It is suggested that Walpurgis Night is linked with olderMay Day festivals in northern Europe, which also involved lighting bonfires at night, for example theGaelic festivalBeltane.[7]
The date ofSaint Walpurga's canonization came to be known asSankt Walpurgisnacht ("Saint Walpurga's night") in German.[1][6][12] The name of the holiday is often shortened toWalpurgisnacht (German),Valborgsmässoafton ("Valborg'sMass Eve",Swedish),Vappen (Finland Swedish),Vappu (Finnish),Volbriöö (Estonian),Valpurgijos naktis (Lithuanian),Valpurģu nakts orValpurģi (Latvian), andčarodějnice orValpuržina noc (Czech). In English, it is known as Saint Walpurga's Night, Saint Walburga's Night, Walpurgis Night, Saint Walpurga's Eve, Saint Walburga's Eve, the Feast of Saint Walpurga or the Feast of Saint Walburga.[13][14] The Germanic termWalpurgisnacht is recorded in 1668 byJohannes Praetorius[15] asS. Walpurgis Nacht orS. Walpurgis Abend. An earlier mention ofWalpurgis andS. Walpurgis Abend is in the 1603 edition of theCalendarium perpetuum of Johann Coler,[16] who also refers to the following day, 1 May, asJacobi Philippi, feast day of the apostlesJames the Less andPhilip in theWestern Christian calendar of saints.
A Christiangonfalon depictingSaint Walpurga used in liturgical processions on the Feast of Saint WalpurgaThe relics of Saint Walpurga are housed atSaint Peter's Church in Munich, where they are venerated, especially on 25 February (Saint Walpurga's death date) and 1 May (Saint Walpurga's canonization date), both of which are observed as the Feast of Saint Walpurga, depending on locality.
Thecanonization of Walpurga and the movement of her relics toEichstätt occurred on 1 May in the year 870, thus leading to the Feast of Saint Walpurga and its eve, Walpurgis Night, being popularly observed on this date.[7] She quickly became one of the most popular saints in England, Germany, and France. When the bishop had Saint Walpurga's relics moved to Eichstätt, "miraculous cures were reported as her remains traveled along the route".[17] Miracle cures were later reported from ailing people who anointed themselves with a fluid known as Walburga's oil that drained from the rock at her shrine at Eichstätt.[17]
The date of Walpurgis Night coincided with an olderMay Eve festival, celebrated in much of northern Europe with the lighting of bonfires at night.[7] A variety of festivals of pre-Christian origin had been celebrated at this time (halfway between thespring equinox andsummer solstice) to mark the beginning of summer, includingBeltane in Ireland and Britain.[7] FolkloristJack Santino says "Her day and its traditions almost certainly are traceable to pre-Christian celebrations that took place at this time, on the first of May".[23] Art historian Pamela Berger noted Walpurga's association withsheaves of grain, and suggested that her cult was adapted from pagan agrarian goddesses.[24]
In modern times, many Christians continue to makereligious pilgrimages to Saint Walburga's tomb inEichstätt on Saint Walburga's Day; in the 19th century, the number of pilgrims travelling to the Church of St. Walpurgis was described as "many thousand".[2] Due to 1 May being the date of Saint Walpurga's feast, it has become associated with otherMay Day celebrations and regional traditions,[25] especially in Finland and Sweden.[26] Given that the intercession of Saint Walpurga was believed to be efficacious against evil magic, medieval and Renaissance tradition held that, during Walpurgis Night, witches celebrated a sabbath and evil powers were at their strongest. In Germanfolklore, Walpurgis Night was believed to be the night of a witches' meeting on theBrocken, the highest peak in theHarz mountains, a range of wooded hills in central Germany.[27] To ward off evil and protect themselves and their livestock, people would traditionally light fires on the hillsides,[1][9][10] a tradition that continues in some regions today.[12] In Bavaria, the feast day is sometimes calledHexennacht (Dutch:heksennacht), literally "Witches' Night", on which revelers dress as witches and demons, set off fireworks, dance and play loud music, which is said to drive the witches and winter spirits away.[27]
30 April isPálení čarodějnic ('Burning of the witches') orčarodějnice ('The witches') in theCzech Republic. Huge bonfires up to 8 metres (26 ft) tall with a witch figure are built and burnt in the evening, preferably on top of hills. Young people gather around. Sudden black and dense smoke formations are cheered as "a witch flying away". An effigy of a witch is held up and thrown into a bonfire to burn.[1]
In some places, it is customary to burn a puppet representing a witch on the bonfire. It is still a widespread feast in the Czech Republic, practiced since the pagan times.
As evening advances to midnight and fire is on the wane, it is time to go search for a cherry tree in blossom. This is another feast, connected with 1 May. Young women should be kissed past midnight (and during the following day) under a blossoming cherry (or if unavailable, another blossoming) tree, as they "will not dry up" for an entire year.[citation needed] The First of May is celebrated then as "the day of those in love", in reference to the famous incipit of the poemMáj byKarel Hynek Mácha (Byl pozdní večer – první máj – / večerní máj – byl lásky čas; "Late evening, on the first of May— / The twilit May—the time of love", translation byEdith Pargeter).
InLincolnshire, Walpurgis Night was observed in rural communities until the second half of the 20th century, with a tradition of hangingcowslips to ward off evil.[28]
InEstonia,volbriöö is celebrated throughout the night of 30 April and into the early hours of 1 May, where 1 May is a public holiday called "Spring Day" (kevadpüha).Volbriöö is an important and widespread celebration of the arrival of spring in the country. Influenced by German culture, the night originally stood for the gathering and meeting of witches. Modern people still dress up as witches to wander the streets in a carnival-like mood.
Thevolbriöö celebrations are especially vigorous inTartu, the university town in southern Estonia. For Estonian students in student corporations (Estonian fraternities and sororities), the night starts with a traditional procession through the streets of Tartu (during which the governing of the city is symbolically handed over to the students for the night by themayor of Tartu), followed by visiting each other's corporation houses throughout the night.[citation needed]
People at avappu picnic inKaivopuisto in 2008The crowd in front ofLasipalatsi in Helsinki, in 1960Vappu celebration in front of aKuopio Market Hall inKuopioSugar-coated doughnuts andsima are typicalvappu delicacies in Finland
InFinland, Walpurgis night (Finnish:vappu;Swedish:vappen,valborg) is one of the four biggest holidays along with Christmas Eve,New Year's Eve, andMidsummer (juhannus,Swedish:midsommar).[5] Walpurgis witnesses the biggestcarnival-style festival held in Finland's cities and towns. The celebration, which begins on the evening of 30 April and continues on 1 May, typically centres on the consumption ofsima,sparkling wine and otheralcoholic beverages. Student traditions, particularly those of engineering students, are one of the main characteristics ofvappu. Since the end of the 19th century, this traditional upper-class feast has been appropriated by university students. Many high school alumni wear the black and whitestudent cap and many higher education students wearstudent coveralls. One tradition is to drinksima, a home-made low-alcoholmead, along with freshly cookedtippaleipä.
In the capital,Helsinki, and itssurrounding region, fixtures include the capping on 30 April at 6 pm ofHavis Amanda, a nude female statue inMarket Square, and the biennially alternating publications of ribald matter calledäpy andJulkku, by engineering students ofAalto University. Both aresophomoric; but whileJulkku is a standardmagazine,Äpy is always a gimmick. Classic forms have included anäpy printed ontoilet paper and on abedsheet. Often,äpy has been stuffed inside standard industrial packages, such as sardine cans and milk cartons. For most university students,vappu starts a week before the day of celebration. The festivities also include a picnic on 1 May, which is sometimes more lavish, particularly in Ullanlinnanmäki in central Helsinki.
InTurku, it has become a tradition to cap thePosankka statue.
InOulu, the statue ofFrans Michael Franzén is traditionally capped by the Guild of the Humanties in theUniversity of Oulu. This is followed by the "dipping" of the students of technical fields ending their freshman year. This means that the freshmen plunge into a (usually) cold ditch in the nearby park, one by one.[29]
vappu coincides with the socialistInternational Workers' Day parade. Expanding from the parties of the left, the whole of theFinnish political scene has adoptedvappu as the day to go out on stumps and agitate. This is not limited only to political activists; many institutions, such as theLutheran Church of Finland, have followed suit, marching and making speeches. Left-wing activists of the 1970s still party on May Day. Carnivals are arranged, and many radio stations play leftist songs, such asThe Internationale.
Traditionally, 1 May is celebrated by the way of a picnic in a park. For most, the picnic is enjoyed with friends on a blanket with food andsparkling wine. Some people arrange extremely lavish picnics with pavilions, white tablecloths, silvercandelabras,classical music, and extravagant food. The picnic usually starts early in the morning, where some of the previous night's party-goers continue their celebrations from the previous night.
Some student organisations reserve areas where they traditionally camp every year. Student caps, mead, streamers and balloons have their role in the picnic and the celebration as a whole.
Lewis Morrison as "Mephistopheles" inFaust!: "The Brocken". Poster for a theatrical performance of Goethe's play showing Mephistopheles conjuring supernatural creatures on the German mountain, theBrocken (or Blocksberg), which according to the tale is the scenery for the Walpurgisnight, from 30 April to 1 May
In Germany,Hexennacht ('Witches' Night'), the night from 30 April to 1 May, is the night whenwitches are reputed to hold a large celebration on theBrocken and await the arrival of spring and is held on the same night as Saint Walpurgis Night (Sankt Walpurgisnacht).
Walpurgisnacht Night (in German folklore) the night of 30 April (May Day's eve), when witches meet on theBrocken mountain and hold revels with the Devil...
Brocken is the highest of the Harz Mountains of north central Germany. It is noted for the phenomenon of theBrocken spectre and for witches' revels which reputedly took place there on Walpurgis night.
The Brocken Spectre is a magnified shadow of an observer, typically surrounded by rainbow-like bands, thrown onto a bank of cloud in high mountain areas when the sun is low. The phenomenon was first reported on the Brocken.[30][incomplete short citation]
FromBram Stoker's short story,Dracula's Guest, an Englishman (whose name is never mentioned) is on a visit toMunich before leaving for Transylvania. It is Walpurgis Night, and in spite of the hotelier's warning not to be late coming back, the young man later leaves his carriage and wanders toward the direction of an abandoned "unholy" village. As the carriage departs with the frightened and superstitious driver, a tall and thin stranger scares the horses at the crest of a hill.
In some parts of northern coastal regions of Germany, the custom of lighting huge fires is still kept alive to celebrate the coming of May, while most parts of Germany have a derived Christianized custom around Easter called "Easter fires" (Osterfeuer).
In rural parts of southern Germany, it is part of popular youth culture to play pranks such as tampering with neighbours' gardens, hiding possessions, or spraying graffiti on private property.
InBerlin, traditionalleftist May Day riots usually start at Walpurgis Night in theMauerpark inPrenzlauer Berg. There is a similar tradition in theSchanzenviertel district ofHamburg, though in both cases, the situation has significantly calmed down in the past few years.
In Hungaryelderberries decorated the houses, which were used to ward off witches this day, because the Hungarians believed that different plants can protect against various diseases or supernatural dangers. But most witchcraft traditions occurred earlier in the spring festival cycle, onSt George's Day (Szent György napja), because of the proximity ofMay Day andPentecost.
In some places, these beliefs have not yet died out on Wilpurgis Night. InKésmárk the Hungarian population still knows about the fairy of the Thököly castle (Thököly vár), who sweeps the area around the Hungarian well at the dawn of Pentecost, and they still know about the witches who walk on May Day and Pentecost, but in most places, the source of evil was replaced by fire, ice, caterpillars and diseases as the country become moresecular.[31]
As in all Germanic countries,Sankt Walpurgisnacht was celebrated in areas of what is now the Netherlands.[32] It has not been celebrated recently due to the nationalKoninginnedag (Queen's Day) falling on the same date, though the newkoningsdag (King's Day) is on 27 April. The island ofTexel celebrates a festival known as the 'Meierblis [nl]' (roughly translated as 'May-Blaze') on that same day, where bonfires are lit near nightfall, just as on Walpurgis, but with the meaning to drive away the remaining cold of winter and welcome spring.[citation needed] Occasional mentions to the ritual occur, and at least once a feminist called group co-opted the name to call for attention to the position of women (following the example of German women's organizations),[33] a variety of theTake Back the Night phenomenon.[34]
Still, in recent years a renewed interest in pre-Christian religion and culture has led to renewed interest inHeksennacht (Witch's Night) as well.[35] In 1999, suspicions were raised among localReformed party members inPutten,Gelderland of a Heksennacht festival celebrated bySatanists. The party called for a ban. That such a festival even existed, however, and that it was 'Satanic' was rejected by most others.[36] The local Church inDokkum,Friesland, organized a Service in 2003 to pray for theHoly Spirit to, according to the church, counter the Satanic action.[37]
"Valborg" redirects here. For the given name, seeValborg (name).
While the nameWalpurgis is taken from the 8th-century BritishDumnonian Christian missionary Saint Walburga,valborg, as it is called in Swedish, also marks the arrival of spring.[5] The forms of celebration vary in different parts of the country and between different cities. Walpurgis celebrations are not a family occasion but rather a public event, and local groups often take responsibility for organising them to encourage community spirit in the village or neighbourhood. Celebrations normally include lighting the bonfire, choral singing and a speech to honour the arrival of the spring season, often held by a local celebrity.
In the Middle Ages, the administrative year ended on 30 April. Accordingly, this was a day of festivity among the merchants and craftsmen of the town, with trick-or-treat, dancing and singing in preparation for the forthcoming celebration of spring. SirJames George Frazer inThe Golden Bough writes, "The first of May is a great popular festival in the more midland and southern parts of Sweden. On the eve of the festival, huge bonfires, which should be lighted by striking two flints together, blaze on all the hills and knolls."[38]
Walpurgis bonfires are part of a Swedish tradition dating back to at least the early 18th century. At Walpurgis (valborg), farm animals were let out to graze and bonfires (majbrasor,kasar) lit to scare away predators. InSouthern Sweden, an older tradition, no longer practiced, was for the younger people to collect greenery and branches from the woods at twilight. These were used to adorn the houses of the village. The expected reward for this task was to be paid ineggs.
A big crowd, mostly students in typical Swedish whitestudent caps, participating in the traditional Saint Walpurgis Night celebration with song outsidethe Castle inUppsala. The silhouette of thecathedral towers may be seen in the background. To the right are banners and standards of thestudent nations. Image fromc. 1920.
Choral singing is a popular pastime in Sweden, and on Walpurgis Eve virtually every choir in the country is busy. Singing traditional songs of spring is widespread throughout the country. The songs are mostly from the 19th century and were spread by students' spring festivities. The strongest and most traditional spring festivities are also found in the old university cities, such asUppsala andLund, where undergraduates, graduates, and alumni gather at events that last most of the day from early morning to late night on 30 April, orsiste april ("The Last Day of April") as it is called in Lund, orsista april as it is called in Uppsala. For students, Walpurgis Eve heralds freedom. Traditionally the exams were over and only the odd lecture remained before term ends. On the last day of April, the students don their characteristic white caps and sing songs of welcome to spring, to the budding greenery and to a brighter future.
More modernvalborg celebrations, particularly among Uppsala students, often consist of enjoying a breakfast including champagne and strawberries. During the day, people gather in parks, drink considerable amounts of alcoholic beverages, barbecue, and generally enjoy the weather, if it happens to be favorable.
In Uppsala, since 1975, students honor spring by rafting onFyris river through the center of town with rickety, homemade, in fact quite easily wreckable, and often humorously decorated rafts.Severalnations also hold "Champagne Races" (Swedish:champagnegalopp), where students go to drink and spray champagne or sparkling wine on each other. The walls and floors of the old nation buildings are covered in plastic for this occasion, as the champagne is poured around recklessly and sometimes spilled enough to wade in. Spraying champagne is, however, a fairly recent addition to the Champagne Race. The name derives from the students running down the slope from theCarolina Rediviva library to drink champagne, toward thestudent nations.
InLinköping many students and former students begin the day at the park Trädgårdsföreningen, in the field belowBelvederen where the city laws permit alcohol, to drink champagne breakfast in a similar way to Uppsala. Later, at three o'clock, the students and public gather at the courtyard ofLinköping Castle. Spring songs are sung by theLinköping University Male Voice Choir, and speeches are made by representatives of the students and the university professors.
InGothenburg, the carnival parade,The Cortège, which has been held since 1909 by the students atChalmers University of Technology, is an important part of the celebration. It is seen by around 250,000 people each year. Another major event is the gathering of students inGarden Society of Gothenburg to listen to student choirs, orchestras, and speeches. An important part of the gathering is the ceremonial donning of the student cap, which stems from the time when students wore their caps daily and switched from black winter cap to white summer cap.
InUmeå, there is an old tradition of having local bonfires. During recent years, however, there has also been a tradition of celebrating Walpurgis at theUmeå University campus. The university organizes student choir singing, as well as other types of entertainment and a speech by the president of the university. Different stalls sell hot dogs, candy, soft drinks, etc.
TheChurch of Satan was founded on Sankt Walpurgisnacht in 1966.[39][40] FounderAnton Szandor LaVey states inThe Satanic Bible that besides one's own birthday and Halloween, Walpurgisnacht ranks as an importantSatanic holiday, noting the Eve of May has been memorialized as "symbolizing the fruition of the spring equinox",[41] and chose the date well aware of the date's traditional association with witchcraft.[42]
Additionally,The Satanic Temple celebrates Hexennacht as "a solemn holiday to honor those who were victimized by superstition".[43]
The novelJurgen: A Comedy of Justice by [[James Branch Cabell]~] begins on "Walburga's Eve, when almost anything is rather more than likely to happen"[44]
^abcdeGalván, Javier A. (19 June 2014).They Do What? A Cultural Encyclopedia of Extraordinary and Exotic Customs from around the World.ABC-CLIO. p. 51.ISBN978-1-61069-342-4.Early Christians in this region believed that, during Walpurgis Night, evil powers were at their strongest, and people had to protect themselves and their livestock by lighting fires on hillsides.
^abcdMurray, J. (1843).A handbook for travellers in southern Germany. p. 90.In theChurch of St. Walpurgis are preserved the remains of that Saint. They are interred beneath the high altar, and a stream of oil, which obtains the highest repute for its medicinal qualities, flows from them, between October and May. On St. Walpurgis' Day, May 1, many thousand pilgrims repair to her shrine.
^abcWilliams, Victoria (21 November 2016).Celebrating Life Customs around the World. ABC-CLIO. p. 217.ISBN978-1-4408-3659-6.During the Walpurgisnacht Walpurgisnacht, or Walpurgis Night, is one of the names given to the night of April 30, the eve of Saint Walpurga's feast day that falls on May 1. Since Saint Walpurga's feast occurs on May 1 the saint is associated with May Day, especially in Finland and Sweden.
^abNeuer immerwährender Gregorianischer Kalender (in German). Jaquet. 1856. p. 330.
^abcdeMelton, J. Gordon (2011).Religious Celebrations.ABC-CLIO. p. 915.ISBN978-1-59884-205-0.Her feast day commemorates both the movement of her relics to Eichstatt and her canonization, both of which occurred on May 1.
^abMendelssohn-Bartholdy, Felix;Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von (2005).Die Erste Walpurgisnacht: Ballade von Goethe für Chor und Orchester. Yushodo Press Co.ISBN978-4-8419-0396-6.The term Walpurgis Night derives from the eighth-century Saint Walpurga. She came from England to Germany as a Christian missionary and was hailed for her powers against epidemics (except for Covid 19) that role was left to Pope Francis himself. Francis interceded on the public's behalf and "prayed the Virus away".
^abcChapru, Doleta (1977).A Festival of the English May. Folklore Village Farm. p. 3.The Catholic Church chose May eve to honor St. Walpurga, protectress against magic arts. Walpurga was an English missionary to Germany in the eighth century.
^abcCanaday, John (2000).The Nuclear Muse: Literature, Physics, and the First Atomic Bombs. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 98.ISBN978-0-299-16854-4.Walpurgis Night falls on the eve of the feast day of St. Walpurga, an English missionary who was celebrated in the Middle Ages as a protectress against magic. It was a night when witches were believed to ride freely through the land.
^Upton, George Putnam (1912).The Standard Concert Guide. A.C. McClurg & Company. p. 294.In his separate poem Goethe seeks to go back to the origin of the first Walpurgis Night. May-day eve was consecrated to Saint Walpurgis, who converted the Saxons from Druidism to Christianity, and on that night the evil spirits were said to be abroad.
^abcdStark, Lucien (1998).Brahms's Vocal Duets and Quartets with Piano. Indiana University Press. p. 100.ISBN978-0-253-33402-2.Walpurgis Night, named for St. Walpurga (d. A.D. 777), an English saint whose feast day falls on May Day, is the evening of 30 April (May Day eve) when, as was widely held—particularly during medieval and Renaissance times—witches celebrate a sabbath. Still today there are places where bonfires are kept burning all night to repel the evil spirits.
^abcdWunderli, Richard M. (1992).Peasant Fires. Indiana University Press. p. 46.ISBN978-0-253-20751-7.Between Easter and Pentecost were many other celebrations and feast days. In Germany, for example, was celebrated the Feast of St. Walburga, orWalpurgisnacht, on April 30, the eve of May Day. Walburga was an eighth-century Anglo-Saxon nun and missionary to Franconia, particularly to Bischofsheim on the Tauber, just south of Niklashausen. Her bones were "translated" (that is, moved) on 30 April—which became her feast day—sometime during the 870s to Eichstätt, where her brother Willibald had been bishop. Ever since then an oily liquid has oozed out of the rock on which her tomb rests, and has been renowned among pilgrims for its great healing power.
^Elvins, Mark (2002).Catholic Trivia. Gracewing Publishing. p. 146.ISBN978-0-85244-559-4.
^Praetorius, Johannes (1668).Blockes-Berges Verrichtung oder ausführlicher geographischer Bericht von den hohen trefflich alt- und berühmten Blockes-Berge: ingleichen von der Hexenfahrt und Zauber-Sabbathe, so auff solchen Berge die Unholden aus gantz Teutschland Jährlich den 1. Maij in Sanct-Walpurgis-Nachte anstellen sollen; Aus vielen Autoribus abgefasset und mit schönen Raritäten angeschmücket sampt zugehörigen Figuren; Nebenst einen Appendice vom Blockes-Berge wie auch des Alten Reinsteins und der Baumans Höle am Hartz (in German). Leipzig: Scheiber.
^abAccardo, Pasquale (6 December 2012).The Medical Almanac: A Calendar of Dates of Significance to the Profession of Medicine, Including Fascinating Illustrations, Medical Milestones, Dates of Birth and Death of Notable Physicians, Brief Biographical Sketches, Quotations, and Assorted Medical Curiosities and Trivia. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 80.ISBN978-1-4612-0365-0.
^Smith, George (1884).Short History of Christian Missions: From Abraham and Paul to Carey, Livingstone and Duff. T. & T. Clark. p. 89.Walpurga, who at the special request of Boniface had accompanied her brother Winibald and kinsman Willibald from Dorsetshire to help the much-toiling missionary in Thuringia, represents a band of devoted women who founded sisterhoods in many parts of Germany, and tamed the people by their Christ-like tenderness and self-sacrifice.
^Sanneh, Lamin; McClymond, Michael (23 May 2016).The Wiley Blackwell Companion to World Christianity. John Wiley & Sons. p. 80.ISBN978-1-4051-5376-8.English and Hiberno‐Scottish monks also provided the Carolingian continent with an abundance of missionaries like St. Columbanus, St. Fridolin, St. Boniface, St. Willibrord, and the often overlooked abbess St. Walpurga. These missionaries led a clerical reform movement within the Carolingian dominions as well as a missionary expansion of Christianity into the regions hitherto untouched by Gallo‐Roman Christianity (Frisia, Saxony, Thuringia, Bavaria, Carinthia).
^Noble, David F (23 January 2013).A World Without Women: The Christian Clerical Culture of Western Science. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 67.ISBN978-0-307-82852-1.
^Bryan, Mary Lynn; Bair, Barbara; Angury, Maree de (1 October 2010).The Selected Papers of Jane Addams. University of Illinois Press. p. 361.ISBN978-0-252-09067-7.St. Walburga (Walpurga, Walpurgia, Vaubourg, Falbourg) (710-777) was an Anglo-Saxon woman trained in medicine; she became a nun under St. Tatta at Wimbourne in Dorset, England. St. Boniface was her uncle, and her father was an under-king of the West Saxons. In 748 she followed St. Lioba to Germany at the invitation of Boniface, and there she founded, with her brother, St. Winnibald (d. 761), a double monastery (one for both me and women) at Heidenheim. Walburga was much beloved. She was believed to be able to protect crops and communicate with animals, and her powers were sought as a healer. Images sometimes present her as an earth mother with three ears of corn.
^Berger, Pamela (1985).The Goddess Obscured: Transformation of the Grain Protectress from Goddess to Saint. Beacon Press. pp. 61–64.
^ Casanova, Gertrude (1913)."St. Walburga". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.).Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved30 April 2016.
^LaVey, Anton Szandor (1969).The Satanic Bible. HarperCollins. pp. 96–97.ISBN978-0-380-01539-9.The Eve of May has been memorialized as the night that all of the demons, specters, afreets, and banshees would come forth and hold their wold revels, symbolizing the fruition of the spring equinox.
^Hendrix, Scott E.; Okeja, Uchenna (2018).The World's Greatest Religious Leaders: How Religious Figures Helped Shape World History. ABC-CLIO. p. 360.ISBN978-1-4408-4138-5.
^"Hexennacht Is Upon Us".Satanic Living. 29 April 2020. Retrieved1 May 2020.It is the Eve of Hexennacht (also known as Walpurgis Night) is upon us. To the members of The Satanic Temple, Hexennact is an occasion to "honoring those who fell victim to superstition and pseudoscience, whether by witch hunt, Satanic panic, or other injustices."
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