Wallonia (/wɒˈloʊniə/wol-OH-nee-ə),[a][b] officially theWalloon Region,[c][d] is one of the threeregions ofBelgium—along withFlanders andBrussels.[5] Covering the southern portion of the country, Wallonia is primarilyFrench-speaking. It accounts for 55% of Belgium's territory, but only a third of its population. The Walloon Region and theFrench Community of Belgium, which is the political entity responsible for matters related mainly to culture and education, are independent concepts, because the French Community of Belgium encompasses both Wallonia and the bilingualBrussels-Capital Region but not theGerman-speaking Community of Belgium, which administers nine municipalities in Eastern Wallonia.
During theIndustrial Revolution, Wallonia was second only to the United Kingdom in industrialization, capitalizing on its extensive deposits of coal and iron. This brought the region wealth, and from the beginning of the 19th to the middle of the 20th century, Wallonia was the more prosperous half of Belgium. SinceWorld War II, the importance ofheavy industry has greatly diminished, and the Flemish Region has exceeded Wallonia in wealth as Wallonia has declined economically. Wallonia now suffers from high unemployment and has a significantly lower GDP per capita than Flanders. The economic inequalities and linguistic divide between the two are major sources of political conflicts in Belgium and a major factor inFlemish separatism.
The capital of Wallonia isNamur, and the most populous city isCharleroi. Most of Wallonia's major cities and two-thirds of its population lie along the east–west alignedSambre and Meuse valley, the former industrial backbone of Belgium. To the north of this valley, Wallonia lies on the Central Belgian Plateau, which, like Flanders, is a relatively flat and agriculturally fertile area. The south and southeast of Wallonia is made up of theArdennes, an expanse of forested highland that is less densely populated.
There is aGerman-speaking minority in eastern Wallonia, resulting from the annexation of threecantons previously part of theGerman Empire at the conclusion ofWorld War I. This community represents less than 1%[6] of the Belgian population. It forms theGerman-speaking Community of Belgium, which has its own government and parliament for culture-related issues.
The term "Wallonia" can mean slightly different things in different contexts. One of the threefederal regions of Belgium is still constitutionally defined as the "Walloon Region" as opposed to "Wallonia", but the latter has been adopted by the regional government and is in common use.[7][8] Prior to 2010, when the renaming came into effect,Wallonia could sometimes refer to the territory governed by the Walloon Region, whereasWalloon Region referred specifically to the government. In practice, the difference between the two terms is small and what is meant is usually clear, based on context.
Julius Caesar conqueredGaul in 57 BC. TheLow Countries became part of the largerGallia Belgicaprovince which originally stretched from southwestern Germany toNormandy and the southern part of the Netherlands. The population of this territory wasCeltic with aGermanic influence which was stronger in the north than in the south of the province. Gallia Belgica became progressivelyromanized. The ancestors of the Walloons becameGallo-Romans and were called the "Walha" by their Germanic neighbours. The "Walha" abandoned theirCeltic dialects and started to speakVulgar Latin.[14]
TheMerovingianFranks gradually gained control of the region during the 5th century, underClovis. Due to the fragmentation of the formerRoman Empire, Vulgar Latin regionally developed along different lines and evolved into severallangue d'oïl dialects, which in Wallonia becamePicard,Walloon andLorrain.[14] The oldest surviving text written in alangue d'oïl, theSequence of Saint Eulalia, has characteristics of these three languages and was likely written in or very near to what is now Wallonia around 880AD.[13] From the 4th to the 7th century, theFranks established several settlements, probably mostly in the north of the province where the romanization was less advanced and some Germanic trace was still present. The language border (that now splits Belgium in the middle) began to crystallize between 700 under the reign of theMerovingians andCarolingians and around 1000 after theOttonian Renaissance.[15] French-speaking cities, withLiège as the largest one, appeared along theMeuse, while Gallo-Roman cities such asTongeren,Maastricht andAachen became Germanized.
TheCarolingian dynasty dethroned the Merovingians in the 8th century. In 843, theTreaty of Verdun gave the territory of present-day Wallonia toMiddle Francia, which would shortly fragment, with the region passing toLotharingia. On Lotharingia's breakup in 959, the present-day territory of Belgium became part ofLower Lotharingia, which then fragmented into rival principalities and duchies by 1190. LiteraryLatin, which was taught in schools, lost its hegemony during the 13th century and was replaced byOld French.[14]
In the 15th century, theDukes of Burgundy took over theLow Countries. The death ofCharles the Bold in 1477 raised the issue of succession, and theLiégeois took advantage of this to regain some of their autonomy.[14] From the 16th to the 18th century, the Low Countries were governed successively by theHabsburg dynasty of Spain (from the early 16th century until 1713–14) and later by Austria (until 1794). This territory was enlarged in 1521–22 whenCharles V, Holy Roman Emperor gained theTournai region from France.[14]
The profitability of the heavy industries to which Wallonia owed its prosperity started declining in the first half of the 20th century, and the centre of industrial activity shifted north to Flanders. The loss of prosperity caused social unrest, and Wallonia sought greater autonomy in order to address its economic problems. In the wake of the1960-1961 Winter General Strike, the process ofstate reform in Belgium got underway. This reform started partly with thelinguistic laws of 1962–63, which defined the four language areas within theconstitution. But the strikes of 1960 which took place in Wallonia more than inFlanders are not principally linked with the four language areas nor with the Communities but with the Regions. In 1968, the conflict between the communities burst out. French speakers in Flanders (who were not necessarily Walloons) were driven out of, most notably the Leuven-basedCatholic University amid shouts of "Walen buiten!" ("Walloons out!"). After a formal split of the university in two and the creation of abrand new campus in Wallonia,[17] a wider series ofState reforms was passed in Belgium, which resulted in the federalisation of the nation and the creation of the Walloon Region and theFrench Community (comprising both Wallonia and Brussels), administrative entities each of which would gain various levels of considerable autonomy.
Coalmining and steelmaking industrial areas in Belgium. Thesillon industriel is the blue area along theMeuse andSambre.The natural regions of Belgium
Wallonia islandlocked, with an area of 16,901 km2 (6,526 sq mi), or 55 percent of the total area of Belgium. TheSambre and Meuse valley, fromLiège (70 m (230 ft)) toCharleroi (120 m (390 ft)) is anentrenched river in afault line which separates Middle Belgium (elevation 100–200 m (330–660 ft)) and High Belgium (200–700 m (660–2,300 ft)). This fault line corresponds to a part of the southern coast of the lateLondon-Brabant Massif. The valley, along withHaine andVesdre valleys form thesillon industriel, the historical centre of the Belgian coalmining and steelmaking industry, and is also called the Walloon industrial backbone. Due to their long industrial historic record, several segments of the valley have received specific names:Borinage, aroundMons, leCentre, aroundLa Louvière, thePays noir, aroundCharleroi and the Basse-Sambre, nearNamur.
To the north of the Sambre and Meuse valley lies the Central Belgian plateau, which is characterized byintensive agriculture. The Walloon part of this plateau is traditionally divided into several regions:Walloon Brabant aroundNivelles,Western Hainaut (French:Wallonie picarde, aroundTournai), andHesbaye aroundWaremme. South of the sillon industriel, the land is more rugged and is characterized by moreextensive farming. It is traditionally divided into the regions of Entre-Sambre-et-Meuse,Condroz,Fagne-Famenne, theArdennes andLand of Herve, as well as theBelgian Lorraine aroundArlon andVirton. Dividing it intoCondroz,Famenne,Calestienne,Ardennes (includingThiérache), and Belgian Lorraine (which includes theGaume) is more reflective of the physical geography. The larger region, the Ardennes, is a thickly forested plateau with caves and small gorges. It is host to much of Belgium's wildlife but little agricultural capacity. This area extends westward into France and eastward to theEifel in Germany via theHigh Fens plateau, on which theSignal de Botrange forms the highest point in Belgium at 694 metres (2,277 ft).
Contributions to the development of science and technology have appeared since the beginning of the country's history. Thebaptismal font ofRenier de Huy is not the only example of medieval Walloon technical expertise: the words "houille" (coal)[19] or "houilleur" (coal miner) or "grisou" (damp) were coined in Wallonia and areWalloon in origin.
In the present day,Bureau Greisch has acquired an international reputation as consulting engineer and architect in the fields of structures, civil engineering and buildings, including theMillau Viaduct in France.
Wallonia is rich in iron and coal, and these resources and related industries have played an important role in its history. In ancient times, theSambre and Meuse valley was an important industrial area in theRoman Empire. In theMiddle Ages, Wallonia became a center forbrass working andbronze working, withHuy,Dinant andChimay being important regional centers. In the 12th and 13th centuries, the iron masters ofLiège developed a method of refining iron ore by the use of a blast furnace, called theWalloon Method. There were also a few coal mines aroundCharleroi and theBorinage during this period, but their output was small, and was principally consumed as fuel by various industries such as the important glassmaking industry that sprang up in theCharleroi basin during the 14th century.[20]
In the 19th century, the area began to industrialize, mainly along the so-calledsillon industriel. It was the first fully industrialized area incontinental Europe,[16] and Wallonia was the second industrial power in the world, in proportion to its population and its territory, after the United Kingdom.[21] The sole industrial centre in Belgium outside the collieries and blast furnaces of Wallonia was the historic cloth making town ofGhent.[22]
The two World Wars curbed the continuous expansion that Wallonia had enjoyed up till that time. Towards the end of the 1950s, things began to change dramatically. The factories of Wallonia were by then antiquated, the coal was running out and the cost of extracting coal was constantly rising. It was the end of an era, and Wallonia has been making efforts to redefine itself. The restoration of economical development is high on the political agenda, and the government is encouraging development of industries, notably in cutting-edge technology and in business parks.[23] The economy is improving,[24] but Wallonia is not yet at the level ofFlanders and is still suffering from difficulties.
The wordspa comes from the healinghot springs ofSpa in theArdennes. Tourism is an important part of the economy of Wallonia.[25]Urban blight in Damprémy near Charleroi
The current Walloon economy is relatively diversified, although certain areas (especially around Charleroi and Liège) are still suffering from the steel industry crisis, with an unemployment rate of up to 30 percent. Nonetheless, Wallonia has some companies which are world leaders in their specialized fields, includingarmaments, glass production,[26]lime andlimestone production,[27]cyclotrons[28] and aviation parts.[29] The south of Wallonia, borderingLuxembourg, benefits from its neighbour's economic prosperity, with many Belgians working on the other side of the border; they are often calledfrontaliers. TheArdennes area south of theMeuse is a popular tourist destination for its nature and outdoor sports, in addition to its cultural heritage, with places such asBastogne,Dinant,Durbuy, and the famoushot springs ofSpa.
The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the region was 105.7 billion € in 2018, accounting for 23% of Belgian economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was €25,700 or 85% of the EU27 average in the same year.[30]
Belgium is afederal state made up of three communities and three regions, each with considerable autonomy. One of these is the Walloon Region, which is governed by theParliament of Wallonia and the executiveGovernment of Wallonia. The Walloon Region's autonomy extends even to foreign policy; Wallonia is entitled to pursue its own foreign policy, including the signing of treaties, and in many domains, even the Belgian federal government is not able to sign an international treaty without the agreement of the Parliament of Wallonia.
Wallonia is also home to about 80 per cent of the population of theFrench Community of Belgium, a political level responsible for matters related mainly to culture and education, with the remainder living inBrussels. Wallonia is also home to the smallGerman-speaking Community of Belgium in the east, which has its own government and parliament for culture-related issues. Although inFlanders, theFlemish Region assigned all of its powers to theFlemish Community, the Walloon Region remains in principle distinct from and independent from the French Community, and vice versa. Despite this, theFrench Community's parliament is almost entirely composed of members of Wallonia's and Brussels' parliaments, so the bodies are governed by the same individuals. Additionally, the French Community of Belgium has controversially begun referring to itself exclusively as the 'Wallonia-Brussels Federation' to emphasize the links between the French Community, Wallonia and Brussels.
The Walloon Region has aunicameral parliament with 75 members elected for five years by directuniversal suffrage, and an executive, theGovernment of Wallonia, elected by a political majority in Parliament. The Government has nine members with the president. Each member is called aWalloon minister. The head of the Government is called theMinister-President of Wallonia. The coalition government for the 2014–2019 legislature was a centre-left coalitionPS-cdH until July 28 when it was replaced by a centre-left coalition MR-cdH. The current Minister-President isElio Di Rupo.
Following severalstate reforms, especially the 1993 state reform, Belgium became a federal state made up of three communities and three regions, with Wallonia being represented by the Walloon Region and its two language communities. The directly elected Walloon Parliament was created in June 1995, replacing theConseil régional wallon (Regional Council of Wallonia). The first Council had sat on 15 October 1980 and was composed of members of theBelgian Chamber of Representatives and theBelgian Senate elected in Wallonia.
Wallonia is considered to beleft-wing politically, in contrast to Flanders, which is more right-wing.[31] The region has been described as one of the few places in Europe without a significantright-wing populism presence.[32][33] In Wallonia, there is acordon sanitaire in the media, wherefar-right politicians are banned from interviews and live appearances.[34][35] The ban has also affected more mainstream right-wing parties such as theN-VA.[36]
The first appearance of the French wordWallonie as a reference to the romance world as opposed to Germany is said to date from 1842.[37] Two years later, it was first used to refer to the Romance part of the young country of Belgium.[38] In 1886, the writer and Walloon militantAlbert Mockel, first used the word with a political meaning of cultural and regional affirmation,[39] in opposition with the wordFlanders used by theFlemish Movement. The word had previously appeared in German and Latin as early as the 17th century.[40]
The rising of a Walloon identity led theWalloon Movement to choose different symbols representing Wallonia. The main symbol is the "bold rooster" (French:coq hardi), also named "Walloon rooster" (French:coq wallon,Walloon:cok walon), which is widely used, particularly on arms and flags. The rooster was chosen as an emblem by theWalloon Assembly on 20 April 1913, and designed byPierre Paulus on 3 July 1913.[41][better source needed] TheFlag of Wallonia features the red rooster on a yellow background.
An anthem,Le Chant des Wallons (The Walloons' Song), written by Theophile Bovy in 1900 and composed by Louis Hillier in 1901, was also adopted. On September 21, 1913, the "national" feast day of Wallonia took place for the first time inVerviers, commemorating the participation of Walloons during theBelgian Revolution of 1830. It is held annually on the third Sunday of September. The Assembly also chose amotto for Wallonia, "Walloon Forever" (Walloon:Walon todi), and a cry, "Liberty" (French:Liberté). In 1998, theWalloon Parliament made all these symbols official except the motto and the cry.
The population of Wallonia is predominantly of Christian heritage. In 2016, 68% of residents of Wallonia declared themselves to beRoman Catholic (21% were practising Catholics and 47% were non-practising), 3% wereMuslim, 3% wereProtestant Christian, 1% were of other religions and 25% were non-religious.[42]
French is the official language of Wallonia and by far the most used; in theEast Cantons,German is also official.[43] TheGerman-speaking Community of Belgium accounts for about 2% of the region's population.Belgian French, which is also spoken in theBrussels-Capital Region, is similar to that spoken in France, with slight differences in pronunciation and some vocabulary differences, notably the use of the wordsseptante (70) andnonante (90), as opposed tosoixante-dix andquatre-vingt-dix in France.
There are noticeable Walloon accents, with the accent fromLiège and its surroundings being perhaps the most striking. Other regions of Wallonia also have characteristic accents, often linked to the regional language.
Walloons traditionally also speak regional Romance languages, all from theLangues d'oïl group. Wallonia includes almost all of the area whereWalloon is spoken, aPicard zone corresponding to the major part of theHainaut Province, theGaume (district ofVirton) with theLorrain language and aChampenois zone. There are also regional Germanic languages, such as theLuxembourgish language inArelerland (Land ofArlon). The regional languages of Wallonia are more important than in France, and they have been officially recognized by the government. With the development of education in French, however, these dialects have been in continual decline. There is currently an effort to revive Walloon dialects; some schools offer language courses in Walloon, and Walloon is also spoken in some radio programmes, but this effort remains very limited.
Literature is written principally in French but also in Walloon and other regional languages, colloquially called Walloon literature.Walloon literature (regional language not French) has been printed since the 16th century. But it did have its golden age, paradoxically, during the peak of theFlemish immigration to Wallonia in the 19th century: "That period saw an efflorescence of Walloon literature, plays and poems primarily, and the founding of many theaters and periodicals."[44]
TheNew York Public Library possesses a surprisingly large collection of literary works in Walloon, quite possibly the largest outside Belgium, and its holding are representative of the output. Out of nearly a thousand, twenty-six were published before 1880. Thereafter the numbers rise gradually year by year, reaching a peak of sixty-nine in 1903, and then they fall again, down to eleven in 1913. See 'Switching Languages', p. 153. Yves Quairiaux counted 4800 plays for 1860–1914, published or not. In this period plays were almost the only popular show in Wallonia. But this theater remains popular in the present-day Wallonia: Theater is still flourishing, with over 200 non-professional companies playing in the cities and villages of Wallonia for an audience of over 200,000 each year.[45]
There are links between French literature and (the very small) Walloon literature. For instanceRaymond Queneau setEditions Gallimard the publication of a Walloon Poets' anthology.Ubu roi was translated in Walloon byAndré Blavier, aVervierspataphysician, for the new and importantPuppets theater of Liège of Jacques Ancion, theAl Botroûle theater "at the umbilical cord" in Walloon indicating a desire to return to the source (according to Joan Cross). But Jacques Ancion wanted to develop a regular adult audience. From the 19th century, he included the Walloon playTati l'Pèriquî by E.Remouchamps and the avant-gardeUbu roi byA.Jarry.[46]
For Jean-Marie Klinkenberg, "the dialectal culture is no more a sign of attachment to the past but a way to participate to a new synthesis".[47]
Jean-Marie Klinkenberg (member of theGroupe μ) wrote that Wallonia, and literature in Wallonia, has been present in French language since its formation.[48]
In their 'Histoire illustrée des lettres française de Belgique', Charlier and Hanse (editors), La Renaissance du livre, Bruxelles, 1958, published 247 pages (on 655 ), about the "French" literature in the Walloon provinces (or Walloon principalities of the Middle-Age, sometimes also Flemish provinces and principalities), for a period from the 11th to the 18th century. Among the works or the authors, theSequence of Saint Eulalia (9th century),La Vie de Saint Léger (10th century),Jean Froissart (14th century in theCounty of Hainaut),Jean d'Outremeuse,Jean Lebel,Jean Lemaire de Belges (16th century fromBavay), thePrince ofLigne (18th century,Beloeil). There is a WalloonSurrealism,[49] especially inHainaut Province.Charles Plisnier (1896–1952), born in Mons, won thePrix Goncourt in 1936, for his novelMariages and forFaux Passeports (short stories denouncing Stalinism, in the same spirit asArthur Koestler). He was the first foreigner to receive this honour. The WalloonGeorges Simenon is likely the most widely read French-speaking writer in the world, according to theTribune de Genève.[50][51] More than 500 million of his books have been sold, and they have been translated into 55 languages. There is a link between theJean Louvet's work and the social issues in Wallonia.[52]
Picard is spoken inHainaut Province of western Belgium. Notable Belgian authors who wrote in Picard include Géo Libbrecht, Paul Mahieu, Paul André, Francis Couvreur and Florian Duc.
Herri Met de Blès,Landscape with the Fire of Sodom, 21.5 x 33 cm, c. 1526–1550, Musée des Arts anciens du Namurois, Namur. This landscape is similar to theMeuse betweenDinant andNamur
George Grard (1901—1984) was a Walloon sculptor, known above all for his representations of the female, in the manner ofPierre Renoir andAristide Maillol, modelled in clay or plaster, and cast in bronze.
Thevocal music of the so-calledFranco-Flemish School developed in the southern part of the Low Countries and was an important contribution to Renaissance culture. Robert Wangermée and Philippe Mercier wrote in their encyclopedic book about the Walloon music thatLiège,Cambrai andHainaut Province played a leading part in the so-called Franco-Flemish School.[56]
Henri Pousseur is generally regarded as a member of theDarmstadt School in the 1950s. Pousseur's music employsserialism, mobile forms, and aleatory, often mediating between or among seemingly irreconcilable styles, such as those ofSchubert andWebern (Votre Faust), or Pousseur's own serial style and the protest song "We shall overcome" (Couleurs croisées). He was strongly linked to the social strikes inLiège during the 1960s.[58] He worked also with the French writerMichel Butor.
TheDucasse de Mons (Walloon French forKermesse), is one of theUNESCOMasterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity. It comprises two important parts: the procession, the descent and the ascent of the shrine ofWaltrude, and the combat betweenSaint George and the dragon. The combat (after the procession), plays out on the Trinity Sunday between 12:30 pm and 1:00 pm on theMons's central square. It represents the fight between Saint George (the good) and the dragon (the evil). The dragon is a mannequin carried and moved by thewhite men (fr:Hommes blancs). The dragon fights Saint George by attacking with his tail. Saint George on his horse turns clockwise and the dragon turns in the other direction. Saint George finally kills the dragon.
Wallonia is famous for a number of different foods and drinks, a great many of which are specialties of certain cities or regions. TheLiège waffle a rich, dense, sweet, and chewy waffle native to Liège, is the most popular type of waffle in Belgium, and can be found in stores and even vending machines throughout the country.Cougnou, or thebread of Jesus, is a sweet bread typically eaten around Christmas time and found throughout the region.
Other specialties includeHerve cheese, anapple butter calledsirop de Liège, theGarden strawberry ofWépion. Also notable is theDinant specialtyFlamiche: These cheese tarts are not found in window displays as they are meant to be eaten straight from the oven. As one restaurateur stated in a book about Walloon gastronomy "it is the client who waits for the flamiche, as the flamiche does not wait for the client".[63] There are also theArdennesham,[64] thetarte al djote fromNivelles, a dessert pie made with beet leaves and cheese,[65] whiletarte au riz is a rice-pudding filled pie fromVerviers. The Walloons of the Door Peninsula in Wisconsin have a tradition of making what is called a Belgian Pie but which is a flat pie more like a pizza covered with prune purée and topped with a thin cheese layer. These were made by the dozens in outdoor stone ovens for the many kermisses, in a tradition that dates back to immigration in the 1850s.
A signature Walloon sausage is called Belgian Trippe among the Walloon community of Northeastern Wisconsin on the Door Peninsula. It is a blend of pork and cabbage made differently from household to household and probably based on a traditional Walloon sausage such as Boudin Verte d'Orp. Cussette is a fresh cheese which gets its airborneP. roqueforti culture from a tradition of making it in the kitchen. This is aged only one week at 30 degrees C, until it develops a faint blue cast and a tang. Walloon headcheese differs from the German in that it is more finely ground, includes bits of cartilage, and is allowed to sit for a month or two in a cool place before being eaten.
In terms of drink, Wallonia mirrors Belgium as a whole; beer and wine are both popular, and a great diversity of beers are made and enjoyed in Wallonia. Installed in Bierghes in the Senne valley, the Gueuzerie Tilquin is the only gueuze blendery in Wallonia. Wallonia boasts three of the sevenTrappist beers (fromChimay,Orval andRochefort) in addition to a great number of other locally brewed beers. Wallonia is also home to the last bastion of traditional rusticsaison, most notably those produced at theBrasserie de Silly and the Brasserie Dupont (located inTourpes, in the region of WesternHainaut Province historically known for its production of rustic farmhouse ales).Jupiler, the best-selling beer in Belgium, is brewed inJupille-sur-Meuse inLiège. Wallonia also home to aJenever called Peket, and aMay wine called Maitrank.
The two largest cities in Wallonia each have an airport. TheBrussels South Charleroi Airport has become an important passenger airport, especially with low fares companies such asRyanair orWizzair. It serves as a low-cost alternative toBrussels Airport, and it saw 7 303 720 passengers in 2016. TheLiège Airport is specialized in freight, although it also operates tourist-oriented charter flights. Today, Liège is the 8th airport for European freight and aims to reach the 5th rank in the next decade.
Wallonia has an extensive and well-developed rail network, served by the Belgian National Railway Company,SNCB.
Wallonia's numerous motorways fall within the scope of theTrans-European Transport Network (TEN-T). This priority programme run by the European Union provides more than 70,000 km of transport infrastructure, including motorways, express rail lines and roadways, and has been developed to carry substantial volumes of traffic.[66]
With traffic of over 20 million tonnes and 26 kilometres of quays, theautonomous port of Liège (PAL) is the third largest inland port in Europe.[67] It carries out the management of 31 ports along theMeuse and theAlbert Canal. It is accessible to sea and river transporters weighing up to 2,500 tonnes, and to push two-barge convoys (4,500 tonnes, soon to be raised to 9,000 tonnes). Even if Wallonia does not have direct access to the sea, it is very well connected to the major ports thanks to an extensive network of navigable waterways that pervades Belgium, and it has effective river connections toAntwerp,Rotterdam andDunkirk.[68]
On the west side of Wallonia, inHainaut Province, theStrépy-Thieu boat lift, permits river traffic of up to the new 1350-tonne standard to pass between the waterways of the Meuse andScheldt rivers. Completed in 2002 at an estimated cost of €160 million (then 6.4 billionBelgian francs) the lift has increased river traffic from 256 kT in 2001 to 2,295 kT in 2006.
The AWEX organizes regular trade missions to the promising market of Kazakhstan, where it has a representative office in Almaty. In 2017, the AWEX together with theFlanders Investment and Trade brought a delegation of 30 companies to Astana and Almaty, the two largest cities in Kazakhstan.[70]
^The Belgian Constitution(PDF). Brussels, Belgium: Belgian House of Representatives. May 2014. p. 5. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 10 August 2015. Retrieved10 September 2015.Article 3: Belgium comprises three Regions: the Flemish Region, the Walloon Region and the Brussels Region. Article 4: Belgium comprises four linguistic regions: the Dutch-speaking region, the French-speaking region, the bilingual region of Brussels-Capital and the German-speaking region.
^(French) Albert Henry, Histoire des mots Wallons et Wallonie,Institut Jules Destrée [fr], Coll. «Notre histoire», Mont-sur-Marchienne, 1990, 3rd ed. (1st ed. 1965), foodnote 13 p. 86.
^Footnote: In medieval French, the wordLiégeois referred to all the inhabitants of the Principality vis-à-vis the other inhabitants of the Low Countries, the wordWalloon being applied specifically to the French-speaking inhabitants vis-à-vis the other inhabitants of the Principality.Stengers, Jean (1991). "Depuis quand les Liégeois sont-ils des Wallons?". InHasquin, Hervé (ed.).Hommages à la Wallonie [mélanges offerts à Maurice Arnould et Pierre Ruelle] (in French). Brussels: éditions de l'ULB. pp. 431–447.
^ab(in French)Maurice DelbouilleRomanité d'oïl Les origines : la langue – les plus anciens textes inLa Wallonie, le pays et les hommes Tome I (Lettres, arts, culture), La Renaissance du Livre, Bruxelles,1977, pp.99–107.
^Kramer, pg. 59, citingM. Gysseling (1962). "La genèse de la frontière linguistique dans le Nord de la Gaule".Revue du Nord (in French).44 (173):5–38, in particular 17.doi:10.3406/rnord.1962.2410.
^There is also a mention ofWallonie in 1825 :(in French) « les Germains, au contraire, réservant pour eux seuls le noble nom de Franks, s'obstinaient, dès le onzième siècle, à ne plus voir de Franks dans la Gaule, qu'ils nommaient dédaigneusement Wallonie, terre des Wallons ou des Welsches »Augustin Thierry,Histoire de la conquête de l'Angleterre par les Normands, Éd. Firmin Didot, Paris, 1825, tome 1, p. 155.read online
^(in French) Albert Henry,Histoire des mots Wallons et Wallonie, Institut Jules Destrée, Coll. «Notre histoire», Mont-sur-Marchienne, 1990, 3rd ed. (1st ed. 1965), p. 12.
^(in French) «C'est cette année-là [1886] que naît le motWallonie, dans son sens politique d'affirmation culturelle régionale, lorsque le Liégeois Albert Mockel crée une revue littéraire sous ce nom» Philippe Destatte,L'identité wallonne p. 32.
^La préhistoire latine du mot Wallonie in Luc Courtois, Jean-Pierre Delville, Françoise Rosart & Guy Zélis (editors),Images et paysages mentaux des XIXe et XXe siècles de la Wallonie à l'Outre-Mer, Hommage au professeurJean Pirotte à l'occasion de son éméritat, Academia Bruylant, Presses Universitaires de l'UCL, Louvain-la-Neuve, 2007, pp. 35–48ISBN978-2-87209-857-6, p. 47
^"La Constitution belge (Art. 4)" (in French). theBelgian Senate. May 2007. Retrieved18 January 2009.La Belgique comprend quatre régions linguistiques : la région de langue française, la région de langue néerlandaise, la région bilingue de Bruxelles-Capitale et la région de langue allemande.
^"Switching Languages", Translingual Writers Reflect on Their Craft, Edited by Steven G. Kellman Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2003, p. 153;ISBN978-0-8032-2747-7
^Joan Gross, Speaking in Other Voices: An Ethnography of Walloon Puppet Theaters. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Press, 2001;ISBN1-58811-054-0
^Benoît Denis et Jean-Marie Klinkenberg, Littérature : entre insularité et activisme in Le Tournant des années 1970. Liège en effervescence, Les Impressions nouvelles, Bruxelles, 2010, pp. 237–253, p. 252. French : Ancion monte l'Ubu rwèen 1975 (...) la culture dialectalisante cesse d'être une marque de passéisme pour participer à une nouvelle synthèse...
^Histoire de la Wallonie, Privat Toulouse, 2004,ISBN2-7089-4779-6 p. 220. French:Le latin apporté en Gaule par les légions romaines avait fini par éclater en de multiples dialectes (...) peu à peu, pour répondre aux besoins des pouvoirs publics et religieux se forme une langue standard. Dans ce processus qui aboutira à l'élaboration du français, la Wallonie est présente dès les premières heures.
^An PaenhuysenSurrealism in the Provinces. Flemish and Walloon Identity in the Interwar period inImage&Narrative, n° 13, Leuven November, 2005
^FrenchLe troisième grand Maître de l'Ars Nova in Robert Wangermée et Philippe Mercier, La musique en Wallonie et à Bruxelles, La Renaissance du livre, Bruxelles, 1980, Tome I, pp. 37–40.
^Robert Wangermée et Philippe Mercier, La musique en Wallonie et à Bruxelles, La Renaissance du livre, Bruxelles, 1980, Tome I, p. 10.
^The "Trois Visages de Liege", (...) full of provocative sound collages [evokes..] not only moments in sonic civic history, but the sounds of its historical events as well: wildcat strikes and their ensuing violence in 1960, protests against new laws being enacted, etc. SeeAcousmatrix 4: Scambi/Trois Visages de Liege/Paraboles Mix
^Historical dictionary of Belgium (Scarecrow press, 1999, p. 191;ISBN0-8108-3603-3).
^Cinéma wallon et réalité particulière, in TOUDI, n° 49/50, septembre-octobre 2002, p. 13.
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