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The aim ofwater security is to maximize the benefits of water for humans and ecosystems. The second aim is to limit the risks of destructive impacts of water to an acceptable level.[1][2] These risks include too much water (flood), too little water (drought andwater scarcity), and poor quality (polluted) water.[1] People who live with a high level of water security always have access to "an acceptable quantity and quality of water for health, livelihood, and production".[2] For example, access to water, sanitation, and hygiene services is one part of water security.[3] Some organizations use the term"water security" more narrowly, referring only towater supply aspects.
Decision makers and water managers aim to reach water security goals that address multiple concerns. These outcomes can include increasing economic and social well-being while reducing risks tied to water.[4] There are linkages andtrade-offs between the different outcomes.[3]: 13 Planners often consider water security effects for varied groups when they design climate change reduction strategies.[5]: 19–21
Three main factors determine how difficult or easy it is for a society to sustain its water security. These include thehydrologic environment, the socio-economic environment, and future changes due to theeffects of climate change.[1] Decision makers may assess water security risks at varied levels. These range from the household to community, city, basin, country and region.[3]: 11
The opposite of water security iswater insecurity.[6]: 5 Water insecurity is a growing threat to societies.[7]: 4 The main factors contributing to water insecurity arewater scarcity,water pollution and low water quality due to climate change impacts. Others includepoverty, destructive forces of water, anddisasters that stem fromnatural hazards.Climate change affects water security in many ways. Changing rainfall patterns, including droughts, can have a big impact on water availability. Flooding can worsen water quality. Stronger storms can damage infrastructure, especially in theGlobal South.[8]: 660
There are different ways to deal with water insecurity. Science and engineering approaches can increase the water supply or make water use more efficient. Financial and economic tools can include asafety net to ensure access for poorer people. Management tools such as demand caps can improve water security.[7]: 16 They work on strengthening institutions and information flows. They may also improve water quality management, and increase investment inwater infrastructure. Improving theclimate resilience of water and hygiene services is important. These efforts help to reduce poverty and achievesustainable development.[2]
There is no single method to measure water security.[8]: 562 Metrics of water security roughly fall into two groups. This includes those that are based onexperiences versus metrics that are based onresources. The former mainly focus on measuring the water experiences of households and human well-being. The latter tend to focus on freshwater stores or water resources security.[9]
TheIPCC Sixth Assessment Report found that increasing weather and climate extreme events have exposed millions of people to acutefood insecurity and reduced water security. Scientists have observed the largest impacts in Africa, Asia, Central and South America, Small Islands and the Arctic.[10]: 9 The report predicted that global warming of 2 °C would expose roughly 1-4 billion people to water stress. It finds 1.5-2.5 billion people live in areas exposed to water scarcity.[10]: 660
There are various definitions for the termwater security.[11][12]: 5 It emerged as a concept in the 21st century. It is broader than the absence ofwater scarcity.[1] It differs from the concepts offood security andenergy security. Whereas those concepts cover reliable access to food or energy, water security covers not only theabsence of water but also its presence when there istoo much of it.[2]
One definition of water security is "the reliable availability of an acceptable quantity and quality of water for health, livelihoods and production, coupled with an acceptable level ofwater-related risks".[2]
A similar definition of water security byUN-Water is: "the capacity of a population to safeguard sustainable access to adequate quantities of acceptable quality water for sustaining livelihoods, human well-being, and socio-economic development, for ensuring protection against water-borne pollution and water-relateddisasters, and for preserving ecosystems in a climate of peace and political stability."[11]: 1 [13]
World Resources Institute also gave a similar definition in 2020. "For purposes of this report, we define water security as the capacity of a population to
Some organizations usewater security in a more specific sense to refer to water supply only. They do not consider the water-related risks oftoo much water. For example, the definition ofWaterAid in 2012 focuses on water supply issues. They defined water security as "reliable access to water of sufficient quantity and quality for basic human needs, small-scale livelihoods and local ecosystem services, coupled with a well managed risk of water-related disasters".[11]: 5 TheWorld Water Council also uses this more specific approach with a focus on water supply. "Water security refers to the availability of water, in adequate quantity and quality, to sustain all these needs together (social and economic sectors, as well as the larger needs of the planet's ecosystems) – without exceeding its ability to renew."[14][15]
WASH (water, sanitation and hygiene) is an important concept when in discussions of water security. Access to WASH services is one part of achieving water security.[3] The relationship works both ways. To be sustainable, WASH services need to address water security issues.[16]: 4 For example WASH relies on water resources that are part of thewater cycle. But climate change has manyimpacts on the water cycle which can threaten water security.[11]: vII There is also growing competition for water. This reduces the availability of water resources in many areas in the world.[16]: 4
Water security incorporates ideas and concepts to do with thesustainability, integration and adaptiveness ofwater resource management.[17][4] In the past, experts used terms such asintegrated water resources management (IWRM) orsustainable water management for this.
Water risk refers to the possibility of problems to do with water. Examples are water scarcity, water stress, flooding, infrastructure decay and drought.[18]: 4 There exists an inverse relationship between water risk and water security. This means as water risk increases, water security decreases. Water risk is complex and multilayered. It includes risks flooding and drought. These can lead to infrastructure failure and worsen hunger.[19] When these disasters take place, they result in water scarcity or other problems. The potential economic effects of water risk are important to note. Water risks threaten entire industries. Examples are the food and beverage sector, agriculture, oil and gas and utilities. Agriculture uses 69% of total freshwater in the world. So this industry is very vulnerable to water stress.[20]
Risk is a combination of hazard, exposure and vulnerability.[4] Examples of hazards are droughts, floods and decline in quality. Bad infrastructure and bad governance lead to high exposure to risk.
The financial sector is becoming more aware of the potential impacts of water risk and the need for its proper management. By 2025, water risk will threaten $145 trillion in assets under management.[21]
To control water risk, companies can develop water risk management plans.[19] Stakeholders within financial markets can use these plans to measure company environmental, social and governance (ESG) performance. They can then identify leaders in water risk management.[22][20] TheWorld Resources Institute has developed an online water data platform named Aqueduct for risk assessment and water management.China Water Risk is a nonprofit dedicated to understanding and managing water risk in China.[23][24] TheWorld Wildlife Fund has a Water Risk Filter that helps companies assess and respond to water risk with scenarios for 2030 and 2050.[25]
Understanding risk is part of water security policy. But it is also important to takesocial equity considerations more into account.[26]
There is no wholly accepted theory ormathematical model for determining or managing water risk.[3]: 13 Instead, managers use a range of theories, models and technologies to understand thetrade-offs that exist in responding to risk.
Water conflict typically refers to violence or disputes associated with access to, or control of, water resources, or the use of water or water systems as weapons or casualties of conflicts. The termwater war is colloquially used in media for some disputes over water, and often is more limited to describing a conflict between countries, states, or groups overthe rights to accesswater resources.[28][29] TheUnited Nations recognizes that water disputes result from opposing interests of water users, public or private.[30] A wide range of water conflicts appear throughout history, though they are rarely traditional wars waged over water alone.[31] Instead, water has long been a source of tension and one of the causes for conflicts. Water conflicts arise for several reasons, including territorial disputes, a fight for resources, and strategic advantage.[32]
Water conflicts can occur on the intrastate and interstate levels. Interstate conflicts occur between two or more countries that share a transboundary water source, such as a river, sea, or groundwater basin. For example, theMiddle East has only 1% of the world'sfresh water shared among 5% of the world's population and most of the rivers cross international borders.[33] Intrastate conflicts take place between two or more parties in the same country, such as conflicts between farmers and urban water users.There are three groups of water security outcomes. These include economic, environmental and equity (or social) outcomes.[1] Outcomes are things that happen or people would want to see happen as a result of policy and management:
There are four major focus areas for water security and its outcomes. It is about using water to increase economic and social welfare, move towards long-term sustainability or reduce risks tied to water.[4] Decision makers and water managers must consider the linkages and trade-offs between the varied types of outcomes.[3]: 13
Improving water security is a key factor to achieve growth, development that is sustainable and reduce poverty.[2] Water security is also aboutsocial justice and fair distribution of environmental benefits and harms.[36] Development that is sustainable can help reduce poverty and increase living standards. This is most likely to benefit those affected by the impacts of insecurewater resources in the region, especially women and children.
Water security is important for attaining most of the 17 United NationsSustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This is because access to adequate and safe water is a precondition for meeting many of the individual goals.[8]: 4–8 It is also important for attaining development that is resilient to climate change.[8]: 4–7 Planners take note of water security outcomes for various groups in society when they design strategies for climate change adaptation.[3]: 19–21
Three main factors determine the ability of a society to sustain water security:[2]
The hydrologic environment is important for water security. The termhydrologic environment refers to the "absolute level of water resource availability". But it also refers to how much it varies in time and location. Inter-annual means from one year to the next, Intra-annual means from one season to the next. It is possible to refer to location asspatial distribution.[2] Scholars distinguish between a hydrologic environment that is easy to manage and one that is difficult.[2]
Aneasy to manage hydrologic environment would be one with low rainfall variability. In this case rain is distributed throughout the year and perennial river flows sustained by groundwater base flows. For example, many of the world'sindustrialized nations have a hydrologic environment that they can manage quite easily. This has helped them achieve water security early in their development.[2]
Adifficult to manage hydrologic environment is one with absolute water scarcity such as deserts or low-lying lands prone to severe flood risk. Regions where rainfall is very variable from one season to the next, or regions where rainfall varies a lot from one year to the next are also likely to face water security challenges. The term for this ishigh inter-annual climate variability. An example would be East Africa, where there have been prolonged droughts every two to three years since 1999.[37] Most of the world's developing countries have challenges in managing hydrologies and have not achieved water security. This is not a coincidence.[2]
Thepoverty and hydrology hypothesis states that regions with a difficult hydrology remain poor because the respective governments have not been able to make the large investments necessary to achieve water security. Examples of such regions would be those with rainfall variability within one year and across several years. This leads to water insecurity which constrains economic growth.[2] There is a statistical link between increased changes in rainfall patterns and lower per capita incomes.[38]
Relative levels of economic development and equality or inequality are strong determinants of community and household scale water security. Whilst thepoverty and hydrology hypothesis suggests that there is a link between poverty and difficult hydrologies, there are many examples of "difficult hydrologies" that have not (yet) resulted in poverty and water insecurity.[2][39]
Social and economic inequalities are strong drivers of water insecurity, especially at the community and household scales. Gender, race and caste inequalities have all been linked to differential access to water services such as drinking water and sanitation. In particular women and girls frequently have less access to economic and social opportunities as a directly consequence of being primarily responsible for meeting household water needs. The entire journey from water source to point of use is fraught with hazards largely faced by women and girls.[40] There is strong evidence that improving access to water and sanitation is a good way of addressing such inequalities.
Impacts ofclimate change that are tied to water, affect people's water security on a daily basis. They include more frequent and intense heavy precipitation which affects the frequency, size and timing of floods.[41] Also droughts can alter the total amount offreshwater and cause a decline ingroundwater storage, and reduction ingroundwater recharge.[42] Reduction in water quality due to extreme events can also occur.[8]: 558 Faster melting of glaciers can also occur.[43]
Global climate change will probably make it more complex and expensive to ensure water security.[2] It creates new threats andadaptation challenges.[1] This is because climate change leads to increased hydrological variability and extremes. Climate change has manyimpacts on the water cycle. These result in higher climatic and hydrological variability, which can threaten water security.[11]: vII Changes in the water cycle threaten existing and future water infrastructure. It will be harder to plan investments for future water infrastructure as there are so many uncertainties about future variability for the water cycle.[1] This makes societies more exposed to risks of extreme events linked to water and therefore reduces water security.[11]: vII
It is difficult to predict the effects of climate change on national and local levels. Water security will be affected bysea level rise in low lying coastal areas while populations dependent on snowmelt as their water source will be affected by the recession of glaciers and mountain snow.[12]: 21
Future climate change must be viewed in context of other existing challenges for water security. Other challenges existing climate variability in areas closer to the equator, population growth and increased demand for water resources. Others include political challenges, increased disaster exposure due to settlement in hazard-prone areas, and environmental degradation.[12]: 22 Water demand forirrigation in agriculture will increase due to climate change. This is because evaporation rates and the rate of water loss from crops will be higher due to rising temperatures.[7]: 4
Climate factors have a major effect on water security as various levels. Geographic variability in water availability, reliability of rainfall and vulnerability to droughts, floods andcyclones are inherent hazards that affect development opportunities. These play out at international to intra-basin scales. At local scales,social vulnerability is a factor that increases the risks to water security, no matter the cause.[5]: 6 For example, people affected by poverty may have less ability to cope with climate shocks.[5]
There are many factors that contribute to low water security. Some examples are:[7]: 4 [6]: 9
A major threat to water security iswater scarcity. About 27% of the world's population lived in areas affected by water scarcity in the mid-2010s. This number will likely increase to 42% by 2050.[44]
Water scarcity (closely related to water stress orwater crisis) is the lack offresh waterresources to meet the standard water demand. There are two types of water scarcity. One isphysical. The other iseconomic water scarcity.[46]: 560 Physical water scarcity is where there is not enough water to meet all demands. This includes water needed forecosystems to function. Regions with adesert climate often face physical water scarcity.[47]Central Asia,West Asia, andNorth Africa are examples of arid areas. Economic water scarcity results from a lack of investment in infrastructure or technology to draw water from rivers,aquifers, or other water sources. It also results from weak human capacity to meet water demand.[46]: 560 Many people insub-Saharan Africa are living with economic water scarcity.[48]: 11
There is enough freshwater available globally and averaged over the year to meet demand. As such, water scarcity is caused by a mismatch between when and where people need water, and when and where it is available.[49] This can happen due to anincrease in the number of people in a region, changing living conditions and diets, and expansion ofirrigated agriculture.[50][51][52]Climate change (includingdroughts orfloods),deforestation,water pollution and wasteful use of water can also mean there is not enough water.[53] These variations in scarcity may also be a function of prevailingeconomic policy and planning approaches.Water pollution is a threat to water security. It can affect the supply of drinking water and indirectly contribute to water scarcity.
Weather and its related shocks can affect water quality in several ways. These depend on the local climate and context.[57] Shocks that are linked to weather include water shortages, heavy rain and temperature extremes. They can damage water infrastructure through erosion under heavy rainfall and floods, cause loss of water sources in droughts, and make water quality deteriorate.[57]
Climate change can reduce lower water quality in several ways:[8]: 582
People in low-income countries are at greater risk of water insecurity and may also have less resources to mitigate it. This can result in human suffering, sustained poverty, constrained growth and social unrest.[2]
Food and water insecurity pose significant challenges for numerous individuals across the United States. Strategies employed by households in response to these pressing issues encompass labor intensive methods, such as melting ice, earning wages, and occasionally incurring debt, all aimed at water conservation. Additionally, families may turn to foraging for water-based plants and animals, seeking alternative sources of sustenance. Adjusting consumption patterns becomes imperative, involving the rationing of servings and prioritizing nutritional value, particularly for vulnerable members like small children. The phenomenon of substituting more expensive, nutritious food with cheaper alternatives is also observed.[64]
Furthermore, individuals may consume from sources considered "stigmatized" by society, such as urine or unfiltered water. Migration emerges as a viable option, with families fostering children to relatives outside famine zones and engaging in seasonal or permanent resettlement. In certain instances, resource preservation involves the challenging decision of abandoning specific family members. This is achieved through withholding resources from non-family members, prioritizing the health of some family members over others, and, in extreme cases, leaving individuals behind. As the climate changes, the impact of food and water insecurity is disproportionately felt, necessitating a re-evaluation of societal misconceptions about those making survival sacrifices. Larger entities, including the government and various organizations, extend assistance based on available resources, highlighting the importance of addressing information gaps in specific data.[64]
Water can cause large-scale destruction due to its huge power.[2] This destruction can result from sudden events. Examples aretsunamis, floods orlandslides. Events that happen slowly over time such aserosion,desertification or water pollution can also cause destruction.[2]
Other threats to water security include:
There are different ways to tackle water insecurity.[67] Science and engineering approaches can increase the water supply or make water use more efficient. Financial and economic tools can be used as asafety net for poorer people. Higher prices may encourage more investments in water systems. Finally, management tools such as demand caps can improve water security.[7]: 16, 104 Decision makers invest in institutions, information flows and infrastructure to achieve a high level of water security.[1]
The right institutions are important to improve water security.[2] Institutions govern how decisions can promote or constrain water security outcomes for the poor.[3] Strengthening institutions might involve reallocating risks and duties between the state, market and communities in new ways. This can includeperformance-based models,development impact bonds, orblended finance from government, donors and users. These finance mechanisms are set up to work jointly with state, private sector and communities investors.[3]: 37
Sustainable Development Goal 16 is about peace, justice and strong institutions. It recognizes that strong institutions are a necessary condition for sustainable development, including water security.[3]: 35
Drinking water quality and water pollution are linked. But policymakers often do not address them in a comprehensive way. For example, pollution from industries is often not linked to drinking water quality in developing countries.[3]: 32 Keeping track of river, groundwater and wastewater is important. It can identify sources of contamination and guide targeted regulatory responses. TheWHO has describedwater safety plans as the most effective means of maintaining a safe supply of drinking water to the public.[68]
It is important for institutions to have access to information about water. This helps them with their planning and decision-making.[1] It also helps with tracking how accountable and effective policies are. Investments into climate information tools that are appropriate for the local context are useful.[5]: 59 They cover a wide range of temporal and spatial scales. They also respond to regional climate risks tied to water.[5]: 58
Seasonal climate and hydrological forecasts can be useful to prepare for and reduce water security risks. They are especially useful if people can apply them at the local scale.[69][70] Applying knowledge of how climate anomalies relate to each other over long distances can improve seasonal forecasts for specific regions. Theseteleconnections are correlations between patterns of rainfall, temperature, and wind speed between distant areas. They are caused by large-scale ocean andatmospheric circulation.[71][72]
In regions where rainfall varies with the seasons and from year to year, water managers would like to have more accurate seasonal weather forecasts. In some locations the onset of seasonal rainfall is particularly hard to predict. This is because aspects of theclimate system are difficult to describe with mathematical models. For example, the long rains in East Africa which fall March to May have been difficult to simulate withclimate models. When climate models work well they can produce useful seasonal forecasts.[73] One reason for these difficulties is the complextopography of the area.[73] Improved understanding of atmospheric processes may allow climate scientists to provide more relevant and localized information to water managers on a seasonal timescale. They could also provide more detailed predictions for the effects of climate change on a longer timeframe.[74]
One example would be seasonal forecasts of rainfall in Ethiopia'sAwash river basin. These may become more accurate by understanding better howsea surface temperatures in different ocean regions relate to rainfall patterns in this river basin.[72] At a larger regional scale, a better understanding of the relationship betweenpressure systems in theIndian Ocean and the South Atlantic on the one hand, and wind speeds and rainfall patterns in theGreater Horn of Africa on the other hand would be helpful. This kind of scientific analysis may contribute to improved representation of this region in climate models to assist development planning.[76] It could also guide people when they plan water allocation in the river basin or prepare emergency response plans for future events of water scarcity and flooding.[72]
Water infrastructure serves to access, store, regulate, move and conserve water. Several assets carry out these functions. Natural assets are lakes, rivers, wetlands, aquifers, springs. Engineered assets are bulk water management infrastructure, such as dams.[2] Examples include:[1]
Public and private spending on water infrastructure and supporting institutions must be well balanced. They are likely to evolve over time.[2] This is important to avoid unplanned social and environmental costs from building new facilities.
For example, in the case of Africa, investments into groundwater use is an option to increase water security and forclimate change adaptation.[77] Water security in African countries could benefit from the distribution of groundwater storage and recharge on the continent. Recharge is a process where water moves to groundwater. Many countries that have low recharge have substantial groundwater storage. Countries with low storage typically have high, regular recharge.[78]
People manage water security risks at different spatial scales. These range from the household to community, town, city, basin and region.[3]: 11 At the local scale, actors include county governments, schools, water user groups, local water providers and the private sector. At the next larger scale there arebasin and national level actors. These actors help to identify any constraints with regards to policy, institutions and investments. Lastly, there are global actors such as theWorld Bank,UNICEF,FCDO,WHO andUSAID. They help to develop suitable service delivery models.[3]: 11
Thephysical geography of a country shows the correct scale that planners should use for managing water security risks. Even within a country, the hydrologic environment may vary a lot. See for example thevariations in seasonal rainfall across Ethiopia.
Inequalities with regards to water security within a society have structural and historical roots. They can affect people at different scales. These range from the household, to the community, town, river basin or the region.[3]: 20 High risk social groups and regions can be identified during political debates but are often ignored. Water inequality is often tied to gender in low-income countries. At the household level, women are often the "water managers". But they have limited choices over water and related issues.[3]: 21
Many institutions are working to develop WASH services that are resilient to climate.[3]: 27, 37 [79][80]
Climate-resilient water services (orclimate-resilient WASH) are services that provide access to high quality drinking water during all seasons and even during extreme weather events.[81]Climate resilience in general is the ability to recover from, or to mitigate vulnerability to, climate-related shocks such as floods and droughts.[82]Climate resilient development has become the new paradigm forsustainable development. This concept thus influences theory and practice across all sectors globally.[82] This is particularly true in thewater sector, since water security is closely connected to climate change. On every continent, governments are now adopting policies for climate resilient economies. International frameworks such as theParis Agreement and theSustainable Development Goals are drivers for such initiatives.[82]
Several activities can improve water security and increase resilience toclimate risks: Carrying out a detailed analysis of climate risk to makeclimate information relevant to specific users; developing metrics for monitoring climate resilience in water systems (this will help to track progress and guide investments for water security); and using new institutional models that improve water security.[83]
Climate resilient policies can be useful for allocating water, especially when regional water availability may change in future. This requires a good understanding of the current and future hydroclimatic situation. For example, a more accurate prediction of future changes in climate variability leads to a better response to their possible impacts.[84]
To build climate resilience into water systems, people need to have access to climate information that is appropriate for their local context.[83]: 59 Climate information products are useful if they cover a wide range of temporal and spatial scales, and provide information on regional water-related climate risks.[83]: 58 For example, government staff need easy access to climate information to achieve better water management.[84]
Four important activities to achieve climate resilient WASH services include: First, a risk analysis is performed to look at possible implications of extreme weather events as well as preventive actions.[85]: 4 Such preventive actions can include for example elevating the infrastructure to be above expected flood levels. Secondly, managers assess the scope for reducinggreenhouse gas emissions and put in place suitable options, e.g. using morerenewable energy sources. Thirdly, the water utilities ensure that water sources and sanitation services are reliable at all times during the year, also during times of droughts and floods. Finally, the management and service delivery models are strengthened so that they can withstand a crisis.[85]: 5
To put climate resilience into practice and to engage better with politicians, the following guide questions are useful: "resilience of what, to what, for whom, over what time frame, by whom and at what scale?".[82] For example, "resilience of what?" means thinking beyond infrastructure but to also include resilience of water resources, local institutions and water users. Another example is that "resilience for whom?" speaks about reducing vulnerability and preventing negative developments: Some top-down interventions that work around power and politics may undermineindigenous knowledge and compromise community resilience.[82].jpg)
There is no single way to measure water security.[8]: 562 There are no standard indicators to measure water security. That is because it is a concept that focuses on outcomes.[1] The outcomes that are regard as important can change depending on the context and stakeholders.
Instead, it is common tocompare relative levels of water security by using metrics for certain aspects of water security.[8]: 562 For example, the Global Water Security Index includes metrics on:
Scientists have been working on ways to measure water security at a variety of levels. The metrics roughly fall into two groups. There are those that are based onexperiences versus metrics that are based onresources. The former mainly focus on measuring the experiences of households and human well-being. Meanwhile the latter focuses on the amount ofavailable freshwater.[9]
The Household Water Insecurity Experiences (HWISE) Scale measures several components of water insecurity at the household level. These include adequacy, reliability, accessibility and safety.[87] This scale can help to identify vulnerable subpopulations and ensure resources are allocated to those in need. It can also measure how effective of water policies and projects are.[87]
TheIPCC Sixth Assessment Report summarises the current and future water security trends. It says that increasing weather and extreme climate events have led to acutefood insecurity and reduced water security for millions of people. The largest impacts are seen in Africa, Asia, Central and South America, Small Islands and the Arctic.[10]: 9
The same report predicted that global warming of 2 °C would expose roughly 1-4 billion people to water stress. This would depend on regional patterns of climate change and the socio-economic scenarios.[8]: 558 Onwater scarcity which is one factor in water insecurity the report finds 1.5-2.5 billion people live water scarce areas.[10]: 660
Water scarcity and water security are not always equal. There are regions with high water security even though they also experience water scarcity. Examples are parts of theUnited States,Australia andSouthern Europe. This is due to efficient water services that have a high level of safety, quality, and accessibility.[86][8]: 562 However, even in those regions, groups such asIndigenous peoples tend to have lessaccess to water and face water insecurity at times.[8]: 562
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Risks to water security in Bangladesh include:[5]: 45
The country experiences water security risks in the capital Dhaka as well as in the coastal region.[5] In Dhaka,monsoonal pulses can lead tourban flooding. This can pollute the water supply.[5] A number of processes and events cause water risks for about 20 million people in the coastal regions. These includeaquifers that are getting saltier, seasonal water scarcity,fecal contamination, and flooding from the monsoon and from storm surges due to cyclones.[5]: 64
Different types of floods occur in coastal Bangladesh. They are: river floods, tidal floods and storm surge floods due to tropical cyclones.[88] These floods can damage drinking water infrastructure. They can also lead to reduced water quality as well as losses in agricultural and fishery yields.[5] There is a link between water insecurity and poverty in the low-lying areas in theGanges-Brahmaputra tidal delta plain.[88] Those low-lying areas are embanked areas in coastal Bangladesh.
The government has various programs to reduce risks for people who live in coastal communities. These programs also lead to increases in economic wellbeing.[88] Examples include the "Coastal Embankment Improvement Project"[89] by World Bank in 2013, the BlueGold project[90] in 2012, UNICEF's "Managed Aquifer Recharge" program in 2014 and theBangladesh Delta Plan in 2014.[88] Such investments in water security aim to increase the continued use and upkeep of water facilities. They can help coastal communities to escape the poverty trap caused by water insecurity.[88]
A program called the "SafePani framework" focuses on how the state shares risks and responsibilities with service providers and communities.[5] This program aims to help decision makers to address climate risks through a process calledclimate resilient water safety planning.[5] The program is a cooperation betweenUNICEF and the Government of Bangladesh.
Ethiopia has two mainwet seasons per year. It rains in the spring and summer. These seasonal patterns of rainfall vary a lot across the country.[72][92] Western Ethiopia has a seasonal rainfall pattern that is similar to theSahel. It has rainfall from February to November (which is decreasing to the north), and has peak rainfall from June to September. Southern Ethiopia has a rainfall pattern similar to the one in East Africa. There are two distinct wet seasons every year, February to May, and October to November.[75][92] Central and eastern Ethiopia has some rainfall between February and November, with a smaller peak in rainfall from March to May and a second higher peak from June to September.[92]
In 2022 Ethiopia had one of the most severeLa Niña-induced droughts in the last forty years. It came about due to four consecutive rainy seasons which did not produce enough rain.[93] This drought increased water insecurity for more than 8 millionpastoralists andagro-pastoralists in theSomali,Oromia,SNNP andSouth-West regions. About 7.2 million people neededfood aid, and 4.4 million people needed help to access water. Food prices have increased a lot due to the drought conditions. Many people in the affected area have experienced food shortages due to the water insecurity situation.[93]
In theAwash basin in central Ethiopia floods and droughts are common. Agriculture in the basin is mainlyrainfed (without irrigation systems). This applies to around 98% of total cropland as of 2012. So changes in rainfall patterns due to climate change will reduce economic activities in the basin.[94] Rainfall shocks have a direct impact on agriculture. A rainfall decrease in the Awash basin could lead to a 5% decline in the basin's overall GDP. The agricultural GDP could even drop by as much as 10%.[94]
Partnerships with the Awash Basin Development Office (AwBDO) and the Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Electricity (MoWIE) have led to the development of new models of water allocation in the Awash basin. This can improve water security for the 18.3 million residents in the basin. With this they will have enough water for their domestic, irrigation and industry needs.[5]
Kenya ranked 46th out of 54 African countries in an assessment of water security in 2022.[95] Major water security issues in Kenya include drinking water safety, water scarcity, lack of water storage, poor wastewater treatment, and drought and flood.[95] Large-scale climate patterns influence the rainfall patterns in East Africa. Such climate patterns include theEl Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and theIndian Ocean Dipole (IOD). Cooling in the Pacific Ocean during the La Niña phase of ENSO is linked with dryer conditions in Kenya. This can lead to drought as it did in 2016-17. On the other hand a warmer Western Indian Ocean due to a strong positive Indian Ocean Dipole caused extreme flooding in Kenya in 2020.[96]
Around 38% of Kenya's population and 70% of its livestock live in arid and semi-arid lands.[97] These areas have low rainfall which varies a lot from one season to the next. This means that surface water and groundwater resources vary a lot by location and time of year. Residents in Northern Kenya are seeing increased changes in rainfall patterns and more frequent droughts.[98] These changes affect livelihoods in this region where people have been living as migratory herders. They are used to herding livestock with a seasonal migration pattern.[98] More people are now settling in small urban centers, and there is increasing conflict over water and other resources.[99] Water insecurity is a feature of life for both settled and nomadic pastoralists. Women and children bear the burden for fetching water.[100]
Groundwater sources! have great potential to improve water supply in Kenya. However, the use of groundwater is limited by low quality and knowledge, pumping too much groundwater, known asoverdrafting, and salt water intrusion along coastal areas.[101][102] Another challenge is the upkeep of groundwater infrastructure, mainly in rural areas.[103]
Russian forces have destroyed one-third of Ukraine's freshwater storage since February 2022 to 2024.[104] Potable, industrial and irrigation water supplies have been cut across the south and east of the country. Occupation of the southern and eastern regions of Ukraine and destruction of the Kakhovka Reservoir have all but terminated irrigation. Irrigated cereals and technical crops are now unprofitable, even where practicable – not least because of the difficulty of selling and exporting the produce. The strategic development of irrigation should be based on optimal technology to minimize water costs and redesign cultivation systems, for example, by drip irrigation, diverse crop rotations and focus on vegetable farming, orchards, and viticulture.[104][105]
Text was copied from this source, which is available under aCreative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Text was copied from this source, which is available under aCreative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Text was copied from this source, which is available under aCreative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Text was copied from this source, which is available under aCreative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)[page needed] Text was copied from this source, which is available under aCreative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Text was copied from this source, which is available under aCreative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Text was copied from this source, which is available under aCreative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Text was copied from this source, which is available under aCreative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License| Major topics | |
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