Wallachia is a geographical region of modern-dayRomania, as well as one of the two historicalRomanian principalities that laid the foundation for theestablishment of the modern Romanian state. It is situated north of theLower Danube and south of theSouthern Carpathians. Wallachia was traditionally divided into two sections,Muntenia (Greater Wallachia) andOltenia (Lesser Wallachia).Dobruja could sometimes be considered a third section due to its proximity andbrief rule over it. Wallachia as a whole is sometimes referred to asMuntenia through identification with the larger of the two traditional sections.
The nameWallachia is anexonym, generally not used by Romanians themselves, who used the denomination "Țara Românească" – Romanian Country or Romanian Land, although it does appear in some Romanian texts asValahia orVlahia. It derives from the termwalhaz used byGermanic peoples andEarly Slavs to refer to Romans and other speakers of foreign languages. It was used to designateGaulic-speakers(seeWales andCornwall) andRomance-speakers(seeWallonia andMegálē Vlachía); and subsequently, due to the survival of the Romance-speaking communities in the eastern parts as pastoralists, shepherds in general(association made by the Hellenes, Magyars, and Serbo-Croats).
InSlavonic texts of theEarly Middle Ages, the nameZemli Ungro-Vlahiskoi (Земли Унгро-Влахискои or "Hungaro-Wallachian Land") was also used as a designation for the region. The term, translated in Romanian as "Ungrovalahia", remained in use up to the modern era in a religious context, referring to theRomanian OrthodoxMetropolitan seat of Hungaro-Wallachia, in contrast toThessalian orGreat Vlachia in Greece or Small Wallachia (Mala Vlaška) in Serbia.[12] The Romanian-language designations of the state wereMuntenia (The Land of Mountains), Țara Rumânească (the Romanian Land), Valahia, and, rarely, România.[13] The spelling variantȚara Românească was adopted in official documents by the mid-19th century; however, the version withu remained common in local dialects until much later.[14]
For long periods after the 14th century, Wallachia was referred to asVlashko (Bulgarian:Влашко) byBulgarian sources,Vlaška (Serbian:Влашка) bySerbian sources,Voloschyna (Ukrainian:Волощина) byUkrainian sources, andWalachei orWalachey byGerman-speaking (most notablyTransylvanian Saxon) sources. The traditionalHungarian name for Wallachia isHavasalföld, literally "Snowy lowlands", the older form of which isHavaselve, meaning "Land beyond the snowy mountains" ("snowy mountains" refers to theSouthern Carpathians (the Transylvanian Alps)[15][16]); its translation into Latin,Transalpina was used in the official royal documents of the Kingdom of Hungary. InOttoman Turkish, the termEflâk Prensliği, or simplyEflâkافلاق, appears. In old Albanian, the name was "Gogënia", which was used to denote non-Albanian speakers.[17]
Arabic chronicles from the 13th century had used the name of Wallachia instead ofBulgaria. They gave the coordinates of Wallachia and specified that Wallachia was namedal-Awalak and the dwellersulaqut orulagh.[18]
The area ofOltenia in Wallachia was also known in Turkish asKara-Eflak ("Black Wallachia") andKüçük-Eflak ("Little Wallachia"),[19] while the former has also been used for Moldavia.[20]
In theSecond Dacian War (AD 105) western Oltenia became part of theRoman province ofDacia, with parts of later Wallachia included in theMoesia Inferior province. The Romanlimes was initially built along theOlt River in 119 before being moved slightly to the east in the second century, during which time it stretched from theDanube up toRucăr in the Carpathians. The Roman line fell back to the Olt in 245 and, in 271, the Romans pulled out of the region.
The area was subject toRomanization also during theMigration Period, when most of present-dayRomania was also invaded byGoths andSarmatians known as theChernyakhov culture, followed by waves of othernomads. In 328, the Romans built abridge betweenSucidava andOescus (nearGigen) which indicates that there was a significant trade with the peoples north of the Danube. A short period of Roman rule in the area is attested under EmperorConstantine the Great,[21] after he attacked the Goths (who had settled north of the Danube) in 332. The period of Goth rule ended when theHuns arrived in thePannonian Basin and, underAttila, attacked and destroyed some 170 settlements on both sides of the Danube.
Byzantine influence is evident during the fifth to sixth century, such as the site atIpotești–Cândești culture, but from the second half of the sixth century and in the seventh century,Slavs crossed the territory of Wallachia and settled in it, on their way to Byzantium, occupying the southern bank of the Danube.[22] In 593, the Byzantine commander-in-chiefPriscus defeated Slavs,Avars andGepids on future Wallachian territory, and, in 602, Slavs suffered a crucial defeat in the area;Flavius Mauricius Tiberius, who ordered his army to be deployed north of the Danube, encountered his troops' strong opposition.[23]
From its establishment in 681 to approximately theHungarians' conquest ofTransylvania in the middle of the tenth century, theFirst Bulgarian Empire controlled the territory of Wallachia. With the decline and subsequentByzantine conquest of Bulgaria (from the second half of the tenth century up to 1018), Wallachia came under the control of thePechenegs,Turkic peoples who extended their rule west through the tenth and 11th century, until they were defeated around 1091, when theCumans of southern Ruthenia took control of the lands of Wallachia.[24]
Beginning with the tenth century, Byzantine, Bulgarian, Hungarian, and later Western sources mention the existence of small polities, possibly peopled by, among others,Vlachs led byknyazes andvoivodes.
"Wallachia" in 1204
When theLatin empire was established in 1204, the territories in the northern borders of this Venetian creation were named "Wallachia & Bulgaria" or "Second Bulgarian Empire". An alternative name used in connection with the pre-mid 13th century period is theEmpire of Vlachs and Bulgarians.[25] Variant names include theVlach–Bulgarian Empire and theBulgarian–Wallachian Empire.[26]
In 1241, during theMongol invasion of Europe, Cuman domination was ended—a direct Mongol rule over Wallachia was not attested.[27] Part of Wallachia was probably briefly disputed by theKingdom of Hungary andBulgarians in the following period,[27] but it appears that the severe weakening of Hungarian authority during the Mongol attacks contributed to the establishment of the new and stronger polities attested in Wallachia for the following decades.[28]
Throughout the 13th century, numerous records ofVlach political entities on both sides of theCarpathians had begun to emerge. One of the first written pieces of evidence in correlation to local Vlach voivodes concerns the rulerLitovoi, who was first mentioned in theDiploma of the Joannites in 1247. Litvoi ruled over theȚara Litua, corresponding to modern day northernOltenia. By 1272, Litvoi had gained control over more land on each side of the Carpathians, specifically further along the northernWallachian Plain andHațeg Country inTransylvania. Litvoi refused to paytribute toKing Ladislaus IV of Hungary, and in 1277 war broke out with the Hungarians, where he died in battle before 1280. His successor was his brotherBărbat, who ruled until 1288. The continuing weakening of the Hungarian state by further Mongol invasions in the late 13th and early 14th century, as well as the fall of theÁrpád dynasty, further paved the way for the gradual unification of Wallachian polities and the assertion of independence from Hungarian rule.
The seal of VoivodeMircea I of Wallachia from 1390, depicting the coat of arms of Wallachia
Wallachia's creation is held by local traditions and folk tale to have been the work ofRadu Negru, a legendary figure who according to tradition, crossed the Carpathians from Transylvania to the Wallachian Plain in 1290 alongside a large following of fellow Vlachs in order to establish the nation. Radu Negru is typically connected withBasarab I of Wallachia, who was first mentioned in a Hungarian charter in 1324, as a voivode who held lands south of the Carpathians and paid tribute to Hungary. Throughout the rest of the 1320s, Basarab expanded his influence, seizing control of theBanate of Severin and launching raids into Transylvania. By 1330, Basarab had established his rule over both sides of the riverOlt as well as come into ownership offiefs in Transylvania, establishing his residence inCâmpulung as the first ruler of theHouse of Basarab. Basarab refused to grant Hungary the lands ofFăgăraș,Almaș and Severin and pay tribute toCharles I of Hungary, who invaded Wallachia but was decisively defeated at theBattle of Posada, which led to the consolidation of the Wallachian state. According to historianȘtefan Ștefănescu, Basarab extended his lands to the east, to briefly comprise lands as far asChillia Nouǎ in theBugeac - reportedly providing the origin ofBessarabia.[29]
There is evidence that theSecond Bulgarian Empireruled at least nominally the Wallachian lands up to the Rucăr–Bran corridor as late as the late 14th century. In a charter byRadu I, the Wallachian voivode requests thattsarIvan Alexander of Bulgaria order his customs officers at Rucăr and theDâmboviţa River bridge to collect tax following the law. The presence of Bulgarian customs officers at theCarpathians indicates a Bulgarian suzerainty over those lands, though Radu's imperative tone hints at a strong and increasing Wallachian autonomy.[30] The medieval structure of Wallachia was modelled after the Bulgarian one, including the adoption of Old Church Slavonic feudal terminology such asocină - inherited land.[31] UnderRadu I and his successorDan I, the realms in Transylvania and Severin continued to be disputed with Hungary.[32] Basarab was succeeded byNicholas Alexander, followed byVladislav I. Vladislav attacked Transylvania afterLouis I occupied lands south of theDanube, conceded to recognize him as overlord in 1368, but rebelled again in the same year; his rule also witnessed the first confrontation between Wallachia and theOttoman Empire (a battle in which Vladislav was allied withIvan Shishman).[33]
Probable location of polities in Wallachia around 1246 AD, as described in theDiploma of the Joannites
Territories held by Wallachian prince Mircea the Elder,c. 1390[34]
As the entireBalkans became an integral part of the growing Ottoman Empire (a process that concluded with thefall of Constantinople to SultanMehmed the Conqueror in 1453), Wallachia became engaged in frequent confrontations in the final years of the reign ofMircea I (r. 1386–1418). Mircea initially defeated the Ottomans in several battles, including theBattle of Rovine in 1394, driving them away fromDobruja and briefly extending his rule to theDanube Delta, Dobruja andSilistra (c. 1400–1404).[35] He swung between alliances withSigismund, Holy Roman Emperor, andJagiellon Poland (taking part in theBattle of Nicopolis),[36] and accepted a peace treaty with the Ottomans in 1417, afterMehmed I took control ofTurnu Măgurele andGiurgiu.[37] The two ports remained part of the Ottoman state, with brief interruptions, until 1829. In 1418–1420,Michael I defeated the Ottomans in Severin, only to be killed in battle by the counter-offensive; in 1422, the danger was averted for a short while whenDan II inflicted a defeat onMurad II with the help ofPippo Spano.[38]
The peace signed in 1428 inaugurated a period of internal crisis, as Dan had to defend himself againstRadu II, who led the first in a series ofboyar coalitions against established princes.[39] Victorious in 1431 (the year when the boyar-backedAlexander I Aldea took the throne), boyars were dealt successive blows byVlad II Dracul (1436–1442; 1443–1447), who nevertheless attempted to compromise between the Ottoman Sultan and theHoly Roman Empire.[40]
The following decade was marked by the conflict between the rival houses ofDănești andDrăculești. Faced with both internal and external conflict,Vlad II Dracul reluctantly agreed to pay thetribute demanded of him by the Ottoman Empire, despite his affiliation with theOrder of the Dragon, a group of independent noblemen whose creed had been to repel the Ottoman invasion. As part of the tribute, the sons ofVlad II Dracul (Radu cel Frumos andVlad III Dracula) were taken into Ottoman custody. Recognizing the Christian resistance to their invasion, leaders of the Ottoman Empire released Vlad III to rule in 1448 after his father's assassination in 1447.
Known as Vlad III the Impaler or Vlad III Dracula, he immediately put to death the boyars who had conspired against his father, and was characterized as both a national hero and a crueltyrant.[41] He was cheered for restoring order to a destabilized principality, yet showed no mercy toward thieves, murderers or anyone who plotted against his rule. Vlad demonstrated his intolerance for criminals by utilizingimpalement as a form of execution. Vlad fiercely resisted Ottoman rule, having both repelled the Ottomans and been pushed back several times.
TheTransylvanian Saxons were also furious with him for strengthening the borders of Wallachia, which interfered with their control of trade routes. In retaliation, the Saxons distributed grotesque poems of cruelty and other propaganda, demonizing Vlad III Dracula as a drinker of blood.[42] These tales strongly influenced an eruption of vampiric fiction throughout the West and, in particular, Germany. They also inspired the main character in the 1897 Gothic novelDracula byBram Stoker.[43][self-published source?]
In 1462, Vlad III was defeated by Mehmed the Conqueror during his offensive at theNight Attack at Târgovişte before being forced to retreat toTârgoviște and accepting to pay an increased tribute.[44] Meanwhile, Vlad III faced parallel conflicts with his brother, Radu cel Frumos, (r. 1437/1439–1475), andBasarab Laiotă cel Bătrân. This led to the conquest of Wallachia by Radu, who would face his own struggles with the resurgent Vlad III and Basarab Laiotă cel Bătrân during his 11-year reign.[45] Subsequently,Radu IV the Great (Radu cel Mare, who ruled 1495–1508) reached several compromises with the boyars, ensuring a period of internal stability that contrasted his clash withBogdan III the One-Eyed of Moldavia.[46]
The late 15th century saw the ascension of the powerfulCraiovești family, virtually independent rulers of theOltenianbanat, who sought Ottoman support in their rivalry withMihnea cel Rău (1508–1510) and replaced him withVlăduț. After the latter proved to be hostile to the bans, the House of Basarab formally ended with the rise ofNeagoe Basarab, a Craioveşti.[47] Neagoe's peaceful rule (1512–1521) was noted for its cultural aspects (the building of theCurtea de Argeş Cathedral andRenaissance influences). It was also a period of increased influence for theSaxon merchants inBrașov andSibiu, and of Wallachia's alliance withLouis II of Hungary.[48] UnderTeodosie, the country was again under a four-month-long Ottoman occupation, a military administration that seemed to be an attempt to create a WallachianPashaluk.[49] This danger rallied all boyars in support ofRadu de la Afumaţi (four rules between 1522 and 1529), who lost the battle after an agreement between the Craiovești and SultanSüleyman the Magnificent; Prince Radu eventually confirmed Süleyman's position as suzerain and agreed to pay an even higher tribute.[49]
Wallachia (highlighted in green) towards the end of the 16th century
Ottoman suzerainty remained virtually unchallenged throughout the following 90 years.Radu Paisie, who was deposed by Süleyman in 1545, ceded the port ofBrăila to the Ottoman administration in the same year. His successorMircea Ciobanul (1545–1554; 1558–1559), a prince without any claim to noble heritage, was imposed on the throne and consequently agreed to a decrease in autonomy (increasingtaxes and carrying out an armed intervention in Transylvania – supporting the pro-TurkishJohn Zápolya).[50] Conflicts between boyar families became stringent after the rule ofPătrașcu the Good, and boyar ascendancy over rulers was obvious underPetru the Younger (1559–1568; a reign dominated byDoamna Chiajna and marked by huge increases in taxes),Mihnea Turcitul, andPetru Cercel.[51]
The Ottoman Empire increasingly relied on Wallachia and Moldavia for the supply and maintenance of itsmilitary forces; thelocal army, however, soon disappeared due to the increased costs and the much more obvious efficiency ofmercenary troops.[52]
Fighting between Michael the Brave and the Ottomans inGiurgiu, 1595
Initially profiting from Ottoman support,Michael the Brave ascended to the throne in 1593, and attacked the troops ofMurad III north and south of the Danube in an alliance with Transylvania'sSigismund Báthory and Moldavia'sAron Vodă (seeBattle of Călugăreni). He soon placed himself under the suzerainty ofRudolf II, theHoly Roman Emperor, and, in 1599–1600, intervened inTransylvania againstPoland'skingSigismund III Vasa, placing the region under his authority; his brief rule also extended toMoldavia later in the following year.[53] For a brief period, Michael the Brave ruled (in a personal, but not formal, union)[54] most of the territories where Romanians lived, rebuilding the base of the ancient Kingdom ofDacia.[55] The rule of Michael the Brave, with its break with Ottoman rule, tense relations with other European powers and the leadership of the three states, was considered in later periods as the precursor of a modern Romania, a thesis which was argued with noted intensity byNicolae Bălcescu.[citation needed] Following Michael's downfall, Wallachia was occupied by the Polish–Moldavian army ofSimion Movilă (seeMoldavian Magnate Wars), who held the region until 1602, and was subject toNogai attacks in the same year.[56]
Counties of Wallachia, 1601–1718
The last stage in theGrowth of the Ottoman Empire brought increased pressures on Wallachia: political control was accompanied by Ottoman economical hegemony, the discarding of the capital inTârgoviște in favour ofBucharest (closer to the Ottoman border, and a rapidly growing trade center), the establishment ofserfdom under Michael the Brave as a measure to increasemanorial revenues, and the decrease in the importance of low-ranking boyars (threatened with extinction, they took part in theseimeni rebellion of 1655).[57] Furthermore, the growing importance of appointment to high office in front of land ownership brought about an influx ofGreek andLevantine families, a process already resented by locals during the rules ofRadu Mihnea in the early 17th century.[58]Matei Basarab, a boyar appointee, brought a long period of relative peace (1632–1654), with the noted exception of the 1653Battle of Finta, fought between Wallachians and the troops of Moldavian princeVasile Lupu—ending in disaster for the latter, who was replaced with Prince Matei's favourite,Gheorghe Ștefan, on the throne inIași. A close alliance between Gheorghe Ștefan and Matei's successorConstantin Șerban was maintained by Transylvania'sGeorge II Rákóczi, but their designs for independence from Ottoman rule were crushed by the troops ofMehmed IV in 1658–1659.[59] The reigns ofGheorghe Ghica andGrigore I Ghica, the sultan's favourites, signified attempts to prevent such incidents; however, they were also the onset of a violent clash between theBăleanu andCantacuzino boyar families, which was to mark Wallachia's history until the 1680s.[60] The Cantacuzinos, threatened by the alliance between the Băleanus and theGhicas, backed their own choice of princes (Antonie Vodă din Popești andGeorge Ducas)[61] before promoting themselves—with the ascension ofȘerban Cantacuzino (1678–1688).
Wallachia became a target forHabsburg incursions during the last stages of theGreat Turkish War around 1690, when the rulerConstantin Brâncoveanu secretly and unsuccessfully negotiated an anti-Ottoman coalition. Brâncoveanu's reign (1688–1714), noted for its lateRenaissance cultural achievements (seeBrâncovenesc style), also coincided with the rise ofImperial Russia under TsarPeter the Great—he was approached by the latter during theRusso-Turkish War of 1710–1713, and lost his throne and life sometime after sultanAhmed III caught news of the negotiations.[62] Despite his denunciation of Brâncoveanu's policies,Ștefan Cantacuzino attached himself to Habsburg projects and opened the country to the armies ofPrince Eugene of Savoy; he was himself deposed and executed in 1716.[63]
Immediately following the deposition of Prince Ștefan, the Ottomans renounced the purely nominalelective system (which had by then already witnessed the decrease in importance of theBoyar Divan over the sultan's decision), and princes of the twoDanubian Principalities were appointed from thePhanariotes ofConstantinople. Inaugurated byNicholas Mavrocordatos in Moldavia afterDimitrie Cantemir, Phanariote rule was brought to Wallachia in 1715 by the very same ruler.[64] The tense relations between boyars and princes brought a decrease in the number of taxed people (as aprivilege gained by the former), a subsequent increase in total taxes,[65] and the enlarged powers of a boyar circle in the Divan.[66]
In parallel, Wallachia became the battleground in a succession of wars between the Ottomans on one side and Russia or the Habsburg monarchy on the other. Mavrocordatos himself was deposed by a boyar rebellion, and arrested by Habsburg troops during theAustro-Turkish War of 1716–1718, as the Ottomans had to concedeOltenia toCharles VI of Austria (theTreaty of Passarowitz).[67] The region, organized as theBanat of Craiova and subject to anenlightened absolutist rule that soon disenchanted local boyars, was returned to Wallachia in 1739 (theTreaty of Belgrade, upon the close of theAustro-Russian–Turkish War). PrinceConstantine Mavrocordatos, who oversaw the new change in borders, was also responsible for the effective abolition ofserfdom in 1746 (which put a stop to the exodus of peasants intoTransylvania);[68] during this period, theban of Oltenia moved his residence fromCraiova toBucharest, signalling, alongside Mavrocordatos' order to merge his personaltreasury with that of the country, a move towardscentralism.[69]
In 1768, during theFifth Russo-Turkish War, Wallachia was placed under its first Russian occupation (helped along by the rebellion ofPârvu Cantacuzino).[70] TheTreaty of Küçük Kaynarca (1774) allowed Russia to intervene in favour ofEastern Orthodox Ottoman subjects, curtailing Ottoman pressures—including the decrease in sums owed astribute[71]—and, in time, relatively increasing internal stability while opening Wallachia to more Russian interventions.[72]
The Principality of Wallachia, 1793–1812, highlighted in green
On 21 March 1821 Vladimirescu entered Bucharest. For the following weeks, relations between him and his allies worsened, especially after he sought an agreement with the Ottomans;[81] Eteria's leaderAlexander Ypsilantis, who had established himself in Moldavia and, after May, in northern Wallachia, viewed the alliance as broken—he had Vladimirescu executed, and faced the Ottoman intervention without Pandur or Russian backing, suffering major defeats in Bucharest andDrăgășani (before retreating toAustrian custody inTransylvania).[82] These violent events, which had seen the majority of Phanariotes siding with Ypsilantis, madeSultanMahmud II place the Principalities under its occupation (evicted by a request of several European powers),[83] and sanction the end of Phanariote rules: in Wallachia, the first prince to be considered a local one after 1715 wasGrigore IV Ghica. Although the new system was confirmed for the rest of Wallachia's existence as a state, Ghica's rule was abruptly ended by the devastatingRusso-Turkish War of 1828–1829.[84]
The 1829Treaty of Adrianople placed Wallachia and Moldavia under Russian military rule, without overturning Ottomansuzerainty, awarding them the first common institutions and semblance of aconstitution (seeRegulamentul Organic). Wallachia was returned ownership ofBrăila,Giurgiu (both of which soon developed into major trading cities on theDanube), andTurnu Măgurele.[85] The treaty also allowed Moldavia and Wallachia to freely trade with countries other than the Ottoman Empire, which signalled substantial economic and urban growth, as well as improving the peasant situation.[86] Many of the provisions had been specified by the 1826Akkerman Convention between Russia and the Ottomans, but it had never been fully implemented in the three-year interval.[87] The duty of overseeing of the Principalities was left to Russian generalPavel Kiselyov; this period was marked by a series of major changes, including the reestablishment of aWallachian Army (1831), atax reform (which nonetheless confirmedtax exemptions for theprivileged), as well as major urban works in Bucharest and other cities.[88] In 1834, Wallachia's throne was occupied byAlexandru II Ghica—a move in contradiction with the Adrianople treaty, as he had not been elected by the newLegislative Assembly; he was removed by the suzerains in 1842 and replaced with an elected prince,Gheorghe Bibescu.[89]
1848 revolutionaries carrying an early version of theflag of Romania. The text on the flag can be translated as: "Justice, Brotherhood".
Opposition to Ghica's arbitrary and highlyconservative rule, together with the rise ofliberal andradical currents, was first felt with the protests voiced by Ion Câmpineanu (quickly repressed);[90] subsequently, it became increasinglyconspiratorial, and centered on thosesecret societies created by young officers such asNicolae Bălcescu andMitică Filipescu.[91]Frăția, a clandestine movement created in 1843, began planning a revolution to overthrow Bibescu and repealRegulamentul Organic in 1848 (inspired by theEuropean rebellions of the same year). Their pan-Wallachiancoup d'état was initially successful only nearTurnu Măgurele, where crowds cheered theIslaz Proclamation (9 June); among others, the document called forpolitical freedoms, independence,land reform, and the creation of a national guard.[92] On 11–12 June the movement was successful in deposing Bibescu and establishing a Provisional Government,[93] which madeDreptate, Frăție ("Justice, Brotherhood") thenational motto.[94] Although sympathetic to the anti-Russian goals of the revolution, the Ottomans were pressured by Russia into repressing it: Ottoman troops entered Bucharest on 13 September.[93] Russian and Turkish troops, present until 1851, broughtBarbu Dimitrie Știrbei to the throne, during which interval most participants in the revolution were sent into exile.
Wallachia (in green), after the Treaty of Paris (1856)
Briefly under renewed Russian occupation during theCrimean War, Wallachia and Moldavia were given a new status with a neutralAustrian administration (1854–1856) and theTreaty of Paris: a tutelage shared by Ottomans and a Congress of Great Powers (Britain, France, theKingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, the Austrian Empire, Prussia, and, albeit never again fully, Russia), with akaymakam-led internal administration. The emerging movement for a union of theDanubian Principalities (a demand first voiced in 1848, and a cause cemented by the return of revolutionary exiles) was advocated by the French and their Sardinian allies, supported by Russia and Prussia, but was rejected or suspicioned by all other overseers.[95]
After an intense campaign, a formal union was ultimately granted: nevertheless, elections for theAd hoc Divans of 1859 profited from a legal ambiguity (the text of the final agreement specified two thrones, but did not prevent any single person from simultaneously taking part in and winning elections in both Bucharest andIași).Alexander John Cuza, who ran for the unionistPartida Națională, won the elections in Moldavia on 5 January; Wallachia, which was expected by the unionists to carry the same vote, returned a majority of anti-unionists to itsdivan.[96]
Those elected changed their allegiance after a mass protest of Bucharest crowds,[96] and Cuza was voted prince of Wallachia on 5 February (24 JanuaryOld Style), consequently confirmed asDomnitor of theUnited Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia (of Romania from 1862) andeffectively uniting both principalities. Internationally recognized only for the duration of his reign, the union was irreversible after the ascension ofCarol I in 1866 (coinciding with theAustro-Prussian War, it came at a time when Austria, the main opponent of the decision, was not in a position to intervene).
Slavery (Romanian:robie) was part of thesocial order from before the founding of the Principality of Wallachia, until it wasabolished in stages during the 1840s and 1850s. Most of the slaves were ofRoma (Gypsy) ethnicity.[97] The very first document attesting the presence of Roma people in Wallachia dates back to 1385, and refers to the group asațigani (from theGreekathinganoi, the origin of the Romanian termțigani, which is synonymous with "Gypsy").[98] Although the Romanian termsrobie andsclavie appear to be synonyms, in terms of legal status, there are significant differences:sclavie was the term corresponding to the legal institution during theRoman era, where slaves were considered goods instead of human beings and the owners hadius vitae necisque over them (right to end the life of the slave); whilerobie is the feudal institution where the slaves were legally considered human beings and they had reduced legal capacity.[99]
The exact origins of slavery in Wallachia are not known. Slavery was a commonpractice in Eastern Europe at the time, and there is some debate over whether the Romani people came to Wallachia as free people or as slaves. In theByzantine Empire, they were slaves of the state and it seems the situation was the same inBulgaria andSerbia[citation needed] until their social organization was destroyed by theOttoman conquest, which would suggest that they came as slaves who had a change of 'ownership'. HistorianNicolae Iorga associated the Roma people's arrival with the 1241Mongol invasion of Europe and considered their slavery as a vestige of that era, the Romanians taking the Roma from theMongols as slaves and preserving their status. Other historians consider that they were enslaved while captured during the battles with the Tatars. The practice of enslaving prisoners may also have been taken from the Mongols.[97] While it is possible that some Romani people were slaves or auxiliary troops of the Mongols or Tatars, the bulk of them came from south of theDanube at the end of the 14th century, some time after thefoundation of Wallachia. The arrival of the Roma made slavery a widespread practice.[100]
Traditionally, Roma slaves were divided into three categories. The smallest was owned by thehospodars, and went by theRomanian-language name ofțigani domnești ("Gypsies belonging to the lord"). The two other categories comprisedțigani mănăstirești ("Gypsies belonging to the monasteries"), who were the property ofRomanian Orthodox andGreek Orthodox monasteries, andțigani boierești ("Gypsies belonging to the boyars"), who were enslaved by the category of landowners.[98][101]
The abolition of slavery was carried out following a campaign by young revolutionaries who embraced theliberal ideas of theEnlightenment. The earliest law which freed a category of slaves was in March 1843, which transferred the control of the state slaves owned by the prison authority to the local authorities, leading to their sedentarizing and becoming peasants. During theWallachian Revolution of 1848, the agenda of the Provisional Government included the emancipation (dezrobire) of the Roma as one of the main social demands. By the 1850s the movement gained support from almost the whole of Romanian society, and the law from February 1856 emancipated all slaves to the status of taxpayers (citizens).[97][98]
With an area of approximately 77,000 km2 (30,000 sq mi), Wallachia is situated north of theDanube (and of present-dayBulgaria), east ofSerbia and south of theSouthern Carpathians, and is traditionally divided betweenMuntenia in the east (as the political center, Muntenia is often understood as being synonymous with Wallachia), andOltenia (a formerbanat) in the west. The division line between the two is theOlt River.
Wallachia's traditional border withMoldavia coincided with theMilcov River for most of its length. To the east, over the Danube north-south bend, Wallachia neighboursDobruja (Northern Dobruja). Over the Carpathians, Wallachia shared a border withTransylvania;Wallachian princes have for long held possession of areas north of the line (Amlaș,Ciceu,Făgăraș, andHațeg), which are generally not considered part of Wallachia proper.
Contemporary historians estimate the population of Wallachia in the 15th century at 500,000 people.[105] In 1859, the population of Wallachia was 2,400,921 (1,586,596 inMuntenia and 814,325 inOltenia).[106]
According to the latest2011 census data, the region has a total population of 8,256,532 inhabitants, distributed among the ethnic groups as follows (as per 2001 census):Romanians (97%),Roma (2.5%), others (0.5%).[107]
^As written chancellery language until it was replaced by Romanian starting with the 16th century. Used for liturgical purposes until the end of the 18th century.
^As chancellery and cultural language, especially during the Phanariot period of time.
^Ștefan Pascu, Documente străine despre români, ed. Arhivelor statului, București 1992,ISBN973-95711-2-3
^"Tout ce pays: la Wallachie, la Moldavie et la plus part de la Transylvanie, a esté peuplé des colonies romaines du temps de Trajan l'empereur... Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à-dire romain... " in Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier l'an 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, in: Paul Cernovodeanu,Studii și materiale de istorie medievală, IV, 1960, p. 444
^Panaitescu, Petre P. (1965).Începuturile şi biruinţa scrisului în limba română (in Romanian). Editura Academiei Bucureşti. p. 5.
^Arvinte, Vasile (1983).Român, românesc, România. București: Editura Științifică și Enciclopedică. p. 52.
^A multikulturális Erdély középkori gyökerei – Tiszatáj 55. évfolyam, 11. szám. 2001. november, Kristó Gyula – The medieval roots of the multicultural Transylvania – Tiszatáj 55. year. 11th issue November 2001, Gyula Kristó
^Mann, S. (1957). An English-Albanian Dictionary. University Press. p. 129
^Dimitri Korobeinikov, A broken mirror: the Kipchak world in the thirteenth century. In the volume: The other Europe from the Middle Ages, Edited by Florin Curta, Brill 2008, p. 394
^Johann Filstich (1979).Tentamen historiae Vallachicae. Editura Științifică și Enciclopedică. p. 39.Archived from the original on 16 July 2023. Retrieved8 April 2018.
^abcdefghijklmn(in Romanian) Maria Dogaru, "Din Heraldica României. Album", Ed. Jif, Braşov, 1994.
^ab(in Romanian) Maria Dogaru, Sigiliile cancelariei domnești a Țării Românești între anii 1715-1821, în Revista Arhivelor, an 47, nr. 1, București, 1970 pp 385–421, 51 ilustrații.
^East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000–1500, Jean W. Sedlar, p. 255, 1994
Berza, Mihai. "Haraciul Moldovei și al Țării Românești în sec. XV–XIX", inStudii și Materiale de Istorie Medie, II, 1957, pp. 7–47.
Brătianu, Gheorghe I (1980).Tradiția istorică despre întemeierea statelor românești (The Historical Tradition of the Foundation of the Romanian States). Editura Eminescu.
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