accepted that many of his "discoveries" were in fact inventions and forgeries, including the Gorsedd, the "bardic alphabet"Coelbren y Beirdd, and dozens of poems attributed to real historical figures such asDafydd ap Gwilym.^[57] Iolo's forgeries, occurring throughout his career, are extremely numerous and typically serve to support his literary theories, prejudices and suppositions, or otherwise to glorify the Welsh poetic tradition (for example, allegedly medieval poemsprophesising subsequent historical events). There are also forgeries, however, to which there is no obvious purpose: it has been suggested he may have been exhibiting some kind ofcompulsive disorder which compelled him to fabricate materials.^[58] Alongside his fabrications, however, he also produced a good deal of genuine and often brilliant scholarship, and as an inveterate collector of old manuscripts he performed a service without which Welsh literature would have been poorer.^[59] Despite its fraudulent origins the Gorsedd survives to this day and has become a tradition in its own right, as have many of the ceremonies and rituals derived from Iolo's inventions, which remain a prominent part of theNational Eisteddfod.^[55]

While the Cymmrodorion had had a definiteelitist streak, being often dismissive of poetry in the free metres and other popular forms, the Gwyneddigion were more inclusive and many of their members such asTwm o'r Nant (1739–1810) andJac Glan-y-gors (1766–1821) were active in more popular genres such as theballad and songs.

Although theanterliwt had been a popular form in the previous century and possibly earlier(see above), the eighteenth century was the golden age of the form and the majority of the surviving examples date from this period.^[27][28] Though some are anonymous, many were by known writers such asHuw Jones o Langwm (d. 1782),Elis y Cowper (d. 1789),Jonathan Hughes (1721–1805) andTwm o'r Nant (1739–1810), all of whom came from the north-east of Wales, which became the part of the country most strongly associated with the form.^[28] Most of these writers were also associated with folk genres such as the ballad.Anterliwtiau by Twm o'r Nant were particularly popular, often incorporating social criticism of the ills of the day, such as greedy landowners or unpopular taxes.^[60][61]

Due in part to their bawdy content, however,anterliwtiau had always been the subject of disapproval from more conservative circles, and the spread ofMethodism – which was itself often the subject of the satire inanterliwtiau – meant that as the century wore onanterliwtiau become both more respectable and less popular. Even Twm o'r Nant turned away from the genre for a period, though he would return to it later.^[61] While a few examples ofanterliwtiau survive from the early years of the nineteenth century the genre had to all intents and purposes disappeared by the time of Twm's death in 1810.^[28]

Due mainly to theIndustrial Revolution the 19th century was an enormously transformative period in Wales. At the turn of the century the Welsh population of approximately 600,000 was mainly rural and almost entirely Welsh-speaking (with the majority monoglot); but by the turn of the twentieth century the population had grown fivefold and changed to be predominantly urban^[62] due to a combination of natural growth and significant immigration, particularly into theSouth Wales Valleys. Whilst there was significant internal migration within Wales as well, many newcomers were English or Irish and though some learned Welsh and integrated into their new communities, where immigration was very significant English displaced Welsh as the community language and by the end of the nineteenth century approximately half the Welsh population could speak the language, many of thembilingual. Taken together, it has been argued that Wales thus experienced a greater cultural and demographic change over the course of the 19th century than it had at any previous period in its history.^[63]

Despite this relative decline, however, the Welsh speaking population increased significantly in absolute terms, peaking as late as 1911 with over one million recorded as being able to speak Welsh in Wales,^[62] to which should be added a significantdiaspora elsewhere. Literacy in Welsh also increased significantly, due not to public education (which was extremely limited for most of the century and, where it existed at all, focused entirely on English) but due to the efforts of the non-conformistSunday Schools^[64] which flourished as a part of the ongoingMethodist revival. Non-conformist denominations collectively dominated Welsh cultural life by the middle of the century.^[65] Facilitated by economic growth and falling publishing costs, this growth in population and literacy led to a huge increase in the output of literature in Welsh in the form of books,periodicals, newspapers, poetry, novels,ballads and sermons, all of which were provided in copious quantities in what has been described as the "Golden Age" of the Welsh-language press.^[66] Estimates suggest that over 10,000 books in Welsh were published over the course of the 19th century,^[67][68] a remarkable figure when compared to other stateless languages such asIrish.^[69] This represented an enormous increase in the quantity and variety of literature available in Welsh, its character influenced by the sometimes competing values of theEisteddfod, the nonconformist tradition, and wider developments inWestern Aesthetics such asRomanticism. During this period Welsh became an international language, with newspapers and periodicals in Welsh published locally by and for the Welsh-speaking diaspora inLondon,Liverpool,Manchester, theUnited States,Argentina andAustralia.

This explosion in quantity was not always reflected in quality, however, and a critical consensus had emerged by the 20th century that, taken together, the bulk of 19th-century literature in Welsh was of a poor quality.^[70] This view can be seen espoused in the work of most major twentieth-century critics in Welsh such asW. J. Gruffydd,^[71]Saunders Lewis^[72] andThomas Parry,^[73] as well as later critics such asHywel Teifi Edwards.^[74] The influence of the chapels, though sometimes credited with ensuring the survival of Welsh as a living language,^[75][76] was not necessarily entirely positive with some commentators suggesting that the channelling of so much energy into religion had a negative impact on literature on the whole.^[43] TheTreachery of the Blue Books is also cited as a factor, contributing to an obsession that literature should contribute to the reader's spiritual and/or moral wellbeing,^[77][78] which might come at the expense of considerations of literary merit. Nevertheless, others such asR. M. Jones have challenged the consensus that the Welsh literature of the nineteenth century was poor,^[79] and even those broadly critical of the century's output as a whole have championed individual poets and authors and held up individual works as major contributions to literature in Welsh.

As in previous centuries poetry remained the focus of much creative activity in Welsh, much of it now written within the vibrantEisteddfod tradition. However, the century also saw significant creative endeavour in the field of prose, with the firstnovels andshort stories in Welsh emerging by the middle of the century, and the first works ofchildren's literature appearing shortly afterwards. The Welsh societies(see above) continued but were far less influential after the first decade of the century, their role largely taken over by an informal network of Anglicanvicars referred to retroactively as theHen Bersoniaid Llengar ('The Old Literary Parsons') who worked in various ways to promote the literature of past and present; they helped bridge the gap between the Gwyneddigion societies and the professional Welsh scholarship which emerged atOxford and the fledglingUniversity of Wales by the end of the century. Throughout the century antiquarians, historians, scholars, linguists, and lexicographers includingIolo Morgannwg (1747–1826),William Owen Pughe (1759–1835),Carnhuanawc (1787–1848),Lewis Edwards (1809–1887),Thomas Stephens (1821–1875),John Rhŷs (1840–1915) andJohn Morris-Jones (1864–1929) made significant – though not always uncontroversial – contributions to the re-discovery of Wales, its language and literature, as were figures from outside Wales such asCharlotte Guest (1812–1895),Matthew Arnold (1822–1888)^[80] andErnest Renan (1823–1892).^[81] Much of this scholastic activity can be viewed as a part of the widerCeltic revival of the period. This influence was not always positive, with the work of Pughe in particular often being blamed for tortuous, unnaturalisticneologisms in the work of many poets of this period.^[82] At the same time others produced less figures likeThomas Gee (1815–1898), who publishedEncyclopaedia Cambrensis, a 9,000-pageencyclopaedia that remains the largest ever single paper publication in the Welsh language, and travel writers such asCranogwen (1839–1916) andO. M. Edwards (1858–1920) sought to teach the Welsh about the wider world. Cranogwen also wroteproto-feminist journalism, whilstR. J. Derfel (1824–1905) wrote aboutradical politics in Welsh; and inEmrys ap Iwan (1848–1906) the language produced one of its first original philosophers and political writers.

Developments in Welsh poetry in the first decades of the nineteenth century were a continuation of the trends established in the eighteenth. As theMethodist revival continued and non-conformist chapels took increasing hold of the spiritual lives of Wales's population, a strong native tradition ofhymn-writing emerged, drawing on the example ofWilliams Pantycelyn(see above). Prominent Welsh hymn-writers of this first part of the century includedDavid Charles (1762–1834) andRobert ap Gwilym Ddu (1766–1850); however, undoubtedly the finest and most influential figure in this tradition in this period (and perhaps any) was the short-livedAnn Griffiths (1776–1805)^B. Although she died in comparative obscurity and her complete poetic output consists of only seventy stanzas over twenty-seven hymns, she would later become recognised as a major religious poet of almost cult-like popularity^[83][84] and an important figure in Welsh nonconformism;^[85] she would even become the subject of a 21st-century musical.^[86] She was the first female writer to be widely acknowledged as a part of the literary canon in Welsh, as evidenced by the fact she is the only female poet included in 1962'sOxford Book of Welsh Verse.^[87]

Many hymns from this period are sung in chapels and churches to this day. While the hymn in Welsh is inextricably linked with the nonconformist tradition thanks to the enduring influence ofWilliams Pantycelyn (see 18th Century above), it however quickly developed into a cross-denominational tradition with hymn-writers such asIeuan Glan Geirionydd (1795–1855) andNicander (1809–1874) working in theEstablished Church.^[88] They, alongsideMethodists likeEben Fardd (1802–1863),^[88]Congregationalists likeGwilym Hiraethog (1802–1883) and others likeRobert ap Gwilym Ddu (1766–1850) who were not committed to any denomination would also make significant contributions to the Welsh hymn in the second quarter of the century. However, notwithstanding the contribution of later hymn-writers such asElfed (1860–1953), in the view of R. M. Jones, there was little development in Welsh hymn-writing after the 1850s, which Jones attributed to the increasing respectability and establishment nature of nonconformity by the later part of the century.^[89]

After the codification of the modernEisteddfod by theGwyneddigion in the 1790s,^[49] by the early 19th century Eisteddfodau on the Gwyneddigion model were regularly being held across Wales. While these were modest, ad-hoc festivals – the regularNational Eisteddfod was not formally established until 1860 – they provided regular opportunities for poets to compete in a range of competitions; in an age when journalism was limited and Wales had no real national institutions, Eisteddfod success provided a means for poets – who were frequentlylabourers or craftsmen, and unlikely to have had much formal education unless they werevicars – to achieve genuine local and even national fame. The Gwyneddigion had largely ceased their meaningful activity and following end of the disruption caused by theNapoleonic Wars the baton would be picked up by what became later known as theHen Bersoniaid Llengar – "The Old Literary Parsons", a loose grouping ofcurates in theChurch of England such asThomas Beynon (1744–1833),Gwallter Mechain (1761–1849),Ifor Ceri (1770–1829) andCarnhuanawc (1787–1848) and laterHarry Longueville Jones (1806–1870) andAb Ithel (1811–1862). A key early achivement was the Eisteddfod was the one organised inCarmarthen in 1819, primarily by Ifor Ceri. This was the first of the "Provincial Eisteddfodau" of 1819–1934^[90] and far exceeded any of the previous Eisteddfodau in scale, spreading beyond poetry competitons to include competitions for essays and scholarship as well as music and dance. It was also notable for the presence ofIolo Morgannwg, by then in his seventies, who ensured that the Gorsedd had a major presence at the Carmarthen Eisteddfod, a link which has remained ever since.^[90]

The nineteenth-century Eisteddfod is the direct predecessor of thevarious modern Eisteddfodau, but while these are often described today as bastions of the Welsh language and culture, throughout the nineteenth century the relationship was more complex. The Hen Bersoniaid and their successors coveted the attention and patronage of thelanded gentry who had been effectively completelyanglicised by this point; although they had some genuine success with individuals likeAugusta Hall (1802–1896), this desire to appeal toVictorian sensibilities led to the inclusion of things like essays (in English) onSocial Science and evenMathematics. Whilst the musical competitions did provide an outlet for Welsh composers likeJohn Thomas orJoseph Parry they called more often for performances of choral or operatic works in Italian, German or English byHandel andMendelssohn and would be judged by Englishmen likeCharles Villiers Stanford, with the choral competitions in particular often won by visiting English choirs. This all drew crowds and patronage but did nothing to promote anything Welsh.^[91] Whilst the main poetic competitions remained for works written in Welsh, there were also competitions for writing in English and translation into English (almost never into Welsh), and speeches and adjudications would frequently be delivered in English even for literary compositions in Welsh.^[91] In 1873 the Welsh-language magazineY Faner would note – with approval – that three-quarters of the speeches at the National Eisteddfod that year had been in English.^[92] The social science section would set essays on the utility or value of Welsh, with authors both for and against the language in agreement that the Welsh needed to learn English, and in the 1867 Eisteddfod English poetMatthew Arnold would deliver a lecture in which he urged the Welsh not to "give offence to practical men" by resisting the spread of English.^[93] Whilst vague expressions of Welshpatriotism were ubiquitous at the Eisteddfod, in the Welsh press and the literature of the period they were almost always within aBritish framework which little resembled 20th centuryWelsh nationalism. Indeed, it has been claimed that the 19th century is remarkable for the lack of engagement of Welsh speakers with the threat to the future of their own language: where the question was addressed at all it is typically with either a naive optimism that the Welsh would always speak Welsh or a fatalistic belief that its extinction was inevitable, even on the part of major literary figures who were writing innovative literature in Welsh.^[91] It was only in the last decade of the century and the efforts ofEmrys ap Iwan (1848–1906) andO. M. Edwards (1858–1920) among others that this began to be meaningfully challenged and the argument put forward that the survival of Welsh as aliving language was both possible and desirable; and it was not until the twentieth century and the adoption, as late as 1950, of what is now known asY Rheol Gymraeg ('The Welsh (language) rule') – which stipulates that all speeches and competitions at the Eisteddfod must be in Welsh – that the Eisteddfod became the predominantly Welsh-language institution which it remains to this day.^[94]

The most prestigious award at each Eisteddfod was theChair, usually awarded for anawdl in thestrict metres. Poets usedbardic names to disguise their identity in competitions, and often continued to use them when they became well known. With the exception of the dedicated hymn-writers(see above) and rare exceptions likeRobert ap Gwilym Ddu (1766–1850), who eschewed competition altogether, Eisteddfod success was the ambition of all the major poets of the first part of the century. They can be loosely divided into twoschools: theclassicists such asDafydd Ddu Eryri (1759–1722),Dewi Wyn o Eifion (1784–1841),Caledfryn (1801–1869) and (initially at least)Eben Fardd (1802–1863) upheldGoronwy Owen(see above) as the ideal,^[49] and favoured the strict metres and traditional forms such as theenglyn, thecywydd and theawdl; whilst thelyrical school of poets such asIeuan Glan Geirionydd (1795–1855),Alun (1797–1840),Gwilym Hiraethog (1802–1883),Gwenffrwd (1810–1834),Creuddynfab (1814–1869) andDaniel Silvan Evans (1818–1903) preferred the free metres, writingtelynegion (lyrics) andpryddestau. The lyrical school showed a more overt influence from contemporaryEnglish poetry but had also been influenced by native folk literature, and Goronwy Owen's ideal of aMiltonianepic remained the ideal of both schools.^[49] The distinction between the two was not always clear, with poets likeEben Fardd maintaining a foot in both camps,Gwallter Mechain (1761–1849) attempting to forge a middle path and others such asTalhaiarn (1810–1869) defending cynghanedd in his critical writing whilst largely eschewing it himself; however, the debate between the strict and free metres would dominate poetic discourse in Welsh for much of the century. Initially most obvious in the work of the lyrical school and the middle period ofEben Fardd's work,Romanticism had become the dominant aesthetic in both forms by the middle of the century.^[95]

Eben Fardd ("Eben the Poet") was one of the most successful Eisteddfod competitors of his age and alongsideCaledfryn made a significant impact also as an Eisteddfod adjudicator;^[96] his most famous poem,Dinistr Jerusalem ("the Destruction of Jerusalem," depicting theSiege of Jerusalem) has been described as "one of the finestawdlau in Welsh"^[97] and "a high point of Eisteddfod strict metre poetry";^[88] his shorter poetry has also been highly praised.^[88] Alongside him, perhaps the most notable poet of this generation wasIeuan Glan Geirionydd, described as "the most versatile poet of the [19th] century".^[98] He was highly thought of bySaunders Lewis for poems such asYsgoldy Rhad Llanrwst ('Llanrwst's Cheap School'), who saw in his work a distinctivestoicism.^[99] Particularly by the end of his life he was associated with a turn away fromcynghanedd towards the free metres.^[98] The same could be said of another influential poet,Alun, whom with Ieuan Glan Geirionydd made up the main proponents of the lyrical school,^[100][101] though both poets had composedawdlau earlier in their careers which have been favourably compared to those of the 20th century.^[100]Caledfryn was perhaps the most influential of the poets who maintained a strict loyalty to cynghanedd, as much through his often scathing criticism as an Eisteddfod adjudicator as through his own verse.^[102]

Though the Eisteddfod had provided a major impetus for the composition of strict metre poetry and a path for poets to attain genuine national celebrity status, poets as far back asGoronwy Owen in the 18th century had questioned whethercynghanedd was suitable to write the kind ofepic poetry written by English poets such asJohn Milton, which was held in high esteem at the time.^[103] While neo-classicists such as Caledfryn continued to champion cynghanedd, other figures such as the short-livedGwenffrwd (1810–1834) and the influentialGwallter Mechain (1761–1849) went so far as to directly criticise the strict metres. Mechain and his disciples, among them Ieuan Glan Geirionydd, set out to composepryddestau.^[98] This new form of long poem – poems of many thousands of lines were common – was effectively a free metre equivalent of theawdl in which the poet could adopt any number of free metres over an extended work. An influential earlypryddest was Eben Fardd'sYr Atgyfodiad ("theResurrection") which, though unsuccessful at the Rhuddlan Eisteddfod in 1850, proved enormously influential on subsequent works, beginning what E. G. Millward referred to as the "golden age" of thepryddest.^[104] An ongoing and sometimes fierce debate in the press over the relative merits ofcynghanedd and the free metres led to the eventual establishment of theNational Eisteddfod'sCrown, first awarded in 1880 for the bestpryddest, nominally of equal prestige to the chair. The Crown is still awarded today at the National Eisteddfod as the main award for free meter poetry, though often now for a series of shorter poems rather than a singlepryddest as was originally the case.

Of all the streams of Welsh poetry in the nineteenth century it is perhaps thepryddest which is the most contentious. Dozens of epicpryddestau, typically on either biblical themes or depicting passages fromWelsh history, were composed by poets such asIorwerth Glan Aled (1819–1867),Llew Llwyfo (1831–1901) andGolyddan (1840–1862) in an attempt to create a Welsh equivalent toParadise Lost.^[105] None succeeded: despite its influence and popularity at the time Eben Fardd'sYr Atgyfodiad is almost unknown today and was condemned by later critics.^[97][104]Thomas Parry considered all the works of the century in the form to be completely without "poetic merit";^[106] and Ioan Williams singled outGwilym Hiraethog's enormouspryddestEmmanuel, published in two volumes during the 1860s, as "probably the longest poem written in Welsh and possibly the worst written in any language."^[107] Others have identified merit in individual examples, however, such as R. M. Jones who identifiedIesu (Jesus) byGolyddan and particularly the second of twopryddestau titledY Storm byIslwyn (1832–1878) as masterpieces.^[108] It is perhaps significant, however, that the secondY Storm, which was not published in its original form until 1990, can hardly be considered representative of the 19th centurypryddest nor of the Welsh epic: it is a rambling,mystic meditation on mortality rather than a coherentnarrative poem, was not composed for an Eisteddfod competition, and remained unpublished. Though comparatively obscure in his own lifetime Islwyn has since become recognised as one of the major poets of the century in the Welsh language.^{[109][108][110]} Much of Islwyn's poetry (includingY Storm) was inspired by the early death of his fiancée in 1853 and is frequently extremely bleak in tone. His output is uneven in quality and many critics have suggested that he had produced all his significant poetry in the space of a few years in his early twenties, after which he produced little other than uninspiredawdlau in a futile attempt to win the National EisteddfodChair.^[111][112] Nevertheless, at its best, including in both versions ofY Storm, Islwyn's work shows a "complexity of imagery and intellectual ambition rare in any Welsh poetry of the period."^[110] One critic went so far as to say, "If the 19th century has a great poet [in Welsh], it is Islwyn";^[113] and he was perhaps the main influence on the generation of Eisteddfod poets active in the last quarter of the nineteenth century (see below).^[109][114]

Despite turning increasingly tocynghanedd later in his life, Islwyn's writings on poetry advocated the free metres andlyric poetry,^[110] and notwithstanding the enormous efforts poets devoted toawdlau andpryddestau to compete at Eisteddfodau it is poetry in this vein which was the most popular of the period with a wider audience.Ieuan Glan Geirionydd andAlun had led the way in this regard in the earlier part of the century^[100] but it reached its full flowering in the work of the poets of the middle part of the century, particularlyTalhaiarn (1810–1869),Mynyddog (1833–1877) andCeiriog (1832–1887).^[115] Talhaiarn was a popular though controversial figure in his day due to his extravagant lifestyle, his willingness to argue against the Welsh orthodoxies of his time (he was anAnglican and aTory), and his involvement in several Eisteddfod adjudication controversies.^[116] He composed popular lyrics for a great number of songs by composers of the day, much of which according to R. M. Jones were "superficial and tasteless" and yet in his finest poems, such as the longTal ar Ben Bodran (Tal[haiarn] on Bodran Hill), Talhaiarn was a "unique, intelligent and experienced poet with something sobering to say about life".^[117]Saunders Lewis described Talhaiarn as "the only poet of his age who understood the tragedy of the life of man".^[118]

As with Talhaiarn, music played a key role in the work ofMynyddog — perhaps best known now as the author of the lyrics toMyfanwy — and the best known of the Welsh lyric poets,Ceiriog (1832–1887). Ceiriog was the most popular Welsh poet of the 19th century: his collectionOriau'r Hwyr (The Late Hours) was outsold in the 1860s only by the Bible.^[119] Ceiriog's most successful lyrics such asNant y Mynydd (The Mountain Stream) are direct, moving and effective, often describing rural and romantic scenes. They were an inspiration for 20th-century poets likeR. Williams Parry,^[120] and some of Ceiriog's songs such asAr Hyd y Nos remain familiar to many today. Ceiriog's poetry became strongly associated with a particular vision of Welshness, much in the wayRobert Burns had become associated with Scotland;^[121] in one novel of 1905 the mother of a young Welshman migrating from Wales to America packs him a Bible and a book of Ceiriog's poetry.^[122] His work, however, is often criticised for its sentimentality^[123] and his desire to appeal to "the most basic tastes, the most simple desires and the ignorance" of his audience, and his reputation declined quickly in the 20th century.^[117]

The worlds of the Eisteddfod and Welsh public life generally in the 19th century were dominated by men; however, female poets were able to break through, perhaps assisted by the Eisteddfod tradition of anonymous submission to competitions. To the name ofAnn Griffiths(see above) can be added those ofJane Ellis (d.1840) andElen Egryn (1807–1876) — both^[124] of whom^[125] have been claimed to be the first woman to have a book in Welsh published — as well as others such asBuddug (1842–1909). But perhaps most prominent of these female poets wasCranogwen (1839–1916), who laboured throughout a long career to further the course of Welsh women and was the major Welsh female voice of her day.^[126] Victorious in an 1865 Eisteddfod competition in which she beat bothIslwyn andCeiriog with a poem onY Fodrwy Briodas (The Wedding Ring), she would later editY Frythones, a literary journal aimed at women through which she would support other literary Welsh women such asEllen Hughes (1867–1927) andMary Oliver Jones (1858–1893).^[126] Cranogwen's own work, which also encompassedtravel writing, often has proto-feminist themes; it is also understood that she had relationships with women.^[126]

While the work of many prominent Welsh poets of the period — including but not limited toEben Fardd,Talhaiarn,Islwyn andCeiriog — frequently features vague expressions of Welshpatriotism, rarely is there any real political undercurrent to these sentiments. Indeed, there are many poetic expressions in Welsh of loyalty to the British state, such as Eben Fardd'sawdlBrwydr Maes Bosworth (theBattle of Bosworth Field), which ends with apaean toQueen Victoria, and many poems by the avowedTory Talhaiarn.^[127] But by the later part of the century some poets were increasingly willing to use poetry to more express more radical political ideas, such asR. J. Derfel (1824–1905) andT. Gwynn Jones (1871–1948). An associate ofCeiriog who spent his whole adult life in England, Derfel came under the influence ofRobert Owen andMarx and would become one of the first major proponents ofsocialism in Welsh, including in his poetry.^[128] T. Gwynn Jones would later become regarded as a major poet of the 20th century (see below), but already by the end of the 19th he had published a number comparatively radical poems, most notably the satiricalGwlad y Gân (The Land of Song). Influenced by thinkers likeEmrys ap Iwan, Jones has been described as "the unofficial poet of the [proto-nationalist]Cymru Fydd movement".^[129]

It is notable that despite multiple efforts in some cases, most of the above poets including Islwyn, Ceiriog, Talhaiarn and others failed to win the Chair or the Crown at theNational Eisteddfod. Indeed, later critics have been virtually unanimous in condemnation of almost all the 19-century poets who did so.^[110] Poets such asLlew Llwyfo (1831–1901; two crowns),Iolo Caernarfon (1840–1914; two crowns),Cadvan (1842–1923; three crowns),Tudno (1844–1895; two chairs),Dyfed (1850–1923; four chairs, still a record),Pedrog (1853–1932; three chairs),Ben Davies (1864–1937; a chair and three crowns) andJob (1867–1938; three chairs and a crown) – many (though not all) of whom belonged to a loose grouping sometimes referred to as"y Bardd Newydd" (the New Poet) – are almost completely forgotten today. Drawing on the example ofIslwyn(see above), the poetry of theBardd Newydd was very often religious (many of these figures were preachers and ministers), frequently over-long, philosophical,mystical and ambiguous: these are in the words of Robert Rhys "the poet-preachers with their enormous compositions and prosaic styles who made perfect punching-bags for later critics."^[130] Alun Llywelyn-Williams went further and said of them: "The plain truth is that theBardd Newydd was not a poet and had no grasp of poetry."^[131] Rhys singles outElfed (1860–1953; who won a chair and two crowns in the 1880s and 1890s) as the most interesting of the successful Eisteddfod poets of the period, suggesting that some of the innovations of the poets of the twentieth-century revival (see below) can be identified in his work; and yet that despite living to 1953 he made no further contribution to the Welsh literature in the twentieth century.^[130] His hymns, however, have remained popular.

In parallel to theBardd Newydd, poets likeWatcyn Wyn (1844–1905) andEifion Wyn (1867–1926; no relation) continued the lyrical tradition of Ceiriog and Talhaiarn, producing romantic lyrics which would prove to be far more popular than the Eisteddfod poets' epics. By the end of the century, however, this tradition would be developed and built upon by more ambitious poets such as theOxford-educatedJohn Morris Jones (1864–1929). Morris-Jones's main legacy would be in his capacity as a scholar and Eisteddfod adjudicator, the influence of which it is impossible to understate (see 20th century below), but in the closing decade of the 19th century he was an influential poet in his own right who imbued the lyrical tradition with an "academic confidence and authority".^[132] HisawdlauCymru Fu – Cymru Fydd ('Wales that was; Wales that will be') andSalm i Famon ('A Psalm toMamon') use irony to express his social criticism ofphilistinism andmaterialism and he was also a significant translator of poetry into Welsh, such as that ofHeinrich Heine andOmar Khayyam. Though he wrote little poetry of his own after 1900, his influence on others would make him a major figure in the revival in Welsh poetry of the following century.^[132] Following his example, by the last years of the nineteenth century poets who would become the significant voices of the first part of the twentieth such asT. Gwynn Jones (1871–1948) sought to both simplify and improve the quality of Eisteddfod poetry, which they perceived had become formulaic and stilted.^[133]

The vitality of the Welsh-language press meant the nineteenth century was a golden era for Welsh prose in Welsh in terms of quantity, if not necessarily quality. A significant amount of the prose published in Welsh during the period served primarily religious purposes: published sermons, biblical commentaries and the biographies and autobiographies of important ministers and preachers were all popular. Some more literary works such asY Bardd (1830) by the poetCawrdaf (1795–1848) blended religious and literary elements in a similar way to the prose works of the eighteenth century. Although its spread was slow in the first third of the century, the publication of more secularly-oriented prose works would gather pace and by the end of the century hundreds of novels and short stories had been published in Welsh, though even works intended firstly to entertain often contained religious morals.^[78]

The first magazine serial stories in Welsh had begun appearing in periodicals by the 1820s, though translations of works such asRobinson Crusoe had appeared earlier. The novel in Welsh was somewhat slow to develop, however, due in part to the continued emphasis on poetry in Welsh literary circles but also an ambivalence towards the novel on the part of the nonconformist chapels, which had solidified their dominance on Welsh-language culture over the course of the century. If allegories likeY Bardd are excluded it was not until the which middle of the century that the first novels appeared in book form such asGwilym Hiraethog's (1802–1883)Aelwyd F'Ewythr Robert (1852), which incorporates a translation ofHarriet Beecher Stowe's novelUncle Tom's Cabin, andLlewelyn Parri (1855) byLlew Llwyfo (1831–1901).

By the 1870s novels both original and translated were being regularly published as serials in a number of publications in the Welsh-language press, and occasionally as books. Competitions for the composition of novels became an occasional feature of Eisteddfodau, though there would not be an annual competition with fixed rules until the establishment ofGwobr Goffa Daniel Owen in 1978. Prolific nineteenth century novelists in Welsh includedElis o'r Nant (1841–1912),Beriah Gwynfe Evans (1848–1927) andMary Oliver Jones (1858–1893). Popular subjects for Welsh novels includedtemperance andsocial justice, but equally popular was Welsh history, particularly theWelsh princes, such as Elis o'r Nant'sGruffydd ap Cynan and Evans'sBronwen, one of at least four novels written in Welsh in the nineteenth century to take as their subjectOwain Glyndŵr. However, the first novelist in the Welsh language to achieve genuine lasting popularity wasDaniel Owen (1836–1895), author ofRhys Lewis (1885) andEnoc Huws (1891), among others.^[134] A tailor fromMold, Owen's novels have been widely praised for qualities which are often deemed lacking in those of his contemporaries: accessible and natural language, especially dialogue; memorable characters; psychological insight and satirical humour. They proved phenomenally popular in his own lifetime and though sometimes criticised for a lack of structure they have remained popular ever since,^[134] going through multiple reprints during the twentieth and twenty-first centuries as well as being adapted for stage and television. Owen's achievement went some way towards legitimising the Welsh-language novel and by the end of the century a new generation of novelists such asWilliam Llewelyn Williams (1867–1922),Winnie Parry (1870–1953) andT. Gwynn Jones (1871–1949) were evidence of a well-established tradition of novel-writing in Welsh, though not until well into the twentieth century would any Welsh novelist approach Daniel Owen's popularity with either audiences or critics.^[135]

Short prose stories had appeared in Welsh periodicals as far back as the eighteenth century and by the end of the nineteenth they were extremely common, though it has been argued that only very few before the twentieth century can be considered examples of the literaryshort story, with the vast majority being examples more offolk literature ortall tales.^[136] An early example are the stories ofGlasynys (1828–1870) which appeared in the compendiumCymru Fu ("Wales that Was") edited byIsaac Foulkes (1836–1904). Glasynys's stories draw on extensively onWelsh folklore though they draw as much on his own invention. Novelist Daniel Owen(see above) was also the author ofStraeon y Pentan ("Fireside Tales") which was the first dedicated collection of Welsh short stories to be published in book form.^[137] The stories in the collection, which Owen claimed to be "true every word," appear to be at least partly based on material Owen collected from local oral tradition.^[137]

Thanks to the explosion in readership and publications Welsh readers could draw from an enormous range of original creative writing concerning various subjects. While religious subjects remained the most prominent by some distance, particularly by the end of the century there were examples of political writing by the likes ofR. J. Derfel andCranogwen(see above) as well asEmrys ap Iwan, but also genres liketravel writing in Welsh, such asCranogwen's account of her visits to England and the United States of America, and the descriptions of theAndes byEluned Morgan (1870–1938), perhaps the most significant Welsh writer to emerge fromthe Welsh-speaking community in Patagonia. Morgan's depictions appeared in the periodicalCymru as did many poems, stories and novels by individuals mentioned above.Cymru's editorO. M. Edwards (1858–1920) was himself a major early travel writer in Welsh with books such asO'rBala iGeneva (1899).Cymru was enormously influential in promoting Welsh literature and history broadly; Edwards personally contributed a significant number of accessible articles on Welsh history to the journal. He was a central figure in theLiberal tradition which dominated Welsh political life during the nineteenth century; however, the nineteenth century also saw the emergence of a native,nationalist political tradition, most notably in the writing ofEmrys ap Iwan (1848–1906), perhaps the first original political philosopher whose primary language of expression was Welsh.

Although a handful ofAnterliwtiau survive from the first years of the nineteenth century, and some eighteenth-centuryAnterliwtiau would be republished in the nineteenth, the form had disappeared as a performance art by the death ofTwm o'r Nant in 1811. When Welsh-language drama re-emerged in the second half of the century it was effectively a new tradition rather than one which had continuity to theAnterliwt.^[138] TheTheatres Act 1843 had relaxed legal restrictions on public performance and English-language theatre consequently became established, leading to a new interest in a secular Welsh-language theatre. Theatrical performances had become an occasional feature ofEisteddfodau by the last third of the century.^[138] Drama remained a small part of the century's literary output in Welsh, however. The key practitioners in the field were poets such asR. J. Derfel (1824–1905), whose verse playBrad y Llyfrau Gleision (1854), depicting theTreachery of the Blue Books was a part of the literary response to that event; and journalist/novelistBeriah Gwynfe Evans (1848–1927), sometimes described as the "father of the Welsh-language drama".^[139] His dramas, such asOwain Glyndŵr (1880) and the "drama-cantata"Llewelyn ein Llyw Olaf (1883) drew on Welsh history (as did many of Evans's novels).Llewelyn ein Llyw Olaf was written to music by composerAlaw Ddu (1838–1904), and the period saw many settings of words in Welsh to musical performances, such as the firstopera in Welsh,^[140]Blodwen (1878) byJoseph Parry (1841–1903), the libretto to which had been written byMynyddog (1833–1877). These works, whether dramatic or operatic, were all written in stylisedverse; by the end of the century, however, stage adaptations of the novels ofDaniel Owen(see above) byJohn Morgan Edwards (1868–1924) among others pointed the way to a more naturalistic style of dramatic writing and performance.

If the nineteenth century had been a century of change, then this only accelerated in the twentieth. By now Welsh was for the first time aminority language in Wales, with the 1901 census being the last to show Welsh as the language of over half the population. This decline would accelerate during the first half of the century before stabilising in the final decades.^[141][142] With most migration to Wales having taken place before the First World War, the continued decline during the twentieth century representedlanguage shift within families and the low social status of Welsh.^[143] Another aspect of this cultural shift was the emergence ofWelsh writing in English as a significant tradition in its own right for the first time, which some Welsh writers perceived as either an irrelevance or a threat to their own legitimacy.^[144]

Despite (or even because) of this unpromising context for the language, there is a widespread recognition that Welsh-language literature thrived during the twentieth century.^[145][146] This can be attributed in part to a growing academic professionalism on the part of Welsh writers, in response to developments like the establishment of theUniversity of Wales, which began teaching university courses inWelsh literature. Although these were initially antiquarian in focus and taught exclusively in English,^[147] this had changed by the middle of the century, with the universities effectively supplanting the role of the old Welsh societies and theHen Bersoniaid which had maintained Welsh scholarship in the previous two centuries. Increasing access to literature as well asradio and the democratisation of travel enabled Welsh writers of the twentieth century to tap into European literature and art in a way that few of the predecessors had been able.

As the twentieth century wore on, literature in Welsh was increasingly being produced in response to, or at least in the awareness of, the climate of crisis and of a changingWelsh identity, and though this was less apparent in the first part of the century,^[148] a very significant number of major literary figures in twentieth century Welsh literature (though by no means all) were directly involved to some degree withPlaid Cymru and the campaign forWelsh independence. Among the literary figures who were prominent in Plaid Cymru – either involved in its founding, standing as candidates, and/or occupying administrative roles within the party – wereW. J. Gruffydd (1881–1954),D. J. Williams (1885–1970),Prosser Rhys (1889–1967),Kate Roberts (1891–1985),Saunders Lewis (1893–1985),Ambrose Bebb (1894–1955),James Kitchener Davies (1904–1952),Pennar Davies (1911–1996) andIslwyn Ffowc Elis (1924–2004), among many others who were members or active to other degrees. Writers also responded in various ways to the wider political and historical developments of the period through which they were living, such as the rise offascism andsocialism, and the twoWorld Wars. Particular of note in the latter regard is the number of Welsh literary figures who served asconscientious objectors during theFirst (such asT. H. Parry-Williams andD. Gwenallt Jones) and particularly theSecond World War (Euros andGeraint Bowen,Islwyn Ffowc Elis,Rhydwen Williams andWaldo Williams), though many also saw action.

Whilst some of the institutions which had sustained the language in the nineteenth century – the chapels and the press – saw significant declines in the twentieth, where Welsh-language publishing continued it was more professional than in the past. TheEisteddfod (at least at national level) maintained its significance and in fact became more self-consciously Welsh, being seen not just as a celebration of Welsh-language culture but a bastion to protect the language itself, with a rule being passed in 1950 which brought the use of English in Eisteddfod competitions and speeches – which had previously been commonplace – to an end.^[149]

The first years of the twentieth century are frequently regarded as representing a "revival"^[150] or even a "renaissance" in Welsh poetry;^{[132][151][146]} one of a number of periods in Welsh literature in which a perception that standards had declined was addressed by reaching back into the literary tradition of the past as a source of renewal and reinvigoration.^[150] The reaction against the late 19th centuryBardd Newydd ("New Poet";see above) had already begun by the final years of the nineteenth century (see above), but the first two key figures in the twentieth-century literary revival would make their mark not as poets in their own right but as what R. M. Jones referred to as "literary politicians": using their influence to create the conditions necessary for the revival. The first of these was journalist, historian and politicianO. M. Edwards (1858–1920). He would make a mark in his own right as a writer of popular history books and travel writing(see below), but made his main impact an enabler of others, particularly through his editorship from 1890 onwards of the influential magazineCymru, in which some of the poetry and other literature of the revival appeared alongside accessible articles onWelsh history, politics and a range of other subjects. Edwards would also publish an affordable series ofliterary classics in Welsh,Cyfres y Fil, making the poetic tradition accessible to ordinary readers in a way it had not been before. Edwards included not just established canonical figures such asDafydd ap Gwilym andGoronwy Owen in the series, but also poets of the nineteenth century likeEben Fardd,Islwyn and others. Writing in theDictionary of Welsh Biography, historianR. T. Jenkins would say of him:

His service to Wales in these respects cannot be over-estimated; it was a service rendered at a critical time in the history of Welsh culture... He nourished a school of young writers, and it would be easy to give a long list of prominent Welsh literati who began their careers under his aegis.^[152]

A fellow student of Edwards's atOxford wasJohn Morris-Jones (1864–1929). A poet in his own right in the last years of the previous century (see above) as well as a translator ofHeine andOmar Khayyam, it is in his capacity as an academic and critic that he would become a central figure in the twentieth-century literary revival. After completing his studies underJohn Rhys atOxford, Morris-Jones would become the first lecturer in Welsh at the fledglingUniversity of Wales and would teach many writers of the next generation.^[153] Morris-Jones would go on to standardiseWelsh grammar and spelling, and later in life would also produce a bookCerdd Dafod (1925) in which he set out the rules of the strict metres; it remains an authoritative text on the subject.^[153] A stickler for academic standards who was entirely unafraid of causing offence, in a series of articles in O. M. Edwards'sCymru he would expose the inauthenticity of theGorsedd, causing a scandal and beginning a wider conflict between the fledgling University (and Morris-Jones specifically) and the oldEisteddfod establishment which would also encompass poetic standards. Its credibility declining, the Eisteddfod invited Morris-Jones to adjudicate theChair even though he had never won the award himself: he would regularly serve as chief adjudicator throughout the first quarter of the twentieth century, finally banishing the (never-realised) obsession with a Miltonian epic and helping to usher in a new set of literary values: clarity, brevity, high linguistic standards, and an understanding of the literary tradition.^[153] The major poets associated with the 20th-century revival –T. Gwynn Jones (1871–1949),W.J. Gruffydd (1881–1954),R. Williams Parry (1884–1956) andT. H. Parry-Williams (1887–1975) – undoubtedly all individually eclipsed Morris-Jones as poets, and in fact would all ultimately move beyond Morris-Jones's rather narrow poetic conception. Nevertheless their achievements would have been difficult or even impossible without the influence of John Morris-Jones.

The winning of the Chair byT. Gwynn Jones (1871–1949) in 1902 for hisawdlYmadawiad Arthur – with Morris-Jones the lead adjudicator – was widely seen as a watershed moment in the new literary revival^[151][154] and at least one critical study of 20th century Welsh literature begins its field of study in 1902, not 1900 for this reason.^[155] Widely recognised as a masterpiece (in its final 1934 revision at least), the poem, which reconciled the European romantic traditions ofKing Arthur with theMabinogion, was one of the shortestawdlau to win the chair at the time and was later perceived to have reinvigoratedcynghanedd and the wider Eisteddfod tradition.^[156] It would cement the reputation ofT. Gwynn Jones as the first major poet of the new movement.^[146] A journalist and the son of tenant farmers, Gwynn had already established a name during the 1890s as a novelist and as a political poet and satirist with works likeGwlad y Gân (see above); he had always harboured serious poetic and academic ambitions, however. He would eventually become a professor atAberystwyth and a major figure of his age in Welsh scholarship.^[157] A phenomenally productive author whose bibliography has thousands of entries in a wide range of genres, he made significant contributions in the novel, short story and drama, and eventravel writing, as well as being a translator into Welsh of major European works such asGoethe'sFaust,Victor Hugo'sThe Man Who Laughs,Ibsen'sGhosts andShakespeare'sMacbeth, and even an abridged Welsh retelling ofWar and Peace.^[158] Despite all this activity, however, it was poetry that he held in the highest regard, and for which he would be best remembered. A poet of "genius",^[159] he is considered one of the major practitioners ofcynghanedd in Welsh and his output in the strict meters includes alongsideYmadawiad Arthur numerous other long narrative poems drawing on Welsh mythology such asMadog (1918),Broseliàwnd (1922) andAnatiomaros (1925). Despite this acute indebtedness to centuries of literary tradition, Gwynn was an innovator who experimented withcynghanedd in a way no previous poet had done, for example writingsonnets in cynghanedd and inventing his own meters such as inMadog. Although most of his best-known works are in the strict metres his lyrical poetry in the free metres matches that of his contemporaries and he is widely acknowledged as one of the finest poets in the language of any period,^{[160][161][162]} Gwynn remained characteristically modest about his own achievements, scuppering an attempt to put his name forward for aNobel Prize by refusing to accept the nomination.^[163]

As a young man T. Gwynn Jones had been unable to accept a scholarship atOxford due to illness, but many of the other major figures of the revival, even if they were fromworking-class backgrounds, were able to benefit from auniversity education. This was something which would have been available to very few of their predecessors, representing a generational divide between the old Eisteddfod poets and the new school. By the time he left Wales to study atOxford, quarryman's sonW. J. Gruffydd (1871–1954) had become an acquaintance of John Morris-Jones and published his first poems in a collaboration with fellow revival poetR. Silyn Roberts (1871–1930), whose "lyrical pryddest"Trystan ac Esyllt won the Eisteddfod Crown in 1902, the same year as T. Gwynn Jones won the chair. Their collection,Telynegion ('Lyrics'), which drew heavily on the example of Morris-Jones, was heralded at the time as representing a new era in Welsh poetry.^[164][165] Gruffydd would go on to become a major voice in the new kind of lyrical poetry which the revival pursued; in contrast with T. Gwynn Jones this was written entirely in the free meters. Though he composed less and less poetry as the century drew on, he would become one of the most prominent figures in Welsh public life – if not always the most popular – thanks to his literary and academic work, his uncompromising personality as well as a controversial period in politics in his last decades.^[166]

Like Gruffydd, many of the major revival poets would ultimately become employed at the Welsh colleges. Whilst Morris-Jones atBangor had been the first Wales-based professor of Welsh to be employed by the fledglingUniversity of Wales, by the turn of the century there were also departments of Welsh (or at least "Celtic") atCardiff andAberystwyth. These would employ Gruffydd atCardiff from 1906; similarlyR. Williams Parry (1884–1956) would end up at Bangor from 1922, and bothT. Gwynn Jones andT. H. Parry-Williams (1887–1954) at Aberystwyth from 1914. Other influential early academics, though remembered mainly for their scholarship rather than as poets, wereIfor Williams (1881–1965) andThomas Parry (1904–1985). Figures such as these and others made significant strides in the undoing of the mistakes (and forgeries) of the previous two centuries of antiquarianism. Gruffydd in particular was influential in demanding full academic status for the Welsh language, and it was under his leadership that the Welsh department at Cardiff would be the first to be referred to as such (rather than as a department of 'Celtic'), and the first to conduct all its teaching and internal administration in Welsh.^[167]

In 1909 the Chair and Crown had been won by Gwynn (again) and Gruffydd respectively, and the following year the Chair was won by another major poet associated with the 20th-century revival,R. Williams Parry (1884–1956). His victorious poem,Yr Haf ('Summer'), has remained one of the most popular of all the Eisteddfodawdlau.^[168] A Romantic allegory about the transience of love, it shows the influence ofOmar Khayyam (whose poetry had appeared in a Welsh translation by Morris-Jones in 1907). It earned its author the reputation as the only living practitioner of cynghanedd to rival T. Gwynn Jones and is considered one of the great awdlau of the 20th century.^[169] Williams Parry became equally well known, however, as a writer of lyrical poems in the free metres, especiallysonnets (a form which became very popular in Welsh during the first half of the century) such asY Llwynog ('The Fox') andMae Hiraeth yn y Môr ('There isHiraeth in the Sea'). He remains an extremely popular poet for his "acute observation, his independent outlook and his meticulous attention to the mode of expression created a body of poetry which has its own special features and is a unique contribution to Welsh literature."^[168] A change in attitude that can be seen in the literary careers of these revival poets and which was explicitly acknowledged by R. Williams Parry was that they saw Eisteddfod success not as the highest literary achievement for a Welsh poet (as their predecessors had done), but as a means for a poet at the start of his career to achieve recognition and constructive feedback, with the expectation that, having won the award(s), he would then move on to produce work of greater literary worth than allowed by the constraints of competition.

By beginning of the First World War, it was possible to speak of a growing number of now prominent poets who had assimilated the influence of John Morris-Jones. Among these names,Eifion Wyn (1867–1926) was the only one (besides T. Gwyn Jones and Morris-Jones himself) who had achieved any kind of prominence in the previous century; he would be one of the most popular poets of the first decades of the century though he would not achieve the lasting critical reputation of the younger generation. Among the other names associated with the literary revival worthy of mention areJ. J. Williams (1869–1954),R. Silyn Roberts (1871–1930),John Dyfnallt Owen (1873–1956) andCrwys (1875–1968; winner of the Crown in 1910, 1911 and 1919); these poets had a range of backgrounds and whilst the names most prominently associated with the revival had come from North Wales, many of these were from the South. Though he had been born inCeredigion J. J. Williams had grown up in thevalleys and worked as a miner;^[170] he would win the chair in 1906 and 1808, the first forY Lloer ('The Moon'), a love poem which would prove one of the more popularawdlau of the period. He would go on to be a popular poet for children, edit the poetry ofHedd Wyn (see below) and serve asarchdruid.^[170] R. Silyn Roberts had won the Crown in 1902 and was a key early figure in the revival but would write little after publishing a book of his poetry in 1907, turning from poetry to politics and education. J. Dyfnallt Owen fromPontardawe was the winner of the Crown in 1907 forY Greal Sanctaidd ('TheHoly Grail') and another poet who would go on to serve as archdruid, as would Crwys, fromClydach, who would prove one of the most popular poets of the twentieth century as a writer of accessible, lyrical poems.^[171]

One of the last poets to emerge in the romantic tradition o of the revival was ashepherd fromTrawsfynydd who would go on to become one of the most famous of all Welsh poets, albeit for tragic reasons.Hedd Wyn (Ellis Humphrey Evans; 1887–1917) was a gifted poet in the romantic mode of the 20th-century revival. A promising literary career beckoned, however, like many young men of his generation he was enlisted during theFirst World War. Shortly after submitting hisawdl onYr Arwr (The Hero) – not a romanticisation of the conflict, but a complex,mystical meditation on the role of the artist – for the 1917 Eisteddfod, he was killed in theBattle of Passchendaele. His poem having been judged best (byT. Gwynn Jones), during the ceremony Hedd Wyn's chair was draped in a black cloth.^[172]

However much it represented a reaction against the literary traditions of the previous century, the poetic revival of the early 20th century, as expressed in the poetry of all the aforementioned figures in the period, was fundamentallyRomantic in its aesthetic in the same way as much of the literature of the 19th century had been. By the second decade of the century, however, and particularly after the war, poets were increasingly transgressing the expectations of romanticism and beginning to take the first steps intomodernism or at leastpost-romanticism. In this context it is possible to see Hedd Wyn'sawdl of 1917 as something of aswan song for Welsh Romanticism; it has been described byAlan Llwyd as "the last great poem of the Romantic movement".^[173]

The first poet to achieve prominence in a more obviouslymodernist idiom wasT. H. Parry-Williams (1887–1975), who capped his remarkable achievement in becoming the first poet to win both chair and crown in the same year, in 1912, by repeating the feat a second time in 1915. His earlier poems including those awarded in 1912 show the strong influence ofR. Silyn Roberts andW. J. Gruffydd and would have established him as another major figure in the Romantic vein of the other revival poets,^[174] but of much greater significance was the poem which won him the Crown in 1915. The previous year's Eisteddfod had been cancelled due to the war, and consequently and unusually no subject was set for the Crown in 1915, with poets allowed to write on the subject of their choice, so as to allow poems prepared for the previous year's competition to be entered alongside newly composed poems. This would prove significant as Parry-Williams's choice of subject was one unlikely to have been set at the time:Y Ddinas ('The City'). A portrait ofParis, where he had spent time in 1913,^[174] and a cynical exploration of the corrupting nature of urban environments on the human condition, it is acknowledged as one of the first significant explorations of urban life and the earliest expressions of modernism in Welsh poetry.^{[174][175][176]} It proved controversial, earning the condemnation of arch-romanticEifion Wyn.^[174] It was for his later work on a smaller canvas, however, that T. H. Parry-Williams would become celebrated, and in his shorter poetry, mostly written in the 1920s–1930s, he can be seen ranging far beyond the limits set by John Morris-Jones. Poems likeHon ('This'),Moelni ('Bareness') andLlyn y Gadair (A lake in the poet's nativeEifionydd), many of themsonnets (of which Parry-Williams was a master), often exhibit an unromantic affection for his home expressed through ironic detachment and frustration. One of his most remarkable poems, the sonnetDychwelyd ('Return'), is a bleak expression ofnihilism andmaterialism. Described as the "most influential Welsh writer of the inter-war period", Parry-Williams also pioneered the expressiveessay in Welsh.^[174] Parry-Williams's poetry is a mainstay of school and university syllabuses, and he remains one of Wales's best loved poets; even during his own lifetime he was widely recognised among the most important poets writing in Welsh^[174] and he would be a continuing influence on poets of the late twentieth century, and even the twenty-first.^[174]

He was not the only Welsh poet to move away from Romanticism, however. Whilst Parry-Williams had been aconscientious objector during the war, W. J. Gruffydd had spent it at sea on aminesweeper and the handful of poems he produced in response to the conflict track his progression to a sparser, more ambiguous style. His cynical1914–1918: Yr Ieuainc wrth yr Hen ('The Young to the Old'), which parodiesFor the Fallen, depicts a youth condemning, from the grave, the older generation who had sent them to their deaths. In the introduction to the first volume of poetry he published after the war,Ynys yr Hud a Cherddi Eraill, Gruffydd dismissed most of his earlier work as frivolous and/or juvenilia (despite including many such earlier poems in the volume).^[177]T. Gwynn Jones had been deemed of too poor health to serve in the war but it coincided with a shift towards a darker style in his writing, as seen inMadog (1918), and the poetry he published in his final collectionY Dwymyn (The Fever; written around 1935–36) is strikingly modern, particularly when compared to the poetry for which he had become famous.^[178]

Younger poets also began pushing boundaries.Cynan (1895–1970) came to prominence initially for poetry describing his experiences as a soldier during theFirst World War, includingMab y Bwthyn, thepryddest which won him the 1921 Crown;^[179] he is perhaps the Welsh poet who responded most extensively and effectively to his experiences as a soldier, but was a poet who believed anything could be material for poetry, writing about things as diverse asrugby.^[180] He courted controversy with form also: the poem that won him the Chair in 1923,I'r Duw nid adwaenir (To the unfamiliar God), was notable as, though incynghanedd, it had not been written in the acknowledged twenty-four metres of Welsh strict metre poetry but rather in the form T. Gwynn Jones had invented forMadog.^[181] The Crown saw even more marked experimentation: the poem with whichWil Ifan (1883–1968) won the award in 1925 was the first time the competition had been won by a poem written invers libre.^[182]

A different kind of controversy took place during the same competition the preceding year, whenProsser Rhys (1901–1945) won on the subjectAtgof ("Memory") with a poem that caused a scandal due to its frank (for the time) depictions ofsexual intercourse, includingsex between men.^[183] Another poet whose depictions of sexuality caused controversy, and one of the major poets in Welsh to emerge between the wars, wasGwenallt (1899-1968). He won the Chair in 1926 and 1931, but his entry in 1928 onY Sant (The Saint), though "by far the best poem in the competition", shocked the adjudicators for its graphic sexual imagery.^[184] The poets of the revival had largely avoided religious subjects (so beloved of theBardd Newydd): not so Gwenallt, who was "a major force in modern Welsh poetry, and also a major religious poet".^[184] Adopting a complex personal philosophy that integratedChristianity withWelsh Nationalism andMarxism, he joined theChurch in Wales only to leave in protest and join theMethodists in 1957 when a non-Welsh speaker was appointedArchbishop of Wales.^[184] The limits of acceptability were also stretched by yet another young poet,Caradog Prichard (1904–1980), who won three consecutive National Crowns from 1927 to 1929 – an unprecedented feat, never since repeated – for poems each of which dealt in different ways with the same, autobiographical subject: his mother's descent intomental illness and institutionalisation in anasylum.^[185]

These overt experiments remained somewhat outside the mainstream of Welsh poetry, however, and much of the work of poets named above like Cynan and Wil Ifan, alongside others such asSarnicol (1873–1945),Crwys (1875–1968),I. D. Hooson (1880–1948) andDewi Emrys (1881–1952) was less controversial stylistically. These regularly-anthologised poets wrote accessible, lyrical poetry in an "adamantly unintellectual" style^[186] which brought them popularity and often Eisteddfod success, though they have tended to be overlooked by critics in favour of their more innovative contemporaries. The prominence ofbardic names in this group is significant: Gwenallt was perhaps the only true innovator in the period to use a bardic name.^[186] The revival poets from Morris-Jones onwards had tended to eschew bardic names for their associations with the Eisteddfod tradition,^[186] and their brief return among the members of this group suggests a more conciliatory attitude towards theEisteddfod. Cynan would later serve asArchdruid, and he is likely the single individual who has had the greatest influence on the Eisteddfod in that capacity: he was responsible for reforming and modernising the Eisteddfod andGorsedd and was the first Archdruid to openly acknowledge the inauthenticity of the pseudo-pagan elements which had had their origins inIolo Morganwg.^[181]

The flowering in Welsh poetry which had begun with the literary revival at the start of the century continued throughout the 1930s and 1940s. Well-established poets such asT. H. Parry-Williams andGwenallt(see above) continued to produce important work, and a number of significant new poetic voices emerged during these decades includingSaunders Lewis (1893–1985;see section on drama below);Iorwerth Peate (1901–1982), perhaps better known as a museum curator and historian but also one of the proponents of thesonnet in Welsh;Dilys Cadwaladr (1902–1979), who in 1953 became the first woman to win the National Eisteddfod Crown;James Kitchener Davies (1902–1952), whosepryddest forradioSŵn y Gwynt Sy'n Chwythu ('The Sound of the Blowing Wind'; 1952), narrated by the dying poet to his wife from his hospital bed, has been described as one of the greatest poetic works of the twentieth century in Welsh;^[187] poet-novelistsPennar Davies (1911–1996) andRhydwen Williams (1916–1997)(see below); and brothersEuros (1904–1988)(see below) andGeraint Bowen (1915–2011), whose victoriousAwdl Foliant i'r Amaethwr ('Ode of Praise to the Agriculturalist') of 1946 has been described as one of the most skilfully constructed poems to win the chair,^[188] and is easily the most popular poem of the period to do so. Many of these poets were members of the so-called "Cadwgan Circle" in theRhondda valley alongside the novelist and short-story writerKäthe Bosse-Griffiths (1910–1998) and her husbandJ. Gwyn Griffiths (1911–2004).

Another major South Wales poet wasAlun Llywelyn-Williams (1913–1988). His upbringing in a middle-class, primarily English-speaking household inCardiff was far from typical for a Welsh poet of the time and he was in many respects an outsider in Welsh poetry, having seen action in theSecond World War (he believed fightingfascism was a moral duty, in contrast to many Welsh poets of his generation who were conscientious objectors) and drawing more on English poets likeAuden andStephen Spender than his Welsh peers (though the revival poets were also a key influence; he studied atCardiff underW. J. Gruffydd). He eschewed bothcynghanedd and Eisteddfod competition.^[189] Though not a prolific one, his poems, often provide perspectives rarely seen from other Welsh poets such as those depicting his wartime experiences including his cycleBerlin 1945 which depicts theGerman capital in ruins after the war from Llywelyn-Williams's first hand perspective.^[189] He has been described as "one of the greatest masters of vers libre in Welsh."^[189]

One popular poet who emerged at this time would go on to become one of the best-loved of all Welsh poets,Waldo Williams (1904–1971) fromPembrokeshire. Like most Welsh writers he held strongnationalist convictions, but he was also aQuaker whose poetry expresses a distinctive and affectingpacifism andhumanism: he was aconscientious objector during theSecond World War, and though this was hardly unusual he is perhaps the Welsh poet most strongly associated with this kind of political pacifism. Poems such as "Cofio", "Mewn Dau Gae" and "Ar Waun Cas Mael" have been described as "...some of the most rewarding and challenging poems of the twentieth century... He has come to be regarded as a prophet and visionary by those who share his conviction."^[190] Despite a somewhat half-hearted attempt at winning an Eisteddfod chair in 1936, for all his popularity and undoubted skill Waldo Williams would never attain a major Eisteddfod prize, and neither did genuine innovators likeSaunders Lewis andJames Kitchener Davies, during a period when serial competitors such asDewi Emrys would win several. Some writers once more began to question the relationship between the Eisteddfod and literary standards.^[191] The Eisteddfod itself, however, remained as popular as ever, and in 1950 passed a rule known asY Rheol Gymraeg ('the Welsh Rule', controversial at the time but now widely accepted) dictating that Welsh should be the only language during competition events and performances.

Whilst a large number of novelists were active during the early 20th-century literary revival, this period in the Welsh-language novel has remained comparatively less well-known considering the prominence of the poetry of the period. Nonetheless there were a considerable volume of Welsh novels produced by authors such asT. Gwynn Jones (see above) who published at least ten novels between 1897 and 1910, among themGorchest Gwilym Bevan (1899) andEnaid Lewys Meredydd: Stori am y Flwyddyn 2002 (Lewys Meredydd's Soul: A Story of the year 2002), the latter one of the earliest examples ofscience fiction in Welsh.^[192] Another novelist wasWilliam David Owen, author ofMadam Wen (1914), anadventure novel about a 17th-centuryfemale pirate. Perhaps the finest novelist in Welsh of the early 20th century wasGwyneth Vaughan (1852–1910), whose works, especiallyPlant y Gorthrwm ("Children of Oppression"; 1905) – ahistorical novel taking as its background the1868 General Election in rural Wales, and theexpansion of the franchise – are radical by the standards of their time, with female characters to the fore and exhibiting clearproto-feminist andnationalist themes.^[193] Nevertheless, critical discussions of the Welsh novel have tended to give little attention to this period.

The short stories of the period have received more attention, and here yet againT. Gwynn Jones was prominent,^[194] though most of his short stories, much asDaniel Owen's had done, belong more to the genre offolk literature and light entertainment than literaryshort story. This would not be the case with others such asRobert Dewi Williams (1870–1955) whose storyY Clawdd Terfyn (The Boundary; 1912) is an early example, as are the stories ofRichard Hughes Williams (1878–1919), which had appeared periodically during the first two decades of the century. Humourous and tragic at turns, Williams's most famous stories are those which explore the lives of the workers of theNorth Wales slate quarries and though small in number they are celebrated for their subtlety and humour;^[195] Williams would exert a significant influence on later short story writers in Welsh.

Modernism caught on more slowly in prose than it had in poetry, and the development of the novel in the Welsh language after the First World War continued to be slow, at least compared with what would come later. The most popular Welsh novel of the 1920s isE. Tegla Davies'sGŵr Pen y Bryn (1923), which though popular is essentially Victorian in its idiom. Davies's main legacy was as a writer for children (see below). By the 1930s Welsh novelists had begun to explore beyond these limits, such asMonica (1930) bySaunders Lewis (1893–1985; see below), which depicts a woman obsessed with sexuality and caused something of a scandal on its publication,^[196] andPlasau'r Brenin (1934) byGwenallt (see above), a semi-autobiographical novel describing the author's experiences in a prison as aconscientious objector during the war. Other authors such asLewis Davies (1863–1951), author of four adventure novels in the 1920s, andE. Morgan Humphreys (1882–1955) are sometimes described as writing for younger readers^[197] but should perhaps better be understood as writers ofpopular literature intended for a wide audience. As well as a range of early adventure stories, Humphreys pioneereddetective fiction in Welsh, with his detective John Aubrey appearing in four novels beginning withY Llaw Gudd ('The Hidden Hand') in 1924.

The most highly regarded and popular novels were in moreliterary yetrealist idiom, however, such asTraed Mewn Cyffion (Feet in Chains; 1936) byKate Roberts (1891–1985) and the works of Elena Puw Morgan (1900–1973), whose novelY Graith (The Scar) won the one of the first Prose Medals (Welsh:Y Fedal Ryddiaith) at theEisteddfod in 1938: this new award for prose was ostensibly equal to the Chair and Crown. The most successful novelist of the first half of the twentieth century, both commercially and critically,^[198] wasT. Rowland Hughes (1903-1949), many of whose novels described culture of the slate quarrying regions of North-West Wales, includingWilliam Jones (1942) andChwalfa (1946). Characterised by "gentleness, geniality, and kindness and by the courage of his chief characters", they were the first novels in Welsh to matchDaniel Owen for popularity;^[198] yet although of undoubted quality Hughes's novels were ultimately romantic, sentimental, even old-fashioned works which in no sense reflected the turbulent war years in which they had been written.

As had been the case in the first decades of the century, more innovation was seen in theshort story and by the middle of the century a number of prolific writers in the genre had emerged writing in Welsh. These includedW. J. Griffith (1875–1931),D. J. Williams (1885–1970) andJ. O. Williams (1892–1973), but by far the most famous writer in Welsh to extensively employ the short story wasKate Roberts (1881–1985), who produced the first of many collections of stories,O Gors y Bryniau (From the Hill Bog) in 1925. Her "brief and resonant stories are rooted in the landscape and community of theCaernarfonshire of her childhood", and "often focus on parent-child relationships and on experiences of loss and longing."^[199]

Although a few of the denominations had produced printed works aimed at children during the nineteenth century, andO. M. Edwards had begun the secular children's magazineCymru'r Plant ('Wales for the Children's) during the 1890s, the twentieth century saw authors begin to take writing for children more seriously. Perhaps the two most prominent figures in Welsh children's writing in the first half of the century wereE. Tegla Davies (1880–1967), who published at least seven short novels for children between 1912 and 1938 andMoelona (1877–1953) who produced at least four over the same period. Both authors drew on the kind of children's stories widely available in English. Tegla Davies's stories showcased his quirky sense of humour and adventure, and included an early science fiction storyRhys Llwyd y Lleuad (1925); though he also drew on Welsh history and folklore with works likeTir y Dyneddon (1921), andHen Ffrindiau (1927). The background of Moelona's works was typically more domestic as in her most famous book,Teulu Bach Nantoer (The Little Family at Nantoer; 1912), which was perhaps the most popular children's book of its period,^[200] selling over thirty thousand copies.^[201] This was not always the case, however:Breuddwydion Myfanwy (1928) is adesert island adventure. Moelona's stories often foreground the role of girls and women in a way male authors rarely did, and perhaps as a result have tended to be characterised as being 'girls' novels',^[202] though the frontispieces typically describe them as being 'for children'.

Although both Tegla Davies and particularly Moelona are now probably better known for their writing for younger readers, both also wrote for adults, and there was not always a clear distinction between writing for these different audiences. Many authors best known for their books for adults produced at least one work for children, such asT. Gwynn Jones who wroteYn Oes yr Arth a'r Blaidd ('The Age of the Bear and Wolf'; 1908/13), a story about thestone age, andT. Rowland Hughes whose first bookStoriau Mawr y Byd ('The Great Stories of the World'; 1939) was a retelling ofclassical andbiblical stories as well as others fromCeltic andGermanicmythology.

Undoubtedly the single most influential and beloved work in Welsh for children of the first half of the twentieth century wasLlyfr Mawr y Plant ('The Children's Big Book'; four volumes: 1931, 1939, 1949 and 1975). Written and illustrated mainly byJennie Thomas (1898–1979) andJ. O. Williams (1892–1973) and Described seventy years after its first publication as a "masterpiece" and "iconic",^[203] it was an attempt to create a Welsh equivalent of the children'sliterary annuals popular in English, consisting of a combination of stories, poetry, and puzzles, and introduced popular characters likeSiôn Blewyn Coch and especiallyWil Cwac Cwac, who would later become a televisioncartoon.

An unusual genre of note in twentieth century Welsh literature is thepersonal or expressive essay (known in Welsh as anYsgrif), a genre overlapping with theshort story andprose poem which occupies a relatively larger position within Welsh-language literature than in other traditions such as English literature, with regular competitions for anYsgrif at the Eisteddfod (collections ofYsgrifau may also occasionally win the Prose Medal).^[204] Generally a literary, rather thanpolemical ordidactic exercise, a WelshYsgrif typically takes as its subject an object or event of little inherent significance and uses it to explore the author's personality or emotional state; though they can also portray an individual known to the poet or a specific place, in which case they overlap withhistorical ortravel writing. Though sometimes used in connection to early figures likeO. M. Edwards, theYsgrif is considered to have been pioneered after the First World War by poetT. H. Parry-Williams (1887–1975;see above), who began writing them in 1918 and published dozens in several collections;^[174] other prominent writers ofYsgrifau wereJ. O. Williams (1892–1973),T. J. Morgan (1907–1986) and novelistIslwyn Ffowc Elis (1924–2004; see below); and other literary figures mentioned elsewhere in this article who experimented with the genre in various ways includedW. J. Gruffydd,T. Gwynn Jones,Ambrose Bebb,R. T. Jenkins among many others.

O. M. Edwards (1858–1920) was a key figure in the literary revival at the start of the 20th century(see above). In his own right, however, he was a prolificpopular historian and occasionaltravel writer, the latter describing his journeys around Wales as well as toBrittany andSwitzerland. Although his historical approach falls well short of modern academic standards and his writing exhibits the prejudices of his age and background, his prose has been described as "charming"^[152] and provides a fascinating Welsh perspective on the world at the turn of the twentieth century. A similar assessment could be made of a later figure,Ambrose Bebb (1894–1955), who wrote three historical novels but is mainly remembered today for his role in the foundation ofPlaid Cymru and in particular for hishistorical andtravel writing, the latter often drawn from his extremely extensive personal diaries, which form a fascinating account of Wales in the period. Bebb had lived in France and like O. M. Edwards before him was fascinated withBrittany, the subject of three of his travel books, learningBreton and becoming associated with thenationalist movement there. Bebb's historical writing, though thorough and scholarly, is notable for "patriotic fervour" and enthusiasm, as well as its use of literary as well as historical references.^[205] Like Edwards and Bebb, historianR. T. Jenkins (1881–1969) wrote a number of accessible works of popular history in Welsh.

Whilst Edwards and Bebb's travel writing had focused on the immediateEuropean continent, a few other Welsh writers ventured further afield. The irrepressibly prolificT. Gwynn Jones producedY Môr Canoldir a'r Aifft ('TheMediterranean andEgypt') in 1912, even though he was travelling on medical advice and meant to be resting; andEluned Morgan (1870–1938), perhaps the most significant literary figure to emerge from theWelsh-speaking colony in Patagonia, described her travels inSouth America.

Whilst most early 20th-century stage works in Welsh such asOwain Glyndwr,Beriah Gwynfe Evans's(see above)Investiture "Pageant" of 1911 are not well known, it is acknowledged that modern Welsh drama has its roots in this period with works such asBeddau'r Proffwydi (1913) byW. J. Gruffydd, written for performance by University students and among the earliest works ofrealist theatre in Welsh being acknowledged as important milestones in the development of Welsh-language theatre.^[206]

Building on the work of earlier pioneers like Gruffydd andR. G. Berry (1869–1945), as well asT. Gwynn Jones who had produced a number of plays and translatedMacbeth in the 1910s, the middle decades of the twentieth century finally saw the development of a strong nativedramatic tradition in Welsh. Key figures wereJames Kitchener Davies (1902–1952) – whose playCwm Glo (1934) addressed the impact of theDepression on Wales in a bleak and unromantic fashion in stark contrast with the novels ofT. Rowland Hughes, who also penned a play,Y Ffordd (1945) – andJohn Gwilym Jones (1904–1988), who was also an occasional novelist and short story writer, but whose plays formed the bulk of his literary output and introduced aBrechtian modernism to Welsh drama. However, perhaps the most significant figure of any period in Welsh drama, and one of the major figures of the century in Welsh literature, wasSaunders Lewis (1893–1985), who was also a crucial figure in his country'spolitical scene as the founder of the party later known asPlaid Cymru. Outside politics Lewis was an influential academic, important poet and an occasional novelist, but his main literary legacy was in works for the stage, with his plays – some written for theradio – includingBlodeuwedd (1923–25, revised 1948),Buchedd Garmon (1936) andSiwan (1956) among others. His plays drew upon a wide range of material and subject matter includingWelsh mythology andhistory as well as theBible, although he also wrote plays set in contemporary Wales. A complex and sometimes controversial figure, the influence and significance of his dramatic output was recognised with aNobel Nomination in 1970.

During the second half of the twentieth century the question of the future of Welsh as a living language took centre stage in Welsh public discourse in a way that had never previously been the case. Theflooding of the Tryweryn valley (played out from 1955 to 1965) and the associated protests, though in some sense a defeat, galvanised support fordevolution,independence andlanguage rights,^{[207][page needed][208]} as didSaunders Lewis's highly influential radio lectureTynged yr Iaith of 1962 which predicted the extinction of Welsh within a generation without radical change.^[209][210]

Although Welsh continued to decline as a spoken language during the third quarter of the twentieth century, concern for the language began to be reflected in increased support from the state and wider society through institutions like the universities,Welsh-medium education (designated Welsh-medium schools, in which most instruction was in Welsh, began appearing in the 1940s and by the end of the century approximately a fifth of Welsh schoolchildren were in such schools),Urdd Gobaith Cymru (a youth organisation founded in 1922 byIfan ab Owen Edwards (1895–1970), theBooks Council of Wales (founded 1961),Radio Cymru (1977),S4C (1982) among others; as well as political and pressure groups likePlaid Cymru andCymdeithas yr Iaith. These both fed off and drove improving social attitudes towards the language. Thanks to the efforts of pioneers in the first half of the century likeO. M. Edwards andW. J. Gruffydd(see above) as well as politicians across the political spectrum such asDavid Lloyd George (1863–1945; the only WelshPrime Minister),Jim Griffiths (1890–1975),Saunders Lewis (1893–1985),Gwynfor Evans (1912–2005),Cledwyn Hughes (1916–2001) andNicholas Edwards (1934–2018), by the end of the twentieth century there was widespread support in Wales for the preservation and continued use of Welsh, which bore fruit in Welsh Language Acts passed in1967 and1993, codifyinglanguage rights for Welsh speakers, and the stabilisation of the decline in the officially recorded numbers of Welsh speakers by the 1980s, though a sense of vulnerability has remained.

The Welsh literature of the late twentieth century reflects these often contradictory forces of despair and hope, whilst also responding in full to wider contemporary developments inaesthetics such asmodernism andpost-modernism, intechnology includingradio and television, as well as the period's social concerns such ascivil rights (often framed in Wales in terms oflanguage rights), theCold War,postcolonialism andenvironmentalism.

One poet of note who emerged at the start of the 1950s wasT. Glynne Davies (1926–1988). His poemAdfeilion ('Ruins') has been described as one of the greatest poems ever to win the Crown, which it did in 1951.^[211] Depicting rural depopulation and the decline of traditional ways of life, with the obvious implications for the language, it tapped into thezeitgeist of the time and would prove a major influence on poets of the 1950s and 60s.^[211] However, of the poets who emerged in the 1950s perhaps the most notable wasEuros Bowen (1904–1988). The older brother ofGeraint Bowen, who had won the Chair in 1946 for anawdl in a neoclassical vein(see above), Euros Bowen was a later developer who only began writing poetry in his late forties; nevertheless as a poet he was the more radical of the brothers and could be counted as one of the most stylistically innovative poets of the twentieth century in Welsh. Utilising only the free metres, his earlier work was formally conventional enough to see him win the Crown in 1948 and 1950; he would later extensively explore vers libre as well as producing a whole volume ofprose poems. AnAnglicancurate, much of his poetry is religious in nature, developing further the declamatory spirit of earlier poets likeGwenallt.

The 1960s saw the emergence of two other and contemporaries who would both go on to become some of the major poetic voices in Welsh of the second half of the twentieth century:Bobi Jones (1929–2017) andGwyn Thomas (1936–2016). Both wrote extensively in vers libre, both were academics (atAberystwyth andBangor respectively) and both were extremely prolific publishers of poetry; yet in other respects they represented diametrically opposite poetical approaches. Academic and literary critic Robert Maynard Jones, who published poetry asBobi Jones (1929–2017) was notable for learning Welsh as an adult; he would nevertheless go on to become "by far the most prolific writer in Welsh of his lifetime".^[212] His publications, almost exclusively in Welsh, number in the hundreds and cover Welsh literature of all periods (he was a particular champion of the literature of the nineteenth century, a period often maligned by others),literary theory, religious writing, novels and other prose works but especially poetry. AnEvangelical Christian, Bobi Jones was fiercely critical ofpost-modernism and thescepticism he perceivied as being both widespread and devoid of meaning; but he was an equally fierce critic ofpopulism of all kinds, being of the firm belief that the vitality of Welsh required its readers to be stretched, and his prodigious output was a conscious expression of this view.^[213] Ruggedly intellectual and demanding, his poetry is however simultaneously often playful: his poemHunllef Arthur ('Arthur's Nightmare'; 1986) may be the longest poem ever written in Welsh, but it is asatire ofepic poetry. In direct contrast to Bobi Jones,Gwyn Thomas (1936–2016) was a poet who eagerly engaged with modernpopular culture,^[214] especially film and television, and wanted to bring poetry to life for a wide audience. He becameNational Poet of Wales in 2006. He was an innovator nonetheless, writing in the free metres and especially vers libre but often using everyday, colloquial and even anglicised language, but dealing with subjects of universal and timeless relevance, such as in one of his most famous poems likeCroesi Traeth ('Crossing a Beach'; 1978), long a feature ofGCSE syllabuses, which is a reflection on mortality and ageing but depicts a young family enjoying a day at the beach.

Most of the prominent names in Welsh poetry during the central part of the twentieth century – whether they were new poets like Glynne Davies, Bobi Jones and Gwyn Thomas, or the older more established voices like Alun Llywelyn-Williams, Gwenallt and Waldo Williams, and even figures from earlier who were still writing and publishing poetry such asT. H. Parry-Williams andCynan were primarily known as poets in the free metres even if they produced poetry incynghanedd occasionally (or had done so earlier in their careers); and it would be easy to view the period 1940–1960 as one in which poetry in the strict meters saw little development. This would change in the 1960s and especially the 1970s, however, yet another period in the history of Welsh literature which has been termed adadeni (renaissance),^{[215][216][217]} part of a pattern, argues Dafydd Johnston, in which "The Welsh literary tradition can be seen to have renewed itself periodically by turning back upon itself deriving energy and inspiration from its past."^[218] The emergence ofDic Jones (1934–2009), who won the Chair in 1966 with hisawdl onCynhaeaf ('Harvest') was a significant event. A farmer inCeredigion his entire life who had left school at 15,^[219] in stark contrast to poets like Bobi Jones and Gwyn Thomas he was a latter-day example of a concept known in Welsh as theBardd Gwlad ('Country Poet'), a poet rooted in his local community writing about local events and concerns rather than grander intellectual ones.Beirdd Gwlad had always used the strict metres and Dic Jones was no exception; his eisteddfodawdlauCynhaeaf and 1976'sGwanwyn ('Spring'), which would have won him a second Chair that year had he not been disqualified on a technicality,^[220] are regarded as two of the finest poems ever produced for the competition; he was also a master of shorter forms such as theenglyn.^[220] Like his two Eisteddfodawdlau, much of his poetry explored rural life. The combination of this groundedBardd Gwlad aesthetic and his complete mastery of his medium ensured that of all the modern proponents of poetry incynghanedd he perhaps achieved the widest general popularity, and by the time of his death (at which point he was serving asArchdruid) was regarded as a "national icon" who brought a new accessibility and relevance to the strict metres.^[220]

Dic Jones's emergence heralded a new golden age forcynghanedd which continued for the rest of the century. The early 1970s saw the emergence of two major practitioners in the strict metres whose poetic approach would be starkly different to Dic Jones, both of whom would also work tirelessly beyond their own poetry to maintain the art of strict metre poetry and foster the next generation.Gerallt Lloyd Owen (1944–2014) was perhaps the most famous and popular strict metre poet of his generation in Welsh; he would go on to serve extensively as an Eisteddfod adjudicator and for thirty years as the chair ofTalwrn y Beirdd, a radio programme in which poets compete with spontaneously composed poetry. He also produced two Welshcomic books.^[221] However, he is best remembered the Welsh poet whose art most directly responds to the Welsh national revival of the 1960s, byTynged yr Iaith and theflooding of Tryweryn.^[221] A ferventWelsh nationalist, he first came to prominence with poems he had composed to protest against the1969 investiture of Prince Charles.^[221] Whilst his poems often venerate national heroes of the past, particularlyLlywelyn ap Gruffudd, any suggestion ofRomanticism is banished by his often bitter attitude towards the Welsh themselves (in which he resemblesR. S. Thomas, though the voice is his own) and his graphiclymodernist imagery, as in the opening lines of his poemFy Ngwlad (1969), referring directly to the investiture, which are among the most famous lines of twentieth centurycynghanedd:

Cilmeri, believed to be the site of Llywelyn's death in 1282, was set as the subject for the chair in 1982, the 700th anniversary of the event, Gerallt Lloyd Owen's victory was inevitable, and his victoriousawdl is a latter-day masterpiece of the genre which both evokes and reinvents the medieval tradition of praise and elegy as a powerful contemporary political statement.^[222] The poem can also be seen as part of a wider body of poetry which addressed and mourned the result of the1979 Welsh devolution referendum, in which Welsh self-government had been soundly rejected.^[223]

In 1973, the year before Gerallt Lloyd Owen won his first Eisteddfod Chair, the competition had been won byAlan Llwyd (b.1948), who compounded his achievement by winning the Crown as well (the first such 'double' sinceT. H. Parry-Williams back in 1915); even more remarkably he would repeat the same feat (as Parry-Williams had done) three years later. A major voice in Welsh poetry of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, he has published widely in both the strict and free metres as well as vers libre, as well as editing anthologies and publishing biographies of a number of literary figures, with his poetry often differentiated from that of his contemporaries by a more personal note,^[224] for example in his series ofSonedau i Janice for his wife (pub. 1996). Although he has published copiously in all poetic forms he is one of the most widely recognised living practitioners of strict metre poetry. A rule in place forbidding awarding a Chair to those who had already won two was lifted in 2023, and Llwyd would go on to win the chair a third time that year, a full half century after his first victory.^[225] This makes him, as of 2025, the most successful Eisteddfod poet alive in terms of the number of times he has won the main prizes (5), and tied withDewi Emrys as the most successful Eisteddfod poet of all time (by this metric).

The sense of revival was not confined to the strict meters.Bryan Martin Davies (1933–2015) came to prominence as the winner of the 1970 crown and would go on to be described as "one of the most accomplished free meter poets" of his age.^[226] Other major poets includedT. James Jones (born 1934);Donald Evans (born 1940), who repeated the 'double-double' feat of Parry-Williams and Alan Llwyd by winning both chair and crown at two separate Eisteddfodau (1977 and 1980);Nesta Wyn Jones (1946–2025);Einir Jones (born 1950), who also writes extensively for children, andMenna Elfyn (born 1951), "perhaps Wales's best-knownfeminist poet";^[227] The emergence of these latter three voices in Welsh poetry represented a significant female inroad into what had always been a male-dominated field over the centuries (notwithstanding individual exceptions likeAnn Griffiths andCranogwen). This situation stands in stark contrast to prose, where many of the main figures of Welsh had always been women. The strict metres in particular would remain male-dominated until the twenty-first century: althoughDilys Cadwaladr (1902–1979) was the first woman to win the Crown, doing so in 1953, a feat that would be repeated by others likeEluned Phillips (1914–2009) andEinir Jones, it would not be until 2001 that the Chair would be won by a woman,Mererid Hopwood (b.1964), who would go on to become the first female Archdruid.^[228] Among the female poets who emerged in the 1970s, Nesta Wyn Jones was noted for her "artful subtlety";^[229] whilst Menna Elfyn has become a major voice in Welsh poetry and been particularly successful in translation.^[230]

The strict metres saw another flowering during the 1990s, which, it has been suggested, should be seen as a continuation of the 1970s revival as many of the same poets were still active.^[217] New poets to emerge in the last decade of the century included names such asMyrddin ap Dafydd (born 1956),Iwan Llwyd (1957–2010),Emyr Lewis (born 1957),Twm Morys (born 1961),Meirion McIntyre Huws (born 1963),Mererid Hopwood (born 1964),Ceri Wyn Jones (born 1967) among others; some of these were part of a loose grouping known as the "cywyddwyr cyhoeddus" ('PublicCywydd-writers') after the publication in 1994 of a volume of poetry under the titleCywyddau Cyhoeddus, a collection rehabilitating theCywydd, a form which had been popularised as long ago as the 14th century but had been comparatively neglected by more recent generations.

Prior to 1950 very few Welsh-language novelists could be said to have made a lasting impact on Welsh literature, but this would change dramatically over the following decades.Kate Roberts(see above) had been active as a novelist and short story writer since the 1930s, but after a hiatus in writing for much of the 40s, starting with thenovellaStryd y Glep in 1949 she went on to produce a remarkable string of novels, novellas, and story collections through the 1950s and 1960s – among them some of her best-known works such asY Byw Sy'n Cysgu (1956; 'The Living that Sleep'),Te yn y Grug (1959; 'Tea in the Heather'),Tywyll Heno (1962;Dark Tonight, a reference toCanu Heledd) andPrynu Dol a Straeon Eraill (1969; 'Buying a Doll and Other Stories') – and occasionally thereafter up until her last collection,Haul y Drycin ('Storm Sun') in 1981. Though her work from this period is distinctlyfeminist and often depicts the lives of working-class women much as her previous work had done, much (though not all) of this later work is considerably darker in tone, particularlyY Byw Sy'n Cysgu, whose main character is abandoned by her husband, andTywyll Heno, whose main character is suffering amental health crisis. Alongside her earlier work such asTraed Mewn Cyffion, by the time of her death in 1981 she had earned herself the moniker"Brenhines ein llên" ("The Queen of our Literature")^[231] and was considered to be indisputably the most significant female prose writer in Welsh.^[232]

At around the same time, another novelist emerged who would earn the affection of his countrymen to a similar degree.Islwyn Ffowc Elis (1924–2004) began his career withCysgod y Cryman (1953; 'Shadow of the Sickle'), a novel depicting a farm in rural Wales which discusses the rising political forces ofCommunism andWelsh Nationalism; it proved an enormous critical and (by Welsh-language standards) commercial success and in a 2000 popular poll would be voted the favourite Welsh novel of the 20th century.^[233] Elis would return to the same characters with his third novel,Yn ôl i Leifior (1956; 'Return to Lleifior') after the critical failure of his second,Ffenestri Tua'r Gwyll (1955; 'Windows on the Twilight'). However, beginning with his fourth novel,Wythnos yng Nghymru Fydd (1956; 'A Week in Wales that Will Be'), atime travel story which is a rare example ofscience fiction in Welsh up to that point, Elis would take a deliberately populist direction, seeking to fill what he perceived as a need for a more accessible, less self-consciouslyliterary kind of writing in Welsh during the 1960s, though he would write little after 1970.

It was neither Roberts nor Elis, however, that would produce the most critically discussed novel of this period, but rather a figure who had risen to prominence as a poet decades earlier.Caradog Prichard (1904–1980) had achieved fame in the 1920s by winning the Eisteddfod Crown on three consecutive occasions; and yet it is for his only novel,Un Nos Ola Leuad (1961; variously translated asFull Moon orOne Moonlit Night) that he is best remembered today. Set in a fictional version ofBethesda, it provides a bleak and cynical portrait of the slate-quarrying communities of North-West Wales that stands in stark contrast to the stoic, noble depiction of the same communities by Kate Roberts let alone T. Rowland Hughes (though it bears some resemblance to works byCaradoc Evans andDylan Thomas). It is also notable for being written entirely in colloquial rather than literary language, something which had been done before but never in so consciouslyliterary a work, but would influence later writers such asRobin Llywelyn (see below).Un Nos Ola Leuad remains one of the most popular and best regarded of Welsh novels and was included on the "Big Jubilee Read" list of 70 books byCommonwealth authors, selected to celebrate thePlatinum Jubilee of Elizabeth II.^[234]

Alongside the above names a number of other highly respected voices in the Welsh novel emerged during the 1960s and 1970s.Pennar Davies (1911–1996) wrote a series of works, among them novels includingMeibion Darogan (1968; 'Sons of Prophecy') which pioneered a form of radical Christian utopianism.Rhydwen Williams (1916–1997) produced a trilogy of novels from 1969–74 depicting the communities of the South Wales valleys in a similar way to which Roberts had explored the slate communities of the North. The period has been described as one in which thehistorical novel flourished thanks to authors likeMarion Eames (1921–2007) andRhiannon Davies Jones (1921–2014),^[235] whose attention to detail and realism stood in stark contrast to theHistorical Romances of earlier periods; both also frequently focused on the stories of women (both real and fictional) through periods in Welsh history that had previously been viewed only from a male perspective.T. Glynne Davies (1926–1988) was the author ofMarged (1971), anepic novel describing multiple generations of the same family which was one of the longest written in Welsh since the nineteenth century.Owain Owain (1929–1993) was the author ofY Dydd Olaf (1968, but not published until 1976; 'The Last Day'), adystopianscience fiction which explores the relationship between man and technology.John Rowlands (1938–2015) produced cerebral, complex and challenging works, includingIenctid yw 'mhechod (1965; 'My Sin is Youth') which caused controversy at the time for depicting an adulterous relationship between a Minister and a member of his congregation.Eigra Lewis Roberts (born 1939) published her first novel,Brynhyfryd, in 1959 and would go on to be perhaps the most prolific of all Welsh novelists, having published over 30 as of 2025.

The flowering in the Welsh novel since the 1950s(see above) continued during the last part of the century and was marked by the introduction in 1978 of theDaniel Owen Memorial Pize, named after the19th-century novelist(see above), awarded annually at each National Eisteddfod for "a novel of at least 50,000 words with a strong storyline".^[236] Although prizes had been awarded for novels at the Eisteddfod on a fairly regular basis since the nineteenth century, and theProse Medal has been awarded to a (short) novel more often than not over its history, this award meant that for the first time there would be an annual award with consistent rules given for a novel in Welsh. The first winner wasAlun Jones forAc Yna Clywodd Sŵn y Môr ('And Then he Heard the Sea').^[236]

Many of the novels of the 1980s showed a preoccupation with contemporary political matters. Prose Medal winnersY Tŷ Haearn (The Iron House'; 1983) byJohn Idris Owen (1937–2021) andCyn Daw'r Gaeaf ('Before Winter Comes'; 1985) byMeg Elis (born 1950) both responded in very different ways to the threat ofnuclear war: the former is apost-apocalyptic story depicting a group of characters locked inside afallout shelter in the weeks after a nuclear assault, whilst the latter depicts theGreenham Common protests. The overtlyfeminist perspective of Elis's work was reflected in one of the most significant novelists in Welsh to emerge in the 1980s,Angharad Tomos (born 1958). In works likeHen Fyd Hurt ('Silly Old World'; 1983),Yma o Hyd ('Still Here', drawn from the title of thesong; 1985) andSi Hei Lwli (1991) Tomos drew on her personal experience to explore feminine perspectives of unemployment andprison (she was briefly incarcerated for actions whilst protesting withCymdeithas yr Iaith). She was also the author ofCyfres Rwdlan ('The Rwdlan Series'), the first of which,Rala Rwdins, was published in 1983 and which remains perhaps the best known and most popular original Welshpicture book series for young children.

The most obvious stylistic development over the 1980s and 1990s in Welsh prose was a trend towardspost-modernism. This had been hinted at since the start of the decade in works likeSarah Arall ('Another Sarah'; Daniel Owen winner in 1980) byAled Islwyn (born 1953) in which a child develops an obsession withfasting girlSarah Jacob; if not even earlier in the work ofCaradog Prichard andJohn Rowlands^[237](see above) but was overt in the early work ofWilliam Owen Roberts (born 1953) such asBingo! (1983), a re-working of the diaries ofKafka; and particularlyY Pla ('Pestilence'; 1985). Considered one of the major novels of the period in Welsh,^[238] it is a historical novel depictingthe black death in Wales but with significantsurrealist elements.

The trend was not without its critics: when the 1992 Prose Medal was won byRobin Llywelyn (born 1958) forSeren Wen ar Gefndir Gwyn ('A white star on a white background') some complained that the work waselitist and/or "un-Welsh".^[237] Depicting a war between fantasy countries but written entirely in thedialect of theLleyn peninsula and replete withabsurdisthumour andslapstick, it is a complex novel that resists easy definitions. Variously described as an example ofmagical realism andfantasy, it has since been recognised one of the major works in Welsh of the 1990s and in the novel genre.^[238]Other writers whose work has been as post-modern^[237] includeGareth Miles (1938–2023) andTwm Miall, but perhaps the most prominent isMihangel Morgan (born 1955). In novels and story collections likeDirgel Ddyn (1993; 'Secret Man'),Te gyda'r Frenhines (1994; 'Tea with the Queen'),Melog (1997) andDan Gadarn Goncrit (1999; 'Under Hard Concrete') he explores often dark themes such as political corruption andserial killers. He is also a major voice inQueer literature in Welsh, and has come to be considered one of the leading novelists writing in the language.^[239]

Alongside these, a great number of new Welsh novelists emerged during the 1980s and 1990s and writing in a wide range of styles, includingHarri Parri (born 1935),Geraint V. Jones (born 1938)Manon Rhys (born 1948),Eirug Wyn (1950–2004),Elgan Philip Davies (born 1952),Sonia Edwards (born 1961) andDyfed Edwards (born 1966) among many others.

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Alongside playwrights likeSaunders Lewis andJohn Gwilym Jones who had emerged in the first half of the century, major voices in Welsh drama of the second half of the century includedGwenlyn Parry (1932–1991).

The trickle of writing for children in the first half of the twentieth century(see above) became a steady stream in the second and a flood by the end(see below). Children growing up in Wales during the 1950s and 60s had access to a much wider quantity of reading material than their parents had had. Although comparatively few of the Welsh children's works produced during the 1950s and 1960s are well known today, a major exception is the work ofT. Llew Jones (1915–2009). One of the most prolific writers in Welsh for children of any period, he would publish over fifty books for children over seven decades, including adventure and detective stories, poetry, and stories drawing onWelsh history andmythology; by the time of his death aged 93 in 2009 he would be regarded as "the premier children's author in Welsh"^[240] and a "national icon".^[241] He published his first book for children in 1958,Trysor Plas y Wernen ('The Treasure of Alder Place'), which would be followed by many more. Among his best known works are a trilogy about legendary Welsh highwaymanTwm Siôn Cati -Y Ffordd Beryglus ('The Dangerous Road'; 1963),Ymysg Lladron ('Among Thieves'; 1965) andDial o'r Diwedd ('Revenge at Last'; 1968);Barti Ddu (1973), about the pirateBartholomew Roberts;Tân ar y Comin ('Fire on the Common'; 1975) about aWelsh Romany boy; andLleuad yn Olau ('Full Moon'; 1989), a collection of stories drawn fromWelsh mythology and folklore. Whilst such subjects had been employed by Welsh children's authors for decades, T. Llew Jones's efforts were differentiated by being free ofdidactic elements and his refusal to patronise his readers, as well as his rich prose; he had worked as a schoolteacher for many years and is often praised for possessing a deep understanding of his audience.^[241]

Although he likely will be remembered first and foremost as a children's author (and as a writer of poetry for children), T. Llew Jones was also an Eisteddfod poet who had won the chair twice at the end of the 1950s. It was notable that many significant literary figures in Welsh of the second half of the twentieth century devoted at least some of their time to writing for children or young adults, including but not limited toGwyn Thomas,Gerallt Lloyd Owen,Einir Jones,Angharad Tomos andMyrddin ap Dafydd; evidence that writing for children in Welsh was considered an activity of growing cultural import. Authors of note in the post-T. Llew Jones era includeDafydd Parri (1926–2001), author of the popular seriesY Llewod ('The Lions'), which would eventually number 23 books initially appearing between 1975 and 1980 which depict a group of young friends who get involved in various adventures. Although bearing an obvious debt toEnid Blyton the series is thoroughly Welsh in character, idiom and cultural context. Parri was also the author of the 'Cailo' series, about asheepdog.Irma Chilton (1930–1990) was another notable author of children's books in Welsh. The 1980s saw the publication of the first books in theRwdlan series of picture books byAngharad Tomos (born 1958), one of the earliest and perhaps still the most popular original Welsh picture books for children. By the 1970s children's literature in Welsh began also to be supplemented by translations into Welsh of works such as theTintin books byHergé and theNarnia books byC. S. Lewis.

The establishment of theTir na n-Og Award in 1975 showed the growing recognition of children's literature. By the 1990s, children's literature had become a major area of Welsh publishing. Authors writing extensively or mainly for children and/or teenagers includedMair Wynn Hughes (born 1930),Emily Huws (born 1942),Siân Lewis (born 1945),John Owen (1952–2001),Bob Eynon,Elgan Philip Davies (born 1952) andGareth F. Williams (1955–2016); among their output were not only novels, stories and pictures books, original and in translation, butgamebooks,non-fiction and books intended for learners.

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The Welsh language novel has continued to thrive during the first decades of the twenty-first century. Despite a drop in readership mirroring trends across Western languages in response to the growing ubiquity of theinternet andsocial media, Welsh publishing remains in comparatively rude health from a creative perspective, with the 2020s being described as a 'Golden Age' for the Welsh novel by one industry insider.^[242]

The possibilities ofspeculative fiction had remained relatively untapped by Welsh authors before the twenty-first century, with the examples mentioned above such asWythnos yng Nghymru Fydd andY Dydd Olaf being relatively rare. This began to change during the 21st century, especially after 2015.Dystopian andPost-apocalyptic fiction have proven particularly popular, with notable examples in the former includingTalu'r Pris (2007) byArwel Vittle,Gwales (2017) byCatrin Dafydd (born c. 1982) andCymru Fydd (2022) byWilliam Owen Roberts, and the latter includingY Dŵr ('The Water', 2007) byLlifon Jones,Ebargofiant (2014) byJerry Hunter(see below),Iaith y Nefoedd ('The language of Heaven' 2017) byLlwyd Owen andLlyfr Glas Nebo ('The Blue Book of Nebo,' 2018) byManon Steffan Ros.

Welsh Authors have also exploredfantasy, such asAlun Jones with hisnordic-inspired trilogyLliwiau'r Eira ('The Colours of Snow', 2013),Taith yr Aderyn ('The Bird's Journey', 2018) andLlwybr Gwyn yr Adar ('The Birds' White Path', 2024);Bethan Gwanas with herYAMelanai Trilogy (2017-19);Elidir Jones with theChwedlau'r Copa Coch ('Tales of Red Mountain'), which started withYr Horwth (2015); andAled Emyr withTrigo (2024). These series are all notable for drawing on material from non-Welsh sources such as Nordic culture in the case of the Alun Jones trilogy, and theCopa Coch books owing an obvious debt toD&D. Other Welsh fantasy authors have drawn on material closer to home, such asIfan Morgan Jones (born 1984) whoseurban fantasyDadeni (2017) draws on theMabinogi, and whosesteampunk novelBabel (2019) is set in 19th-century Wales; andSioned Wyn Roberts with her novelMadws (2024) which draws on Welsh mythology but alsofolk medicine.

Horror is another genre which has received more attention by Welsh authors since 2000, with examples includingHen Bethau Anghofiedig ('Forgotten Things', 2018) byMihangel Morgan(see above) and novels and short story collections byPeredur Glyn:Pumed Gainc y Mabinogi ('The Fifth Branch of the Mabinogi', 2022),Cysgod y Mabinogi ('The Shadow of the Mabinogi', 2024) andAnfarwol ('Immortal', 2025), a loosely connected series blendingWelsh mythology withcosmic horror. Glyn acknowledges his debt toH. P. Lovecraft, whose stories he has also translated into Welsh.

Crime Fiction has been a particularly popular genre in Welsh with stand-alone novels such asYr Argraff Gyntaf ('First Impression', 2010) byIfan Morgan Jones but also a number of detective series with recurring characters. These include those featuring fictional detective Dela Arthur, beginning withGwyn eu byd (2010) byGwen Parrot (born 1955); and especially the series beginning withDan yr Wyneb ('Under the Surface', 2012) byJohn Alwyn Griffiths, a former police officer whose series about fictional detective Jeff Evans numbers 14 books as of 2026.^[243] Cardiff-basedLlwyd Owen (born 1977) is another popular writer of crime and thriller novels in Welsh. His novels, which includeFfawd, Cywilydd a Chelwyddau ('Fate, Shame & Lies', 2006),Ffydd Gobaith Cariad ('Faith Hope Love', 2006),Mr Blaidd ('Mr Wolf', 2009)Un Ddinas Dau Fyd ('One City Two Worlds', 2011) andTaffia (2016) are mostly set inCardiff and address urban life in a way comparatively few Welsh-language novelists had previously done, addressing issues such as drug abuse and gang violence.

Historical novels have been the chosen genre of some of the more ambitious novelists in the language.William Owen Roberts (born 1960), who had come to prominence in the 1980s for his post-modern historical novelY Pla (see anove) but had been silent in the 1990s began writing again in the new century, producing three ambitious historical novels in the form ofParadwys ('Paradise', 2001), depicting thecolonialCaribbean, followed byPetrograd (2008) and its sequelParis (2013) depicting a family fleeing theRussian Revolution. Roberts's work is notable for its strong political angle, with his most recent novel,Cymru Fydd (2022), being a semi-dystopian account of anindependent Wales. Also of note is thatPetrograd andParis explore historical contexts with no direct connection to Wales itself; a fact also true ofAwst in Anogia ('August inAnogeia', 2015) byGareth F. Williams (1955–2016) which has been described as "a contender for Welsh book of the decade".^[244]

Another author of ambitious historical novels in Welsh isJerry Hunter (born 1965). Originally fromCincinnati,Ohio, Hunter has lived in Wales since the early 1990s and in his capacity as an academic has made important contributions in the understanding of the history and writing of theWelsh in America.^[245] As a novelist, much of his work engages in different ways with Welsh history and the Welsh literary tradition: he first came to prominence withGwenddydd (2010), winner of the Prose Medal, ostensibly a novel about a brother and sister during theSecond World War but in fact a retelling of the thirteenth-century poem 'CyfoesiMyrddin a Gwenddydd ei Chwaer'.^[246] This was followed by the progressively more ambitiousGwreiddyn Chwerw ('Bitter Root', 2012) andY Fro Dywyll ('Dark Territory', 2014), set in the nineteenth and sixteenth centuries respectively, and cumulating the sequence the epic-lengthYnys Fadog (2018) about the Welsh in America which has been described as the "WelshWar and Peace"^[247] and alleged to be the longest Welsh novel ever written.^[248] Alongside thesehistorical novels he has also exploredpost-apocalyptic fiction withEbargofiant ('Oblivion', 2014), written in an original orthography reflecting hypotheticallanguage shift after anenvironmental apocalypse, andalternate history withSafana (2021). Hunter has been described as a "boundary testerpar excellence" and "a master at work",^[249] and his novels are regularly featured on lists of the greatest Welsh novels of the 21st century.^[248][250]

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A.^ A distinction exists in Welsh between 'canu caeth' (literally 'chained verse' or 'bound verse') incynghanedd and 'canu rhydd' ('free verse'), the latter referring to all poetry not incynghanedd including what is referred to in English asfree verse but also all other poetry not in cynghanedd regardless ofform ormetre, whether in native Welsh forms or imported forms such as thesonnet. Thus, what the Welsh refer to as 'canu rhydd' can in fact be quite strict by the standards of other literary traditions. For clarity, in this article the terms 'strict metres' and 'free metres' are used to refer tocanu caeth andcanu rhydd respectively, the term 'free verse' is avoided altogether and the French term 'vers libre' used, as it is sometimes used in Welsh,^[182] to refer topoetry without fixed line length, rhyming scheme or metrical pattern.

B.^ Although Griffiths lived most of her short life in the eighteenth century she wrote most of her poetry in the early years of the nineteenth.

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