 A page from ablock-printed version of the novelWater Margin, brought toCopenhagen,Denmark in the early part of the 17th-century | |
| Author | Shi Nai'an (subject to academic debate) |
|---|---|
| Translator | J. H. Jackson,Pearl S. Buck, Fang Lo-Tien (editor),Sidney Shapiro, Alex and John Dent-Young |
| Language | Written vernacular Chinese |
| Genre | Historical fiction |
| Set in | Mount Liang, c. 1120 |
Publication date | Uncertain, perhaps mid-14th century; definitely before 1524 |
| Publication place | China |
Published in English | 71- and 100-chapter version: 1980 120-chapter version: 1994–2002 71-chapter version: 2010 |
| 895.1346 | |
Original text | Water Margin at ChineseWikisource |
| Water Margin | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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.svg) "Water Margin" in Traditional (top) and Simplified (bottom) Chinese characters | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Traditional Chinese | 水滸傳 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Simplified Chinese | 水浒传 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Literal meaning | "Water Margin Story" | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Water Margin (simplified Chinese:水浒传;traditional Chinese:水滸傳;pinyin:Shuǐhǔ Zhuàn), also calledOutlaws of the Marsh orAll Men Are Brothers,[note 1] is a Chinese novel from theMing dynasty that is one of the preeminentClassic Chinese Novels. Attributed toShi Nai'an,Water Margin was one of the earliest Chinese novels written in vernacularMandarin Chinese.[1]
Set during theNorthern Song dynasty (around 1120), the story follows a group of108 outlaws that gathers atMount Liang (also known asLiangshan Marsh) to rebel against the government. Later they are granted amnesty and enlisted by the government to resist the nomadic conquest of theLiao dynasty and other rebels. While the book's authorship is traditionally attributed to Shi Nai'an (1296–1372), the first external reference to the novel only appeared in 1524 during theJiajing reign of theMing dynasty, sparking a long-lasting academic debate on when it was actually written and which historical events the author had witnessed that inspired him to write the book.[1]
The novel is considered one of the masterpieces of early vernacular fiction andChinese literature.[2] It has introduced readers to some of the best-known characters in Chinese literature, such asWu Song,Lin Chong,Pan Jinlian,Song Jiang andLu Zhishen.Water Margin also exerted a significant influence on the development of fiction elsewhere in East Asia, such as on Japanese literature.[3][4]
Water Margin is based on the exploits of the outlawSong Jiang and his 107 companions; framed in the story as the incarnations of 108 demons representing 108 stars (the 36 "heavenly spirits" (三十六天罡) and the 72 "earthly demons" (七十二地煞)). The activities of Song Jiang's group were recorded in the historical textHistory of Song in the annals ofEmperor Huizong of Song, which states:
(When) the outlaw Song Jiang of Huainan and others attacked the army atHuaiyang, (the Emperor) sent generals to attack and arrest them. (The outlaws) infringed on the east of the capital (Kaifeng),Henan, and entered the boundaries of Chu (referring to present-dayHubei andHunan) and Haizhou (covering parts of present-dayJiangsu). The general Zhang Shuye was ordered to pacify them.[5]
Zhang Shuye's biography further describes the activities of Song Jiang and the other outlaws, and tells they were eventually defeated by Zhang.[6]
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A precursor andblueprint ofWater Margin is a compilation of folk tales titled asOld Incidents in the Xuanhe Period of the Great Song Dynasty (大宋宣和遺事), where it also inserts the story of the treacherous ministers of the Song dynasty who controlled the government and caused great suffering to the people. It also serves as a comparison for the story of the heroes of Liangshan.[7][8] If it is counted with Gong Kai'sPraise of the Thirty-six Men of Song Jiang' from the same period, both works also mentioned the name ofYan Qing (one of the outlaw characters inWater Margin), as one of the thirty-six rebel leaders of Song Jiang's group.[9] Furthermore, the archetype for Yan Qing's personality in the novel was suspected to be derived from Liang Xing (梁興), a Song general who fought against the Jin Dynasty.[10]
Folk stories about Song Jiang circulated during theSouthern Song. The first known source to name Song Jiang's 36 companions wasMiscellaneous Observations from the Year of Guixin (癸辛雜識) by Zhou Mi, written in the 13th century. Among the 36 of Song Jiang's companions, there are names likeLu Junyi,Guan Sheng,Ruan Xiao'er,Ruan Xiaowu,Ruan Xiaoqi,Liu Tang,Hua Rong andWu Yong. Some of the characters who later became associated with Song Jiang also appeared around this time. They includeSun Li,Yang Zhi,Lin Chong,Lu Zhishen andWu Song.[11]
According to Ning Jiayu, a Chinese language professor atNankai University, one theory suggests thatShi Jin was inspired by a real-life figure named Shi Bin (史斌), a rebel leader fromShanxi who lived during the early Southern Song dynasty and was a subordinate of Song Jiang in his early years.[12]
Another outlaw figure allegedly inspired by a real person wasXie Bao.[13] This theory relies on classical era records ofSanchao beimeng huibian (三朝北盟會編). In this narration, the real Xie Bao was a minor rebel leader fromJizhou during the earlySouthern Song (ca. 1129, Jianyan era). In response to this rebellion, emperorGaozong sentHan Shizhong, talented general with promising career, who managed to suppress these rebels group which led by Xie Bao and others.[14] This raw historical kernel fueled speculation by modern Chinese historian and textual critic Wang Liqi (王利器) that the figure was the real life inspiration for the fictionalized Liang Shan bandit hero.[15] However, other Chinese historical critics like Wang Yu and Li Dianyuan were skeptical towards Wang Liqi's theory of this legend-history fusion for lacking supporting evidence to prove that the historical Xie Bao fled fromDengzhou to Jeju, as this conjencture could support the claim that the real life rebel was indeed the inspiration for the fictionalized Xie Bao.[13]
Fang La, one of the primary antagonists inWater Margin, was inspired by the real-life rebel of the same name.[16] His rebellion was linked to the spread ofManichaeism in China during Song dynasty.[17][18][19] The rebellion which started by Fang La was portrayed as a prototypical "heretical uprising" in Chinese historiography.[20]
Both the Jiajing reign of the Ming dynasty (1521–1568) and the closing years of the Mongol-ruledYuan dynasty (1360s) were marked by a chain of rebellions, which confused scholars a lot as to which of the two inspired the author, and hence when was the book written.[21]
According toLu Xun, there was a large marshland atMount Liang which existed since the Song dynasty, which served as inspiration for the base for Liangshan bandits.[22]
The opening episode in the novel is the release of the108 Spirits, imprisoned under an ancientstele-bearing tortoise.[23]
The next chapter describes the rise ofGao Qiu, one of the primary antagonists of the story. Gao abuses his status as a Grand Marshal by oppressing Wang Jin; Wang's father taught Gao a painful lesson when the latter was still a street-roaming ruffian. Wang Jin flees from the capital with his mother and by chance he meetsShi Jin, who becomes his apprentice. The next few chapters tell the story of Shi Jin's friendLu Zhishen, followed by the story of Lu's sworn brotherLin Chong. Lin Chong is framed by Gao Qiu for attempting to assassinate him, and almost dies in a fire at a supply depot set by Gao's henchmen. He slays his foes and abandons the depot, eventually making his way to Liangshan Marsh, where he becomes an outlaw. Meanwhile, the "Original Seven", led byChao Gai, rob a convoy of birthday gifts for the Imperial TutorCai Jing, another primary antagonist in the novel. They flee to Liangshan Marsh after defeating a group of soldiers sent by the authorities to arrest them, and settle there as outlaws with Chao Gai as their chief. As the story progresses, more people come to join the outlaw band, including military personnel and civil officials who grew tired of serving the corrupt government, as well as men with special skills and talents. Stories of the outlaws are told in separate sections in the following chapters. Connections between characters are vague, but the individual stories are eventually pieced together by chapter 60 whenSong Jiang succeeds Chao Gai as the leader of the band after the latter is killed in a battle against the Zeng Family Fortress.
The plot further develops by illustrating the conflicts between the outlaws and the Song government after the Grand Assembly of the 108 outlaws. Song Jiang strongly advocates making peace with the government and seeking redress for the outlaws. After defeating the imperial army in a great battle at Liangshan Marsh, the outlaws eventually receive amnesty fromEmperor Huizong. The emperor recruits them to form a military contingent and sends them on campaigns against invaders from theLiao dynasty and rebel forces led byTian Hu,Wang Qing andFang La within the Song dynasty's domain. Although the former outlaws eventually emerge victorious against the rebels and Liao invaders, the campaigns also lead to the tragic dissolution of the 108 heroes. At least two-thirds of them die in battle while the surviving ones either return to the imperial capital to receive honours from the emperor and continue serving the Song government, or leave and spend the rest of their lives as commoners elsewhere. Song Jiang himself is eventually poisoned to death by the "Four Treacherous Ministers" –Gao Qiu,Yang Jian,Tong Guan andCai Jing.
The108 Heroes (一百单八将) are at the core of the plot ofWater Margin. Based on the Taoist concept that each person's destiny is tied to a "Star of Destiny" (宿星), the 108 Stars of Destiny are stars representing 108 demonic overlords who were banished by the deity Shangdi. Having repented since their expulsion, the 108 Stars are accidentally released from their place of confinement, and are reborn in the world as 108 heroes who band together for the cause of justice. They are divided into the 36 Heavenly Spirits and 72 Earthly Fiends.
This outline of chapters is based on a 100 chapters edition. Yang Dingjian's 120 chapters edition includes other campaigns of the outlaws on behalf of Song dynasty, whileJin Shengtan's 70 chapters edition omits the chapters on the outlaws' acceptance of amnesty and subsequent campaigns.
| Chapter(s) | Main events |
|---|---|
| 1 | Marshal Hong releases the 108 spirits |
| 2 | The rise ofGao Qiu |
| 2–3 | The story ofShi Jin |
| 3–7 | The story ofLu Zhishen |
| 7–12 | The story ofLin Chong |
| 12–13 | The story ofYang Zhi |
| 13–20 | The stealing of the birthday gifts by the "Original Seven" |
| 20–22 | The story ofSong Jiang |
| 23–32 | The story ofWu Song |
| 32–35 | The story ofHua Rong |
| 36–43 | Song Jiang's encounters in Jiangzhou |
| 44–47 | The story ofShi Xiu andYang Xiong |
| 47–50 | The three assaults on the Zhu Family Village |
| 51–52 | The story ofLei Heng andZhu Tong |
| 53–55 | The outlaws' attack on Gaotangzhou; the search forGongsun Sheng |
| 55–57 | The first imperial assault on Liangshan Marsh (led byHuyan Zhuo) |
| 57–59 | The outlaws' attack on Qingzhou; Huyan Zhuo's defection to Liangshan |
| 59–60 | The outlaws, led by Gongsun Sheng, attackMount Mangdang |
| 60 | The first assault by the outlaws on the Zeng Family Village; the death of Chao Gai |
| 60–67 | The story ofLu Junyi; the outlaws attack Daming Prefecture; the second imperial assault on Liangshan Marsh (led byGuan Sheng) |
| 67 | Guan Sheng defects to Liangshan; The third imperial assault on Liangshan Marsh (led byShan Tinggui andWei Dingguo) |
| 68 | The second assault by the outlaws on the Zeng Family Fortress; |
| 69–70 | The outlaws attack Dongping and Dongchang prefectures |
| 71–74 | The Grand Assembly; the funny and lethal antics ofLi Kui |
| 75–78 | Emperor Huizong offers amnesty for the first time; the fourth imperial assault on Liangshan Marsh (led by Tong Guan) |
| 78–80 | The fifth imperial assault on Liangshan Marsh (led by Gao Qiu) |
| 81–82 | The outlaws are granted amnesty |
| 83–89 | The Liangshan heroes attack the Liao invaders |
| 90–99 | The Liangshan heroes attackFang La |
| 100 | The tragic dissolution of the Liangshan heroes |
The extended version includes the Liangshan heroes' expeditions against the rebel leaders Tian Hu and Wang Qing prior to the campaign against Fang La.[24]
Water Margin, praised as an early "masterpiece" ofvernacular fiction,[25] is renowned for the "mastery and control" of its mood and tone.[25] The novel is also known for its use of vivid, humorous and especially racy language.[25] However, it has been denounced as "obscene" by various critics since the Ming dynasty.[26]
"These seduction cases are the hardest of all. There are five conditions that have to be met before you can succeed. First, you have to be as handsome asPan An. Second, you need a tool as big as a donkey's. Third, you must be as rich as Deng Tong. Fourth, you must be as forbearing as a needle plying through cotton wool. Fifth, you've got to spend time. It can be done only if you meet these five requirements."
"Frankly, I think I do. First, while I'm far from a Pan An, I still can get by. Second, I've had a big cock since childhood."
— Excerpt from the novel, translated bySidney Shapiro[27]
According to Xu Yongqiang of the School of Humanities at Xi'an University of Electronic Science and Technology, there have been approximately 50 monographic series and over 1,000 research and analysis works on theWater Margin from the Ming and Qing dynasties to the present-day, demonstrating its immense influence and establishing "Water Margin Studies" as a prominent discipline of study.[28]
Some of the 108 outlaws internal dynamics exemplifies a key narrative style inWater Margin: strategic juxtaposition of contrasting personalities to heighten dramatic tension. As example,Shi Xiu's meticulous nature stands in sharp relief againstYang Xiong's rough-hewn demeanor, a pairing that underscores their differences and enriches the storytelling. This approach is a hallmark of the novel, evident in other pairings such as the forbearing Lin Chong and the bold Lu Zhishen, or the refined Song Jiang and the blunt Li Kui. Over time, such contrasts have evolved into a longstanding convention in literary expression. These subunits typically feature concise plots and limited casts of characters; the Yang Xiong and Shi Xiu subunit, spanning chapters 44 through 46, exemplifies this with its tightly knit episodes—the brothers' sworn alliance, the wife's infidelity, Shi Xiu's killing of his sister-in-law, and their eventual flight to Liangshan. Far from a mere linear progression, this subtheme employs deliberate alignments and transformations between units and subunits.[29]
Sinologist Lois M. Fusek also framed the parallel betweenWater Margin, which is revolutionary, glorifying bandits as divinely ordained agents of change; with the novelThe Three Sui Quash the Demons' Revolt, which tone more reformist and traditional, deriding such figures—depicted as humble peddlers like noodle-vendors and cake-sellers—as absurd pretenders to heavenly mandate. This mockery underscores a pro-establishment stance, emphasizing swift suppression. Other than that, the temporal momentum complements spatial allusions ofThree Suis withWater Margin's iconic locales and archetypes creates a satirical mirror-world between those two novels.[30]
The motif of pairings between 36 and 72 stars, possibly inspired fromDipper, were common among Chinese mythologies and folk tales, includingWater Margin, which represented by the number of its protagonists.[31] The religious theme of these 108 demons that incarnated into the 108 Liangshan bandits apparently drew inspiration from the36 heavenly spirits and 72 earth fiends that also appeared in a laterChinese vernacular novel titledInvestiture of the Gods. In that novel, the 108 demons were gathered byJiang Taigong to fight againstKing Zhou of Shang.[32]Liu Ts'un-yan added that the motif of 108 stars (36 spirits and 72 fiends representatives) constellation which appeared in both works were influenced byBuddhism andTaoism.[33]
Others analyzed Li Kui, one of the most savage Liangshan bandit characters, in more religious aspects, by quoting from the words of Luo Zhenren (a Taoist immortal in the novel who comments on the characters' fates) and a famous line fromLaozi'sTao Te Ching (chapter 5): "天地不仁，以万物为刍狗 ("Heaven and Earth are impartial and treat all beings as disposable "straw dogs" used in rituals"). This portrays the spiritual character of Li Kui as being representative of the chaotic force of nature, blending divine indifference with animalistic instincts.[34][35]
Furthermore, bothVictor Purcell[36] andJoseph W. Esherick have recorded thatWater Margin—along withThe Romance of the Three kingdoms andInvestiture of the Gods— were quite influential for the religious Belief of the radicalBoxer movement in shaping their ideology,[37] which became the reason for Qing government to ban the novel in 1799.[36]
Tao Chengzhang (d. 1911) attributed the surge of religious movements like theWhite Lotus Societies in north China and theHeaven and the Earth Society in the south was due to the influences of the novelsInvestiture of the Gods andWater Margin respectively. He writes: "Throughout the area of Shandong, Shanxi and Henan [that is, the north] there is no one who does not believe [zunxin] in theInvestiture of the Gods story. Throughout the area of Jiangsu, Zhe-jiang, Fujian and Guangzhou [the south] there is no one who does not venerate [chongbai] the book, Water Margin".[38]
In the novel, the Liangshan bandits patronized the goddess Jiutian Xuannü (九天玄女 lit. "Mystic Goddess of the Ninth Heaven"), who instructed Song Jiang and his group to adhere the Taoism ethics on sexual desire.[39] The physical appearance of the goddess has been described in a poem that appears in the Rongyu Tang (容與堂) edition[40] and the 100-chapter version of the novel withLi Zhi's commentary.[41]
In Ming dynasty (1368–1644), lesser-known female deities surpassed the eliteQueen Mother of the West in vernacular novels likeWater Margin andInvestiture of the Gods. Rooted inChinese folk religion, likely inspiring syncretic sectarian icons such as the Venerable MotherGuanyin. This interplay of literature and belief idealized transcendent feminine archetypes, while exposing era-specific tensions around embodied womanhood. The narrative democratized goddess worship via accessible epics—rebellion in Water Margin's bandits and cosmic wars in Investiture's divinities—infused with maternal authority. The 16th-century Eternal Mother from White Lotus writings fused folk piety withmillenarianism. AsDaniel L. Overmyer observes, northerners canonization ofInvestiture of the Gods and southerners veneration ofWater Margin, illustrates their symbiotic role in faith: a subversive tool empowering the illiterate through heroic divinity. These "post-menopausal" goddesses embody pure motherliness—nurturing wisdom without childbirth's mess or sexual desire's pitfalls—aligning with Confucian purity yet excising femininity's "negatives" like vulnerability and passion. However, this desexualized ideal reinforces gender binaries, reflecting Ming anxieties over female sexuality amid orthodoxy-heterodoxy clashes.[42]
History and literature critic Shang Wei viewedWater Margin as a one of a kind novel which concerned about people's history ("petty history"),dynastic cycle topics, and among many others.[43]
According toLi Shi (1471–1538), the authorial rationale behind the counterfactual victory of the Southern Song over the Liao at the end of the novel stems from the patriotic motivations of the novel's alleged authors, Shi Nai'an and Luo Guanzhong—both of whom lived during the Yuan dynasty.[45] Furthermore,Water Margin is politically influential throughout the following China's history, from the rebellion ofZhang Xianzhong;[46] theTiandihui adoption of the novel as their movement's guideline;[47] late Qing/Republican eras recast as patriotic literature; to the 1970sCultural Revolution vilification of Song's "capitulationism" via revised editions for factional purges.[48]
Some argue that the novel's theme of revolt against authority became popular during turbulent times of theMing dynasty, others argue thatWater Margin became popular during the Yuan as the common people (predominantlyHan Chinese) resented theMongol rulers.[21]Chongzhen Emperor of the Ming dynasty, acting on the advice of his ministers, banned the book.[49] Chen Chen, a Ming loyalist, saw the novel as an expression of Song resistance to the Mongol invaders in the Yuan dynasty.[48]
The tremendous influence of the novel onlate Ming peasant rebellions also noteworthy.[50][51] Historian James Bunyan Parsons argues thatWater Margin may have had some influence onZhang Xianzhong's rebellion. Based on Parsons' hypothesis, Mark R. E. Meulenbeld points out that Zhang Xianzhong was recorded using the novels as a source for emulation, as he quoted an early Qing observer who ascribes Zhang's fondness with the novel, "The shrewdness of Zhang Xianzhong included him making people read books likeThree Kingdoms andWater Margin every day..."[46] It was attested by citation fromPerry Link, that during the end of Ming dynasty period, rebels inHebei used slogans such as "killing the rich to help the poor" and "carrying out theDao on behalf of Heaven", which were popularized by bothWater Margin andRomance of the Three Kingdoms as a form of "remedial protest".[52]
Zuo Maodi (左懋第) (1601–1645), a Ming dynasty vice minister of war, viewed theWater Margin as a book that taught people to be criminals. He believed that if the book was not banned, it would impact the societal atmosphere negatively. The court accepted his suggestion and banned the book for a time.[53]
TheJurchen chief and KhanNurhaci learned Chinese military and political strategies fromRomance of the Three Kingdoms andWater Margin.[54][55]
Yu Wanchun instead gave his negative assessment as he saw its polemical tone and encouragement of brigandage and revolt as a potential threat to the state.[48] Late Ming dynasty scholarJin Shengtan criticized Shi Nai'an as not motivated by traditional scholarly venting resentment through writing but as a way of leisure.[56] Jin also questioned the inconsistency of Song Jiang's characterization according to Confucian morality.[57]
In the aftermath of Qing dynasty'sliterary inquisition byQianlong emperor, the novel saw another boom of mass popularity and a wave of massive publications followed. This attracted the concern of a Qing official namedDing Richang, who pointed out its polemical social effect, although he did not outright pursue banning the book.[58]
The ethics of outlaw loyalty permeated even the Post-1853 grandTaiping Heavenly Kingdom shifted towardWater Margin-inspired ethics, emphasizing blind loyalty to leaders and "yi"-style camaraderie. This suggests a tactical evolution from religious millenarianism to pragmatic, bandito-like solidarity, blending ancient monarchical fealty with subversive brotherhood.[47] According toFrederic Wakeman, the fraternal hierarchy which formed by Taiping leaders such asHeavenly KingHong Xiuquan,East KingYang Xiuqing,North KingWei Changhui, andWing KingShi Dakai was partly modelled on the brotherhood of the Liangshan outlaws from the novel.[59]Graciela de la Lama stated that the main concept of the politico-literary "model" which was borrowed by the Taipings was the concepts of "Loyalty and Fraternity" (忠義) which was followed by the Liangshan outlaws in the book.[60]
Elizabeth J. Perry investigation withAnhui University scholars has concluded that theNian Rebellion's slogan banner, "Preparing the Way for Heaven, killing the rich to relieve the poor; Alliance Leader of the Great Chinese, Chang", which borrowed from the White Lotus sect, was obviously inspired by theWater Margin, emulating the outlaw heroes of Liangshan.[61][62]
TheBaguadao sect used banners with the inscription "Entrusted by Heaven to Prepare the Way" duringEight Trigrams uprising of 1813, a reference to theWater Margin novel.[63]
Meanwhile, in the early-modern era,Water Margin has long and broad influence beyond its narrative as the inspiration for various subversive movements. TheTriad (organized crime), enigmatic fraternal orders which were born in the Qing era's underbelly as a subversive force, blended messianic zeal (e.g., their slogan "Oppose the Qing and restore the Ming") with demonological rituals for political legitimacy. Their adoption of Water Margin's "yi" (unquestioning comradeship) rejects Confucian norms of duty and righteousness, positioning them as outlaw heroes. This unorthodoxy, combined with ritualistic elements, frames them as agents of political rebellion rather than mere criminals.[47]
Furthermore, Chinese revolutionary figureSong Jiaoren (1882–1913) idealizes the "heroes of the forest" (bandit archetypes fromWater Margin) as embodying Robin Hood-esque justice and chivalry. Despite critiquing their criminality and foreign alliances, he invokes ethnic Han solidarity ("fellow descendants of our Yellow Emperor") to humanize them, using the novel as a lens for nationalist empathy.[47] NovelistZhang Henshui felt thatWater Margin's emphasis on the patriotism as Liangshan outlaws join Song government troops against the Jin invaders, could inspire anti-Japanese feeling among the Chinese living in Shanghai.[64]
Secret societies and criminal organizations during theRepublic era also adopted code likeWater Margin's martial fraternity, such as theGreen Gang FromShanghai[65][66][67] and theBlue Shirts Society, an unofficial secret police of theChiang Kai-shek regime. One of the Blue Shirts founding members,Dai Li, developed the organization based on the value of heroism and outlaw martial artists of theWater Margin, where the recruits drawn from the lower strata of society: jugglers, wrestlers, itinerant entertainers, journeymen traders, jailers, executioners, thieves, and gangsters.[68]
There are many examples ofmaterialist dialectics inWater Margin, of which the episode of the three attacks onZhu Village is one of the best.
Water Margin also found its legs in the history ofChinese Communist Party, where the novel enjoyed the party's endorsement since the 1930s for their political aim.[70]Liu Kwang-ching even noted thatWater Margin was one ofMao Zedong's favorite readings.[47] European sinologistsRoderick MacFarquhar andMichael Schoenhals noted the influence ofWater Margin in the political dynamic after the Cultural Revolution in China, where in the mid-1970s the radicalGang of Four failed to use propaganda tactics against the moderate reformerDeng Xiaoping; where the Gang of Four weaponized literature in political purges. In particular, the radicals attempted to make a comparison of Deng to Song Jiang. Their jargon of "CriticizeWater Margin, denounce Song Jiang" campaign unfurled across winter 1975–76 university walls in a blizzard of big-character posters. Song Jiang, the Liangshan chieftain whose revolt ends in treacherous capitulation to imperial pardon, stood accused as similar to Deng's as an opportunist defeatist. However, the allusion campaign of the Gang of Four backfired as Mao Zedong's appreciation of theWater Margin story led him to favor Deng, as he drew the conclusion that the fictional surrender of the Liangshan bandits towards the government was a litmus for real-world fidelity; thus ending with Deng Xiaoping emerging victorious from the political struggle.[71] Mao had a change of heart in late 1973 when he started to distance himself from the allegorical campaigns and see the act of Song Jiang's capitulation negatively. Deng was quick to take note and shifted the gears of his campaign in August 1975 into criticizing the rightist revisionism in line with Mao's vision. Meanwhile, his rivals, the aforementioned Gang of Four continued with their campaign, this time focusing their energy to criticize Lin Biao and Confucius, failing to understand about Mao's change of mind.[72]
Another reason for Mao's suddenly announcedShui Hu Zhuan pi pan (水滸傳 批判), orCriticism of the Water Margin, in 1973 was a move to curtail the possibility of armed coup byLin Biao's faction. As Mao said, "The rebels inWater Margin fought against dishonest officials but did not oppose the emperor. Later they capitulated. Take note, revisionism may emerge in China."[73]
There are two major social themes inWater Margin. The first one isyi (義), or "unquestioned loyalty",[47] a moral code whichAndrew H. Plaks translated as "good," "valor," "honor," "generosity," or "nobility".[74] According to Catherine Vance Yeh, its more complete form iszhong yi (忠義), which translated as "unperturbed by love". This means theYouxia (Chinese knight-errant) motif inWater Margin expected one to focus on male bonding and unmoved by romance or sex.[75] Li Wenzhi concluded in his book,Popular revolts of the late Ming, that the concept ofyi which was supposed to be a regulatory code for the bandit chieftains, rebel and secret society leaders swore brotherhood together.[52]
The second one ishǎo hàn (好漢),[76][77] anantinomianism masculinity moral code. Thehǎo hàn code values freedom and brotherhood above everything else, Even if it means one should sacrifice his own wife and children. Portrayals of femalehǎo hàn also existed in the novel, but they are often depicted as bloodthirsty as their male counterparts.[78] John Christopher Hamm encapsulated the polemic of Water Margin's ambiguous response from society for itsyouxia andhǎo hàn themes, as shown by Jin Shengtan's begrudging admiration yet deconstructive commentary; Chen Chen's 1664 version of sequel (Shuihu Houzhuan); and Yu Wanchun's version of sequel (Dangkou zhi).[48] Scholar Pang Zengyu viewed it as "greenwood heroes" (lùlín háojié 綠林豪傑) ethic—a code of companionship and justice immortalized within Chinese, Russian, and Korean settlers amid imperial decline and colonial flux; such theme infused Manchurian folklore with a moral code that distinguished noblehao han (real men) from ignobletufei (dirt robbers). Thus, lecturer Ed Pulford extends this transnationality, paralleling Liangshan's bandit-iconization with Slavic analogs such as themolodets ("fine young lad") who opposed TsarIvan the Terrible in the 16th-century ballads, as perMaureen Perrie; or theHajduks, theHaydamaks, and theDruzhinas.[79]
Susan L. Mann writes that the "desire for male camaraderie" is "far from a mere plotline," for it is a basic theme of this and other classic novels. She places the novel's male characters in a tradition of men's culture of mutual trust and reciprocal obligation, such as figures known as the Chineseknight-errant. In this regard, she quoted the words of Sima Qian, theHan dynasty historian, devoted a section to biographies: "Their words were always sincere and trustworthy, and their actions always quick and decisive. They were always true to what they promised, and without regard to their own persons, they would rush into dangers threatening others." She finds such figures in this and other novels, such asRomance of the Three Kingdoms andJourney to the West, all of which dramatized the "empathic emotional attraction between men who appreciate and play off against one another's complementary qualities."[80]
Licentious and treacherous women are another recurring theme. Modern critics have debated whetherWater Margin ismisogynistic.[81][82][83] Most beautiful women in the novel are depicted as immoral and cruel, and they are often involved in schemes against the protagonists. Among them isPan Jinlian, the sister-in-law ofWu Song, who has later become an archetypalfemme fatale and one of the most notorious villainesses of Chinese culture. On the other hand, the few "good" women in the story, likeSun Erniang andGu Dasao, are not particularly noted for their beauty, or are even described as being plain or ugly. The leader of the outlaws,Song Jiang admonishes: "Any outlaw that meddles with women is contemptible."[84]
Critics offer various explanations forWater Margin's prejudice against women. Most common among modern Chinese critics is thepatriarchal society of theImperial China.[85][86] Sun Shuyu ofThe Chinese University of Hong Kong argues that the author(s) ofWater Margin intentionally vilified women in order to discipline their would-be-outlaw audiences.[87]
The novel is notable for its gruesome and often gory and excessive depictions of violence. Some of the protagonists of the novel engage in "wanton killing, excessive retribution, and various forms ofcannibalism. When celebrating a victory, they sometimes "share their enemies' flesh piece by piece, an action combining cannibalism withlingchi", the slow slicing of somebody to death.[88] This type of violent imagery in the novel is mentioned in a "causal tone", with human flesh being eaten not just "in acts of revenge", but also "as a way of living".[89] Noting that the outlaws celebrated in the novel were nevertheless widely regarded as "heroes and heroines" over centuries, educator William Sin states that one cannot divide "the meanings of [their] actions" from "the cultural background under which they [were] performed" and that it would be "hasty" to project concepts and values of today "onto the situation of a distant culture" where they may not have applied.[90]
Liu Zaifu decries the novel as cultural poison, arguing thatWater Margin, together withRomance of the Three Kingdoms, has sown people's "moral downfall".[91] There is also a popular anecdotal quip in China which says, "The young should not readThe Water Margin while the old should not readThe Romance of the Three Kingdoms", criticizing its violent and machismo effects on young male audiences.[70] By the late 19th century, the reformerLiang Qichao criticizedWater Margin along with another novel,Dream of the Red Chamber as "incitement to robbery and lust".[92] Liangyan Ge called it a novel "full of scenes of brutality and sadism, representing only one extremity of Chinese culture".[93]
Lu Xun felt disturbed with the scale of brutality shown in the novel, in particular, byLi Kui.[94][95] However, being a seemingly simple-minded yet popular character, there are numerous studies for how his personality is shown in the novel. Li Kui is considered as a representative of the peasant classes' real-world struggles, highlighting class conflict in a feudal society. Most people believe Li Kui is a person with incomplete mental faculties leading to psychological distortion, while some see him as a subversive anti-hero in the novel's later arcs, where the outlaws debate surrendering to the government. His alleged "madness" masks deep wisdom and resistance, making him a "wise fool" (智若愚, appearing foolish but profoundly insightful)—a trope in literature where apparent stupidity hides truth-telling.[34][35]
While the book's authorship is attributed to Shi Nai'an (1296–1372), there is an extensive academic debate on what historical events the author had witnessed that inspired him to write the book, which forms a wider debate on when the book was written.[1] The first external reference of this book, which dated to 1524 during a discussion amongMing dynasty officials, is a reliable evidence because it presents strongfalsifiability.[1] Other scholars put the date to the mid-14th century, sometime between the fall of the Mongol-ruledYuan dynasty and the early Ming dynasty.[1]
Since fiction was not at first a prestigious genre in the Chinese literary world, authorship of early novels was often not carefully attributed and may be unknowable. The authorship ofWater Margin is still in some sense uncertain, and the text in any case derived from many sources and involved many editorial hands. While the novel was traditionally attributed toShi Nai'an, of whose life not much is reliably known, recent scholars think that the novel, or portions of it, may have been written or revised byLuo Guanzhong (the author ofRomance of the Three Kingdoms).[96]
Many scholars believe that the first 70 chapters were indeed written by Shi Nai'an; however the authorship of the final 30 chapters is often questioned, with some speculating that it was instead written by Luo Guanzhong, who may have been a student of Shi.[96] Another theory, which first appeared inGao Ru'sBaichuan Shuzhi (百川書志) during the Ming dynasty, suggests that the whole novel was written and compiled by Shi, and then edited by Luo.
Shi drew from oral and written texts that had accumulated over time. Stories of the Liangshan outlaws first appeared inOld incidents in the Xuanhe period of the great Song dynasty (大宋宣和遺事) and had been circulating since the Southern Song dynasty, while folk tales and opera related toWater Margin have already existed long before the novel itself came into existence. This theory suggests that Shi Nai'an gathered and compiled these pieces of information to writeWater Margin.
Some believe thatWater Margin was written entirely by Luo Guanzhong. Wang Daokun (汪道昆), who lived during the reign of theJiajing Emperor in theMing dynasty, first mentioned inClassification of Water Margin (水滸傳敘) that: "someone with the family name Luo, who was a native ofWuyue (Yue (a reference to the southern China region coveringZhejiang), wrote the 100-chapter novel." Several scholars from the Ming andQing dynasties, after Wang Daokun's time, also said that Luo was the author ofWater Margin. During the earlyRepublican era,Lu Xun andYu Pingbo suggested that the simplified edition ofWater Margin was written by Luo, while the traditional version was by Shi Nai'an.[citation needed]
However, Huikang Yesou (惠康野叟) inShi Yu (識餘) disagree with Wang Daokun's view on the grounds that there were significant differences betweenWater Margin andRomance of the Three Kingdoms, therefore these two novels could not have been written by the same person.
Hu Shih felt that the draft ofWater Margin was done by Luo Guanzhong, and could have contained the chapters on the outlaws' campaigns againstTian Hu,Wang Qing andFang La, but not invaders from theLiao dynasty.[97]
Another candidate is Shi Hui (施惠), ananxi (southern opera) playwright who lived between the lateYuan dynasty and earlyMing dynasty. Xu Fuzuo (徐復祚) of the Ming dynasty mentioned inSanjia Cunlao Weitan (三家村老委談) that Junmei (君美; Shi Hui'scourtesy name)'s intention in writingWater Margin was to entertain people, and not to convey any message. During theQing dynasty, Shi Hui and Shi Nai'an were linked, suggesting that they are actually the same person. An unnamed writer wrote inChuanqi Huikao Biaomu (傳奇會考標目) that Shi Nai'an's given name was actually "Hui", courtesy name "Juncheng" (君承), and he was a native ofHangzhou. Sun Kaidi (孫楷第) also wrote inBibliography of Chinese Popular Fiction that "Nai'an" was Shi Hui's pseudonym. Later studies revealed thatWater Margin contained lines in theJiangsu and Zhejiang variety of Chinese, and thatYou Gui Ji (幽闺记), a work of Shi Hui, bore some resemblance toWater Margin, hence the theory thatWater Margin was authored by Shi Hui.[citation needed]
Early scholars attributed the authorship to Guo Xun (郭勛), a politician who lived in the Ming dynasty.Shen Defu (沈德符), a late Ming dynasty scholar, mentioned inWanli Yehuo Bian (萬曆野獲編) that Guo wroteWater Margin.Shen Guoyuan (沈國元) added inHuangming Congxin Lu (皇明從信錄) that Guo mimicked the writing styles ofRomance of the Three Kingdoms andWater Margin to writeGuochao Yinglie Ji (國朝英烈記). Qian Xiyan (錢希言) also stated inXi Gu (戲嘏) that Guo editedWater Margin before.Hu Shih countered in hisResearch on Water Margin (水滸傳新考) that Guo Xun's name was used as a disguise for the real author ofWater Margin. Dai Bufan (戴不凡) had a differing view, as he suspected that Guo wroteWater Margin, and then used "Shi Nai'an" to conceal his identity as the author of the novel.[98]
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The textual history of the novel is extraordinarily complex for there are early editions of varying lengths, different parts, and variations. The scholar Scott Gregory comments that the text could be freely altered by later editors and publishers who also could add prefaces or commentaries.[100] Not until the early 20th-century were there studies which began to set these questions in order, and there is still disagreement.[101] The earliest components of theWater Margin (in manuscript copies) were from the late 14th century. A printed copy dating from theJiaqing reign (1507–1567) titledJingben Zhongyi Zhuan (京本忠義傳), is preserved in theShanghai Library.[102][103] The earliest extant complete printed edition ofWater Margin is a 100-chapter version published in 1589.[104] An edition, with 120 chapters and an introduction by Yang Dingjian (楊定見), has been preserved from the reign of theWanli Emperor (1573–1620) in the Ming dynasty. Yet other editions were published in the earlyQing dynasty.
The most widely readversion is a truncated recension published by Jin Shengtan in 1643, reprinted many times,[101] which became the standard text for later editions and most translations.[105] Jin provided three introductions that praised the novel as a work of genius and inserted commentaries into the text that explained how to read the novel. He cut matter that he thought irrelevant, reduced the number of chapters to 70 by turning chapter 1 into a prologue, and added an ending in which all 108 heroes are executed.[106]
The various editions can be classified into simplified and complex. The simplified editions, edited for less sophisticated audiences, can contain all the events but in less detail. There is no way of knowing whether a simplified edition came before or was derived from another by adding or cutting text.[106]
The simplified editions include stories on the outlaws being granted amnesty, followed by their campaigns against theLiao dynasty,Tian Hu,Wang Qing andFang La, all the way untilSong Jiang's death. At one point, the later chapters were compiled into a separate novel, titledSequel to Water Margin (續水滸傳), which is attributed toLuo Guanzhong.
Known simplified editions ofWater Margin include:
The complex editions are more descriptive and circulated more widely than their simplified counterparts. The three main versions of the complex editions are a 100-chapter, a 120-chapter and a 70-chapter edition. The most commonly modified parts of the complex editions are the stories on what happened after the outlaws are granted amnesty.
Water Margin has been translated into many languages. The book was translated intoManchu asMöllendorff: Sui hū bithe.[107] Japanese translations date back to at least 1757, when the first volume of an earlySuikoden (Water Margin rendered in Japanese) was printed.[108] Other early adaptations includeTakebe Ayakari's 1773Japanese Water Margin (Honcho suikoden),[109] the 1783Women's Water Margin (Onna suikoden),[110] andSantō Kyōden's 1801Chushingura Water Margin (Chushingura suikoden).[111]
In 1805,Kyokutei Bakin released a Japanese translation of theWater Margin illustrated byHokusai. The book, called theNew Illustrated Edition of the Suikoden (Shinpen Suikogaden), was a success during theEdo period and spurred a Japanese "Suikoden" craze.
In 1827, publisherKagaya Kichibei commissionedUtagawa Kuniyoshi to produce a series of woodblock prints illustrating the 108 heroes inWater Margin. The 1827–1830 series, called108 Heroes of the Water Margin orTsuzoku Suikoden goketsu hyakuhachinin no hitori, catapulted Kuniyoshi to fame. It also brought about a craze for multicoloured pictorial tattoos that covered the entire body from the neck to the mid-thigh.[112]
Following the great commercial success of the Kuniyoshi series, otherukiyo-e artists were commissioned to produce prints of theWater Margin heroes, which began to be shown as Japanese heroes rather than the original Chinese personages.
Among these later series wasYoshitoshi's 1866–1867 series of 50 designs in Chuban size, which are darker than Kuniyoshi's and feature strange ghosts and monsters.[113]A recent Japanese translation isSuikokuden水滸伝. Translated by Yoshikawa Kojiro; Shimizu Shigeru. Iwanami Shoten. 16 October 1998.
The book was first translated into Thai in 1867, originally inSamud Thai (Thai paper book) format, consisting of 82 volumes in total. It was printed in western style in 1879 and distributed commercially by Dan Beach Bradley, an American Protestant missionary to Siam.
Jacques Dars translated the 70 chapter version into French in 1978, reprinted several times.[114]
Later translations of the 71-chapter version include Chinese-naturalised scholarSidney Shapiro'sOutlaws of the Marsh (1980) that also does not include the verse. However, as it was published during theCultural Revolution, this edition received little attention then.[122] It is a translation of a combination of both the 71-chapter and 100-chapter versions.
The most recent translation, titledThe Marshes of Mount Liang (1994-2002), by Alex and John Dent-Young, is a five-volume translation of the 120-chapter version. It includes a prologue but omits the foreword by Shi Nai'an and some passages related to the official details of the Ming dynasty.[123]
These translations differ in the selection of texts and completeness. The Jackson and the revised Buck translations of 1937 contain the foreword attributed toShi Nai'an. The Shapiro translation omits the prologue, the foreword, and most of the poems. The Dent-Young translation omits the author's foreword and the passages concerning the Ming dynasty administration and the translators admitted to compromising some details and retaining inconsistencies in theirBrief Note on the Translation.
There are several noteworthy direct sequels and spinoffs to theWater Margin. Some tell subsequent stories of the heroes fighting theJurchen-ruledJin dynasty, infighting of the heroes, or moving toSiam.[124][125]
Jin Ping Mei is an erotic novel of manners written under thepen-name Lanling Xiaoxiao Sheng (蘭陵笑笑生) ("The Scoffing Scholar of Lanling") in the latter half of the 16th century. The novel is framed as aspinoff ofWater Margin based on the story ofWu Song avenging his brother inWater Margin, but the focus is onXimen Qing's sexual relations with other women, includingPan Jinlian. The intervening sections, however, differ in almost every way fromWater Margin.[126] In the course of the novel, Ximen has 19 sexual partners, including his six wives and mistresses, and a male servant.[127]
Pan Jinlian became an archetypalfemme fatale and one of the most notorious villainesses of classical Chinese culture.[128] The influential authorLu Xun, writing in the 1920s, called it "the most famous of thenovels of manners" of the Ming dynasty, and reported the opinion of the Ming dynasty critic,Yuan Hongdao, that it was "a classic second only toWater Margin." He added that the novel is "in effect a condemnation of the whole ruling class."[129] Pan Jinlian also appeared to be based on the false rumors a real namesake lady who had a sharply different personality. The reputation of real-life Pan Jinlian was badly affected by the fictional Pan Jinlian and this incident also caused a rift between Pan family and Shi family (the family ofShi Nai'an, author ofWater Margin) for a long time until descendants of Shi family made an official apology in 2009.[130][131]
A sequel toWater Margin titledShuihu Houzhuan (水滸後傳) (The Later Story of Water Margin) that authored byChen Chën [zh], a writer from the early eraQing dynasty and native ofZhejiang, was released In 1664.[132]: 155 [133]: 102 [134]
Shuihu Houzhuan comprises 40 chapters, organized into two parts. Its plot diverges somewhat from the originalWater Margin. The first 30 chapters focus on the chaotic state of China, with the Liangshan heroes gradually assembling, reaching a total of 32 by the 29th chapter. The final 10 chapters depict the heroes' decision to journey to a foreign land, where they encounter a wise monarch and benevolent people, leading to a joyful conclusion.[132]: 156 Shuihu Houzhuan also introduces new characters such asHua Rong's son Hua Fengchun (花逢春),Xu Ning's son Xu Sheng (徐晟) andHuyan Zhuo's son Huyan Yu (呼延鈺).[134]
The story started withRuan Xiaoqi, falsely accused of treason by corrupt officials Tong Guan and Cai Jing after wearing Fang La's discarded dragon robe. Returning to Shijie Village, he kills Cai Jing's ally Zhang Ganban and flees, joining former Liangshan heroes likeHu Cheng andLuan Tingyu in banditry.[132]: 155–156
Meanwhile,Li Jun and seven others, disillusioned with China's chaos after the Northern Song's fall, sail to Siam (historicalThailand), conquer Jin'ao Island, and ally themselves with the royal family. Thirty-two surviving Liangshan heroes regroup in Shandong and Hebei and later join Li Jun in Siam during a siege.[132]: 155–156 In the chapter 35;Japan Borrows Troops, Sparking Conflict; Qingni Island Incites Rebellion and Mobilizes Forces", An army of 10,000 Japanese warriors embarked fromSatsuma Domain and Ōsumi provinces aboard 300 warships to aid a usurper in Siam against the Liangshan heroes. The figure leading the Japanese army is calledKanpaku. The Kanpaku is depicted as eight shaku (approximately 2.4 meters) tall and riding an elephant. He also commands a naval warfare unit known as the 'Kurooni' (Black Ghosts). However, the entire army meets its end by freezing to death due to Gongsun Sheng's socery.[134] The Liangshan heroes manages to defeat the usurper Gong Tao, and Li Jun becomes the king of Siam.[132]: 155–156
Later, Li Jun rescues Southern Song EmperorGaozong, who pardons the heroes and recognizes Li Jun's rule. Under Li Jun, Siam adopts Chinese influences, and the 32 heroes marry and settle happily.[132]: 155–156
The author, Chen Chen, was known for his resentment towards the rule of Qing and joined the Jingyin Poetry society, together with many loyal to Ming likeGu Yanwu. Later, he published the sequel in 1664.[132]: 155 Chen Chen took the pen name "Yandang Shanqiao" and giving commentary for the published edition and claimed the original script was written by an anonymous "loyalist of Song" who lived during the early years of Yuan dynasty rule.[135]: 242
According toHu Shih, the theme of this sequel work reflects Chen Chen's grief and anger about the fall of Ming dynasty, which he analogizes with the fall of Northern Song to the Yuan dynasty, which is the backdrop era of theWater Margin story.[136]: 755、759、760 The novel also continues to promote the themes of loyalty and resistance to foreign aggression through rebellion. However, the methods of these reformed Liangshan heroes in Siam are very different from that of the original group, as they resorted to less violence, held family happiness in high regard and showed awareness of the importance of civil government system; which followed by setting their end goal in establishing a state in Siam. In the end, the work expresses the hopes, fears and resentment of the Ming loyalists, and the anti-Qing movement.[135]: 242–243
Furthermore, the book's poems reveal the author's desire to establish a new utopia for Ming loyalists in a foreign land and may allude to their hopes forZheng Chenggong's regime in Taiwan.[137]
Overall, Hu Shih does not rate this sequel work with high praise, with the exception of some of its chapters which stand out from others, such as "Zhongmu County's Elimination of Traitors" in volume 22. The book also described Yan Qing's visit to Emperor Huizong of Song , which was written in a sad and touching way, far surpassing the other chapters.[136]: 765、767 Sinologist Ellen Widmer believed that the literary value of theShuihu Houzhuan was mixed and not enough to be included in the list of first-rate classics. The work directly influenced the 19th-century Japanese novelChun Shuo Gong Zhang Yue by Takizawa Bakin.[137]
A sequel novel titledHou Shuihu Zhuan (後水滸傳;Water Margin Transmission), attributed to the pseudonymous author "Master of the Blue Lotus Chamber" (Qing Lian Shi Zhu Ren, 青蓮室主人) was written during the 17th century, and it spans 45 chapters across 10 volumes and was first printed in the Qianlong era (1736–1795) by Su Zheng Tang (素政堂).
Dang Kou Zhi (蕩寇志The Tale of Eliminating Bandits), which also known for its alternate titleJie shuihu quanzhuan (結水滸全傳Terminating the Complete Saga of the Water Margin)[76], is a novel written by Qing dynasty novelistYu Wanchun [zh] (俞萬春) during the reign of theDaoguang Emperor. The story follows the end of originalWater Margin runs im chapter 70. The book runs from Chapter 71 to Chapter 140, totaling 70 chapters, with a concluding chapter titled "The Conclusion to the Son".[138] It took him 22 years to complete the book.[139]
Yu Wanchun disagreed that the Liangshan outlaws are loyal and righteous heroes, and was determined to portray them as ruthless mass murderers and destroyers, hence he wroteDang Kou Zhi. As a result, he portrays the Liangshan outlaws here as the antagonists, only to be eliminated by the designated protagonists.[140]
The protagonist of this novel is Chen Xizhen, a Taoist and martial arts master who turned outlaw, and ended opposing the Liangshan outlaws led by Song Jian.[140][141][142] The novel, which starts at the Grand Assembly of the 108 outlaws at Liangshan Marsh, tells of how the outlaws plundered and pillaged cities before they are eventually eliminated by government forces led byZhang Shuye [zh] (張叔夜) and his lieutenants Chen Xizhen (陳希真) and Yun Tianbiao (雲天彪).[138]
Due to its pro-establishment and anti-rebellion theme, this sequel was supported and endorsed by government of Qing. However, theTaiping rebels disliked the nuance of the novel and ordered the burning of the book in every place they occupied.[143][139]Water Margin may also have inspired the novelErnü Yingxiong Zhuan.[76]
Some spinoffs ofWater Margin were intertwined with Song GeneralYue Fei.[citation needed]
Chapters 31 to 45 ofHou Shuihu Zhuan novel depicted general Yue Fei, portrayed as adivine general, suppresses the rebels at Caibo Bridge. Defeated, the heroes ascend to heaven, enlightened by akarmic epilogue emphasizing redemption through reincarnation.[144]
The Qing dynasty writer Qian Cai wrote the life story of Yue Fei and the outlawsLin Chong andLu Junyi in a Sin off story titled novel written by Qian Cai titledGeneral Yue Fei (Chinese:說岳全傳) (1684), which consisted of 80 chapters, stated that the latter were former students of the general's martial arts tutor,Zhou Tong.[145] However, literary critic C. T. Hsia commented that the connection was a fictional one created by the author.[146] Additionally, the novla mentions about the partiicipation of one of the Liangshan outlaws,Huyan Zhuo, in a campaign under the lead of Yue Fei defending against thr invasion by theJin dynasty. The novel tell the death of Huyan Zhuo on the hands of a Jin prince,Wuzhu, amid combat.[147]
The Republican era folktaleSwordplay Under the Moon, byWang Shaotang, further intertwines Yue Fei's history with the outlaws by addingWu Song to the list of Zhou's former students.[148] The tale is set in the background of Wu Song's mission to Kaifeng, prior to the murder of his brother. Zhou tutors Wu in the "rolling dragon" style of swordplay during his one-month stay in the capital city. It also said that Zhou is asworn brother ofLu Zhishen and shares the same nickname with the executioner-turned-outlawCai Fu.[149]
More Modern literary fictional biography that linked Zhou Tong with the Liangshan outlaws wasIron Arm, Golden Sabre novel in 1986, a Modern novelprequel toThe Story of Yue Fei.[citation needed] This novel later adapted into a ten volumeLianhuanhua-style comic book calledThe Legend of Zhou Tong in 1987.[150]
A sequel novel which titledCan Shui Hu, orRemnant Water Margin (殘水滸), was written byCheng Shanzhi [zh] (pen name of Cheng Qingyu,程慶餘; 1880–1942);[151] a novelist associated with the Southern Society (南社) literary group. It was serialized in 1933 in the New Jiangsu Daily (《新江蘇日報》) under the pseudonym "Yi Su" (一粟), and reprinted by Heilongjiang People's Publishing House in 1997. The novel exists and is a well-documented sequel to the 70-chapter edition of Water Margin. It composed 16 chapters that followed the original simpleWater Margin version of 70 chapters, spanning from chapter 71 to 86.[citation needed]
The narrative picks up directly fromLu Junyi's prophetic nightmare, followed by the split of the Liangshan brotherhood due to ideological rifts. the leaders divide into two camps over the issue whether they should surrender to the government and seek pardon, or keep being outlaws. Lu Junyi's faction (pro-surrender) seeks alliance with Northern Song border general named Zong Shidao (種師道). Song Jiang's faction, which composed of 36 core members, refused the integration aspiration by Lu Junyi, and clinging to their autonomy as outlaws. Some of the Liangshan heroes fell during the ensuing civil war, such as Li Kui's death byHu Sanniang andDong Ping's poisoning by Cheng Wanli's Daughter. After Liangshan's defeat, Song Jiang's faction flees to Haizhou (海州), where they are captured by Zhang Shuye (張叔夜), the historical Song general who subdued Song Jiang in 1121 (per History of Song). Lu's faction, honoring old bonds, petitions the court to spare Song's life—sparing execution but dooming the remnants to further tragedy. The book culminates in total annihilation: Surrenders lead to executions or exile, battles claim the rest, and Song Jiang is ultimately also implied being killed.[151]
With the exception of Zhang Shuye and Chen Xiuzhen (who also the protagonist ofDang Kou Zhi.[141]), there are not many notable new characters in this novel. Yet, the personality of certain legacy characters are given more focus, such as Song Jiang 's cunning and Wu Yong's wisdom. Chen Xizhen and his daughter, Chen Liqing, were persecuted by the government, particularly by Gao Qiu and Gao Yanei. Both father and daughter were forced to fled the capital. However, Chen Xizhen also hated the Liangshan heroes and refused to join them. Later, Chen Xizhen occupied a village and gathered people to start an uprising, until he accepted the amnesty and surrendered to the government. He joined forces with Zhang Shuye and others in the suppression of Liangshan outlaws, until they manage to eliminate the group.[140]
Chen Xizhen serves as the antithesis of Song Jiang and Liangshan outlaws, where despite having similar background with them as renegade of the state, he refused to join them, and even participated in the bandits' final elimination.[152] This reflects the contradictory and tangled psychology of Yu Wanchun, who was a fan of "Water Margin" and wanted to inherit Jin Shengtan 's ideas to attack the rebels.[152]
It is difficult to exaggerate the importance of Chinese fiction and drama to the literary culture of early modern Japan. The rise to ubiquitous prominence of Chinese texts such asShuihu zhuan,Xiyou ji (Journey to the West), and the short fiction of Feng Menglong (1574–1646) was a gradual occurrence.... From a certain vantage point, the Chinese novelShuihu zhuan [Water Margin] is a ubiquitous presence in the literary and visual culture of early modern Japan. Indeed, Japanese engagement withShuihu zhuan is nearly coeval with the establishment of Tokugawa hegemony itself, as evidenced by the presence of a 1594 edition of the novel in the library of the Tendai abbot and adviser to the fledgling Tokugawa regime, Tenkai. Tenkai's death in 1643 provides us with a lower limit for dating the novel's importation into Japan, demonstrating the remarkable rapidity with which certain Chinese texts found their way into Japanese libraries.
Frank Chin's novel,Donald Duk, contains many references to theWater Margin.Song Jiang andLi Kui make several appearances in the protagonist's dreams.
Rise of the Water Margin[154] (水滸再起) is a novel launched in 2022 by the American author Christopher Bates in which all of the Chinese characters and their approximate character arcs are 21st century modernizations of people inThe Water Margin. In this cyber-thriller, the characters ofLin Chong,Lu Da,Gao Qiu, Gao Yanei, Zhang Zhenniang, Fu An, Cai Jing, Chai Jin, Wang Lun, Zhu Gui, Zhao Ji, Li Shishi and many others appear. The location of Liangshanpo is a deserted ghost city known to its investors as Mount Liang Swamp, repurposed as a hacker enclave.
Eiji Yoshikawa wroteShin Suikoden (新水滸伝), which roughly translates to "New Tales from the Water Margin".
The Water Outlaws, a novel byS. L. Huang, is agender-flipped version of the story in which many of the outlaws are queer women.[155][156][157]
In addition to its colossal popularity in China,Water Margin has been identified as one of the most influential works in the development of early modern Japanese literature.[3][158][4]
Water Margin is referred to in numerous Japanesemanga, such asTetsuo Hara andBuronson'sFist of the North Star, andMasami Kurumada'sFūma no Kojirō,Otokozaka andSaint Seiya. In both works of fiction, characters bearing the same stars of theWater Margin characters as personal emblems of destiny are featured prominently. A Japanese manga calledAkaboshi: Ibun Suikoden, based on the story ofWater Margin, was serialised inWeekly Shonen Jump.
A Hong Kongmanhua series based onWater Margin was also created by the artistLee Chi Ching. A reimagined series based onWater Margin,108 Fighters, was created byAndy Seto.
Between 1978 and 1988, the Italian artistMagnus published four acts of his workI Briganti, which places theWater Margin story in a setting that mixes Chinese, Western andscience fiction (inFlash Gordon style) elements. Before his death in 1996, the four completed "acts" were published in a volume by Granata Press; two following "acts" were planned but never completed.
In 2007, Asiapac Books published a graphic narrative version of portions of the novel.[159]
Most film adaptations ofWater Margin were produced by Hong Kong'sShaw Brothers Studio and mostly released in the 1970s and 1980s. They include:The Water Margin (1972),[160][161] directed byChang Cheh and others;Delightful Forest (1972), directed by Chang Cheh again and starringTi Lung asWu Song;[162]Pursuit (1972), directed by Kang Cheng and starringYueh Hua asLin Chong;All Men Are Brothers (1975), a sequel toThe Water Margin (1972) directed by Chang Cheh and others; andTiger Killer (1982), directed byLi Han-hsiang and starring Ti Lung as Wu Song again.[163]
Other non-Shaw Brothers production include:All Men Are Brothers: Blood of the Leopard, also known asWater Margin: True Colours of Heroes (1992), which centers on the story of Lin Chong,Lu Zhishen andGao Qiu, starringTony Leung Ka-fai,Elvis Tsui and others;[164] andTroublesome Night 16 (2002), a Hong Kong horror comedy film which spoofs the story of Wu Song avenging his brother.
Television series directly based onWater Margin include:Nippon Television'sThe Water Margin (1973), which was later released in other countries outside Japan;[165][166]Outlaws of the Marsh (1983), which won aGolden Eagle Award;CCTV'sThe Water Margin (1998), produced byZhang Jizhong and featuring fight choreography byYuen Woo-ping;All Men Are Brothers (2011), directed by Kuk Kwok-leung and featuring actors from mainland China, Hong Kong and Taiwan.
Animations adapted fromWater Margin include:Giant Robo: The Animation (1992), an anime series based onMitsuteru Yokoyama's manga series;Outlaw Star (1998), another cartoon series which makes several references to the novel;Hero: 108 (2010), a flash animated series produced by various companies and shown onCartoon Network.Galaxy Divine Wind Jinraiger, an anime in theJ9 Series planned for a 2016 broadcast, has also citedWater Margin as its inspiration.[167][168]
The 2004 Hong Kong television seriesShades of Truth, produced byTVB, features three characters from the novel who are reincarnated into present-day Hong Kong as atriad boss and two police officers respectively.
Video games based on the novel includeKonami's console RPG seriesSuikoden andKoei's strategy gameBandit Kings of Ancient China. Other games with characters based on the novel or were partly inspired by it include:Jade Empire, which features a character "Black Whirlwind" who is based onLi Kui;Data East'sOutlaws Of The Lost Dynasty, which was also released under the titlesSuiko Enbu andDark Legend;Shin Megami Tensei: Imagine. There is also a beat em' up gameShuǐhǔ Fēngyún Chuán (Chinese:水滸風雲傳;lit. 'Water and Wind'), created by Never Ending Soft Team and published by Kin Tec in 1996.[169] It was re-released for theMega Drive and in arcade version by Wah Lap in 1999.[citation needed] An English version titled "Water Margin: The Tales of Clouds and Winds" byPiko Interactive translated and released in 2015. Some enemy sprites are taken from other beat 'em ups and modified, includingKnights of the Round,Golden Axe andStreets of Rage.[citation needed]
In the 8thcanto of the 2023 video gameLimbus Company, A faction based on the 108 heroes appears as both allies and antagonists.[170]
Yan Poxi, aPingju form of the story focused on the concubineYan Poxi, was performed byBai Yushuang and her company inShanghai in the 1930s.
Water Marginised (水滸後傳) (2007) is a folkreggae narrative by Chan Xuan. It tells the story of a present-day jailbird who travels to Liangshan Marsh in hope of joining the outlaw band, only to find thatSong Jiang and his men have all taken bureaucratic jobs in the ruling party.
"108 Heroes" is a three-part Peking Rock Opera (first shown in 2007, 2011 and 2014 respectively) formed through a collaborative effort between the Hong Kong Arts Festival, the Shanghai International Arts Festival, Taiwan Contemporary Legend Theater, and the Shanghai Theater Academy. The show combines traditional Peking Opera singing, costumes, martial arts and dance with elements of modern music, costume and dance.[171]
Thetemple fair in Southern TaiwanSong Jiang Battle Array is based on the acrobatic fighting fromWater Margin.
Characters from the story often appear onMoney-suited playing cards, which are thought to be the ancestor of both modern playing cards and mahjong tiles. These cards are also known as Water Margin cards (水滸牌).
The trading card gameYu-Gi-Oh! has anarchetype based on the 108 heroes known as the "Fire Fist" (known as "Flame Star" in the OCG) (炎えん星せい, Ensei) where the monsters aside from Horse Prince, Lion Emperor, and Spirit are based on those heroes.
During the Edo period (1603-1868), when early modern Japanese fiction was developed, its greatest influence came from Chinese vernacular fiction.
To be accurate, the world of The Water Margin does not hate the female sex as a whole. There are individual good women commended in the book; on the other hand, traits commonly held to be feminine shortcomings, such as pusillanimity, narrow-mindedness and naivete, have not been singled out for stricture. What is detested here is lascivious thought and behaviour. Women slain in the book have either committed adultery, or aided and abetted it. Slain too are the male offenders, e.g., Hsi-men Ch'ing and P'ei Ju-hai; when heroes like Li K'uei meet a pair of adulterous "dog and bitch", they put both to the sword without discrimination. This is actually fairer, and more respectful, to the fair sex than what often happens in the tales of Chaucer or Boccaccio and other medieval fabliaux, where the adulteress customarily gets away unscathed. However, owing to the distaste for carnality, women in the novel seldom combine beauty and virtue in their persons.
(一)藏于上海图书馆，乃明正德、嘉靖年间所刻 ...
Remarkably, it [Water Margin] also remained for a long time largely incomprehensible to its readers. For centuries, classical Chinese united the intellectual elites of East Asia, much as Latin did in Europe. But the kind of popular fiction that entered Japan from the 17th century was written in the vernacular [Chinese], a tongue that only a tiny minority of Japanese interpreters in the port city of Nagasaki understood. For most others, it might as well have been Greek. Understanding this type of fiction required a serious commitment, and a variety of reference guides and dictionaries were published in Japan to facilitate its reading.
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