The English wordsWales andWelsh derive from the sameOld English root (singularWealh, pluralWēalas), a descendant ofProto-Germanic*Walhaz, which was itself derived from the name of theGauls known to the Romans asVolcae. This term was later used to refer indiscriminately to inhabitants of theWestern Roman Empire.[15]Anglo-Saxons came to use the term to refer to theBritons in particular; the plural formWēalas evolved into the name for their territory, Wales.[16][17] Historically inBritain, the words were not restricted to modern Wales or to the Welsh but were used to refer to anything that Anglo-Saxons associated with Britons, including other non-Germanic territories in Britain (e.g.Cornwall) and places in Anglo-Saxon territory associated with Britons (e.g.Walworth in County Durham andWalton in West Yorkshire).[18]
The modern Welsh name for themselves isCymry, andCymru is the Welsh name for Wales. These words (both of which are pronounced[ˈkəm.rɨ]) are descended from theBrythonic wordcombrogi, meaning 'fellow-countrymen',[19][20] and probably came into use before the 7th century.[21] In literature, they could be speltKymry orCymry, regardless of whether it referred to the people or their homeland.[19] TheLatinised forms of these names,Cambrian,Cambric andCambria, survive as names such as theCambrian Mountains and theCambrian geological period.[22]
Caradog (depicted by Thomas Prydderch), leader of the north Wales Celtic tribe theOrdovices.
Although the Welsh nation did not arise until the Middle Ages, the territory of Wales was permanently settled from the end of the last ice age onwards.[23] These first farmers left many impressive funerary monuments, as well as settlement sites that speak to a dispersed culture. With the arrival of theBronze Age, theGreat Orme in North Wales became Britain's premier producer of copper, one of the key ores for smelting bronze.[24] It is likely that the wealth of mineral resources in Britain, and especially Wales, attracted the Roman invasion,[25] but by this time the island had become distinctively Celtic in culture, and theNeolithic population was largely replaced. It was thisIron Age Celtic culture, and their common language, that were called the Britons by the Romans.[26]: 90
With the departure of the Romans, Britain fractured into various kingdoms. Despite this, there is a sense in which the Roman withdrawal of 383 created a post-Roman nation of Britons, withMagnus Maximus proclaimed Roman emperor in Britannia and Gaul. Although long before the term Cymry (the Welsh term for the Welsh) had been adopted, the concept of a British people, from which the Welsh would emerge, was created here.[27]: 54
Encroachment by GermanicAnglo-Saxon settlers gradually displaced the indigenous culture and language of the Britons, and one group of these Britons became isolated by the geography of the western peninsula, bounded by the sea and English neighbours. It was these English neighbours who named the land Wallia, and the people Welsh.[28]: 15
The people of Wallia, medieval Wales, remained divided into separate kingdoms that fought with each other as much as they fought their English neighbours.[28]: 15 Neither were the communities homogeneously Welsh. Place name, historical records and archaeological evidence point to coastal Viking/Norse settlement in places such as Swansea, Fishguard and Anglesey,[29]: 4, 13 and Saxons settled inland amongst the Welsh in places such as Presteigne.[30]: 125
In the 10th century, Hywel ap Cadell, later known asHywel Dda, formed the kingdom of Deheubarth from inheritances in Dyfed and Seisyllwg, and then gained control of the kingdoms of Gwynedd and Powys in 942.[31]: 337–338 With control of nearly all the territory of Wales,[28]: 22 he codified Welsh law, a law code that survived the later fracture of his kingdom, and that became a significant step in the creation of the nation.[28]: 29 With a common culture and an external threat, the kingdoms of Wales began to see themselves as one people.[28]: 30
A century later the Kingdom of Gwynedd was in ascendency, and Gruffydd ap Llywelyn subdued all opposition by 1057, becoming the only king to unite all of Wales, and parts of England on the border. "Thus, from about 1057 until his death in 1063, the whole of Wales recognised the kingship of Gruffydd ap Llywelyn. For about seven brief years, Wales was one, under one ruler, a feat with neither precedent nor successor."[27]: 100
The kingdom did not last, and Gruffydd met his death as a result of a surprise attack by Tostig, brother of the English King, Harold.[32]: 305–307 After Gruffydd's death, Harold married his widow, but she would be widowed again by the Norman invasion of England in 1066.[33]
The Normans followed their invasion of England with incursions into Wales, forming the semi-independent NormanWelsh marches (from the French for borderlands), and dividing them from the unconquered Pura Wallia.[28]: 25 The fortunes of Welsh marcher lords and various Welsh princes ebbed and flowed, until Llywelyn ab Iorwerth (Llywelyn the Great) forced all other Welsh princes to submit to him in 1216.[34] Yet Wales was divided again after his death, and it was left for his grandson Llywelyn ap Gruffudd to secure the supremacy once more, recognised as Prince of Wales by the English king, Henry III, in the treaty of Montgomery of 1267.[35]
Relations with Henry's successor, Edward I, broke down and led to a war of conquest, concluding in 1283 with English victory.[36]: 510 The following year the statute of Rhuddlan ended Welsh independence. Wales was divided between principality, ruled by Edward; and the marches, ruled by feudal marcher lords.[37]: 461 This persisted, despite theWelsh rebellion under Owain Glyndŵr of 1400–1415,[38] until the rise of the Tudors, with Welsh support.[39]: 274 With theLaws in Wales Acts of Henry VIII, the Welsh became full citizens in the Kingdom of England, with parliamentary representation.[40]: 274 The Welsh border was also formally defined and the territory reunited.[41]: 268–273
Dowlais Ironworks (1840) by George Childs (1798–1875)
In 1707 the act of union created the Kingdom of Great Britain.[42] The industrial revolution and the beginning of empire led to the rapid increase in mining and exploitation of Welsh natural materials – metals, coal and slate. The population of Wales expanded rapidly[43]: 185 and Wales moved to the centre of the British economy, but the changes bred resentment, this time towards industrialists and not the English state.[28]: 61 Meanwhile, a series of religious revivals transformed the character of the nation, beginning a tradition of non-conformism.[44]: 345–50 This carried over into the political sphere too. The rapid industrialisation of parts of Wales gave rise to strong andradical Welshworking class movements which led to theMerthyr Rising of 1831, the widespread support forChartism, and theNewport Rising of 1839.[45] Strong liberal traditions were forged and later replaced by socialism.[46]: 34 Since 1922 Wales has voted Labour in every general election.[47]
From the mid 19th century until 1914, Wales experienced a strengthened political culture, religious and cultural revival, renewed interest in Welsh literature, the revival ofeisteddfodau. There was a thriving economy, a renewed interest in Welsh language, and music, non-conformist Christianity and the emergence of strong national identity, along with the founding of many national institutions.[48]: 95 However, the period also saw the publication of a report on education that became known as theTreachery of the Blue Books. The report blamed Welsh language and non-conformism for poor educational standards and led to a requirement for bilingual education.[49]: 2 This fed the rise of the Welsh nationalist movement, expressed in theCymru Fydd movement, which advocated for greater autonomy and recognition of Welsh identity within the United Kingdom.[50] Calls fordevolution grew over the course of a century, and in 1998 the Government of Wales Act created a devolved Welsh assembly for the first time, now renamed the Senedd or Welsh Parliament.[51]
Wales is a country that is part of the sovereign state of the United Kingdom.[14]ISO 3166-2:GB formerly defined Wales as a principality, with England and Scotland defined as countries and Northern Ireland as a province.[52] However, this definition was raised in the Welsh Assembly in 2010 and the thenCounsel General for Wales,John Griffiths, stated, 'Principality is a misnomer and that Wales should properly be referred to as a country.'[53] In 2011, ISO 3166-2:GB was updated and the term 'principality' was replaced with 'country'.[52] UK Government toponymic guidelines state that, 'though there is a Prince of Wales, this role is deemed to be titular rather than exerting executive authority, and therefore Wales is described as a country rather than a principality.'[54]
Wales has adevolved,unicameral legislature known as theSenedd (Senedd Cymru – Welsh Parliament) which holds devolved powers from the UK Parliament via a reserved powers model.[58]
For the purposes oflocal government, Wales has been divided into 22 council areas since 1996. These "principal areas"[59] are responsible for the provision of all local government services.[60]
Followingdevolution in 1997, theGovernment of Wales Act 1998 created a Welsh devolved assembly, theNational Assembly for Wales, with the power to determine how Wales's central government budget is spent and administered.[61] Eight years later, theGovernment of Wales Act 2006 reformed theNational Assembly for Wales and allowed further powers to be granted to it more easily. The Act also created a system of government with a separate executive, the Welsh Government, drawn from and accountable to the legislature, the National Assembly. Following a successful referendum in 2011, the National Assembly was empowered to make laws, known as Acts of the Assembly, on all matters in devolved subject areas, without requiring the UK Parliament's approval of legislative competence. It also gained powers to raise taxes.[62]: 33–34 In May 2020, the National Assembly was renamed "Senedd Cymru" or "the Welsh Parliament", commonly known as the Senedd in both English and Welsh.[63]
Devolved areas of responsibility include agriculture, economic development, education, health, housing, local government, social services, tourism, transport and the Welsh language.[64] The Welsh Government also promotes Welsh interests abroad.[65]
The Old Court House,Ruthin, Denbighshire, built 1401, followingOwain Glyndŵr's attack on the townIllustration of a Welsh judge from theLaws of Hywel Dda
By tradition, Welsh Law was compiled during an assembly held atWhitland around 930 byHywel Dda, king of most of Wales between 942 and his death in 950. The 'law of Hywel Dda' (Welsh:Cyfraith Hywel), as it became known, codified the previously existingfolk laws and legal customs that had evolved in Wales over centuries. Welsh Law emphasised the payment of compensation for a crime to the victim, or the victim's kin, rather than punishment by the ruler.[66] Other than in theMarches, whereMarch law was imposed by the Marcher Lords, Welsh Law remained in force in Wales until theStatute of Rhuddlan in 1284.Edward I of England annexed thePrincipality of Wales following the death ofLlywelyn ap Gruffudd, and Welsh Law was replaced for criminal cases under the Statute. Marcher Law and Welsh Law (for civil cases) remained in force untilHenry VIII of England annexed the whole of Wales under theLaws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542 (often referred to as the Acts of Union of 1536 and 1543), after which English law applied to the whole of Wales.[67][68] TheWales and Berwick Act 1746 provided that all laws that applied to England would automatically apply to Wales (and the Anglo-Scottish border town ofBerwick) unless the law explicitly stated otherwise; this Act was repealed with regard to Wales in 1967. English law has been the legal system ofEngland and Wales since 1536.[69]
TheSenedd has the authority to draft and approve laws outside of theUK Parliamentary system to meet the specific needs of Wales. Under powers approved by areferendum held in March 2011, it is empowered to pass primary legislation, at the time referred to as an Act of the National Assembly for Wales but now known as anAct of Senedd Cymru in relation to twenty subjects listed in theGovernment of Wales Act 2006 such as health and education. Through this primary legislation, theWelsh Government can then also enact more specificsubordinate legislation.[71]
Wales is a generally mountainous country on the western side of central southern Great Britain.[74] It is about 170 miles (270 km) north to south.[75] The oft-quoted "size of Wales" is about 20,779 km2 (8,023 sq mi).[76] Wales is bordered by England to the east and by sea in all other directions: theIrish Sea to the north and west,St George's Channel and theCeltic Sea to the southwest and theBristol Channel to the south.[77][78] Wales has about 1,680 miles (2,700 km) of coastline (along the mean high water mark), including the mainland,Anglesey andHolyhead.[13]Over 50 islands lie off the Welsh mainland, the largest being Anglesey, in the north-west.[79]
Much of Wales's diverse landscape is mountainous, particularly in the north and central regions. The mountains were shaped during the last ice age, theDevensian glaciation. The highest mountains in Wales are inSnowdonia (Eryri), of which five are over 1,000 m (3,300 ft). The highest of these isSnowdon (Yr Wyddfa), at 1,085 m (3,560 ft).[80][81] The 14 Welsh mountains, or 15 if includingCarnedd Gwenllian – often discounted because of its lowtopographic prominence – over 3,000 feet (910 metres) high are known collectively as theWelsh 3000s and are located in a small area in the north-west.[82] The highest outside the 3000s isAran Fawddwy, at 905 metres (2,969 feet), in the south of Snowdonia.[83] TheBrecon Beacons (Bannau Brycheiniog) are in the south (highest pointPen y Fan, at 886 metres (2,907 feet)),[84] and are joined by theCambrian Mountains inMid Wales (highest pointPumlumon, at 752 metres (2,467 feet)).[85]
Wales hasthree national parks: Snowdonia, Brecon Beacons, andPembrokeshire Coast (Arfordir Penfro). It hasfive Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty: Anglesey, theClwydian Range and Dee Valley, theGower Peninsula, theLlŷn Peninsula, and theWye Valley.[86] The Gower Peninsula was the first area in the United Kingdom to be designated as anArea of Outstanding Natural Beauty, in 1956. As of 2019, thecoastline of Wales had 40Blue Flag beaches, three Blue Flag marinas and one Blue Flag boat operator.[87] The south and west coasts of Wales, along with the Irish and Cornish coasts, are frequently blasted by Atlanticwesterlies/south-westerlies that, over the years, have sunk and wrecked many vessels. In 1859 over 110 ships were destroyed off the coast of Wales in a hurricane that saw more than 800 lives lost across Britain.[88] The greatest single loss occurred with the sinking of theRoyal Charter off Anglesey in which 459 people died.[89] The 19th century saw over 100 vessels lost with an average loss of 78 sailors per year.[90] Wartime action caused losses near Holyhead,Milford Haven and Swansea.[90] Because of offshore rocks and unlit islands, Anglesey and Pembrokeshire are still notorious for shipwrecks, most notably theSea Empress oil spill in 1996.[91]
The first border between Wales and England was zonal, apart from around the River Wye, which was the first accepted boundary.[92] Offa's Dyke was supposed to form an early distinct line but this was thwarted by Gruffudd ap Llewellyn, who reclaimed swathes of land beyond the dyke.[92] TheAct of Union 1536 formed a linear border stretching from the mouth of theDee to the mouth of the Wye.[92] Even after the Act of Union, many of the borders remained vague and moveable until theSunday Closing (Wales) Act 1881, which forced local businesses to decide which country they fell within to accept either the Welsh or English law.[92]
Wales lies within thenorth temperate zone. It has a changeable,maritime climate and is one of the wettest countries in Europe.[98][99] Welsh weather is often cloudy, wet and windy, with warm summers and mild winters.[98][100]
Highest maximum temperature: 37.1 °C (99 °F) atHawarden, Flintshire on 18 July 2022.[101]
Lowest minimum temperature: −23.3 °C (−10 °F) atRhayader, Radnorshire (nowPowys) on 21 January 1940.[102]
Maximum number of hours of sunshine in a month: 354.3 hours atDale Fort, Pembrokeshire in July 1955.[103]
Minimum number of hours of sunshine in a month: 2.7 hours at Llwynon,Brecknockshire in January 1962.[103]
Maximum rainfall in a day (0900 UTC – 0900 UTC): 211 millimetres (8.3 in) atRhondda, Glamorgan, on 11 November 1929.[104]
Wettest spot – an average of 4,473 millimetres (176 in) rain a year atCrib Goch in Snowdonia, Gwynedd (making it also the wettest spot in the United Kingdom).[105]
Wales's wildlife is typical of Britain with several distinctions. Because of its long coastline, Wales hosts a variety of seabirds. The coasts and surrounding islands are home to colonies ofgannets,Manx shearwater,puffins,kittiwakes,shags andrazorbills. In comparison, with 60 per cent of Wales above the 150m contour, the country also supports a variety of upland-habitat birds, includingraven andring ouzel.[106][107]Birds of prey include themerlin,hen harrier and thered kite, a national symbol of Welsh wildlife.[108] In total, more than 200 different species of bird have been seen at theRSPB reserve atConwy, including seasonal visitors.[109] Larger mammals, including brown bears, wolves and wildcats, died out during the Norman period. Today, mammals include shrews, voles, badgers, otters, stoats, weasels, hedgehogs and fifteen species of bat. Two species of small rodent, theyellow-necked mouse and thedormouse, are of special Welsh note being found at the historically undisturbed border area.[110] Thepine marten, which has been sighted occasionally, has been reintroduced in parts of Wales since 2015, having previously not been officially recorded since the 1950s.[111] Thepolecat was nearly driven to extinction in Britain, but hung on in Wales and is now rapidly spreading.Feral goats can be found in Snowdonia.[112] In March 2021,Natural Resources Wales (NRW) granted a licence to release up to sixbeavers in theDyfi Valley, the first official beaver release in Wales.[113]
Believed to be home to some of Wales's rarest land invertebrates, some 2,500 disused coal tips are the subject of study by the Welsh Government; the tips are home to a wide variety of other wildlife.[114]
A profile of the economy of Wales in 2012A 2021 introduction to some of the largest companies based in Wales, including: Airbus, bipsync, HCI Pharmaceutical, ReNeuron, Deloitte, Coaltown Coffee, DMM International and Freudenberg
Over the last 250 years, Wales has been transformed from anagricultural country to an industrial, and then to apost-industrial economy.[117] In the 1950s, Wales's GDP was twice as big as Ireland's; by the 2020s, Ireland's economy was four times that of Wales. Since the Second World War, theservice sector has come to account for the majority of jobs, a feature typifying most advanced economies.[118] in 2018, according to OECD and Eurostat data, gross domestic product (GDP) in Wales was £75 billion, an increase of 3.3 per cent from 2017. GDP per head in Wales in 2018 was £23,866, an increase of 2.9 per cent on 2017. This compares to Italy's GDP/capita of £25,000, Spain £22,000, Slovenia £20,000 and New Zealand £30,000.[119][120] In the three months to December 2017, 72.7 per cent of working-age adultswere employed, compared to 75.2 per cent across the UK as a whole.[121] For the 2018–19 fiscal year, theWelsh fiscal deficit accounts for 19.4 per cent of Wales's estimated GDP.[122]
In 2019, Wales was a net exporter of electricity. It produced 27.9 TWh of electricity while only consuming 14.7 TWh.[123] In 2021, the Welsh government said that more than half the country's energy needs were being met by renewable sources, 2 per cent of which was from 363hydropower projects.[124]
By UK law, Wales contributes to items that do not directly benefit Wales e.g. over £5 billion forHS2 "which will damage the Welsh economy by £200m pa", according to the UK and Welsh Government's transport adviser Mark Barry. Wales also pays more in military costs than most similar-sized countries e.g. Wales pays twice the amount Ireland spends on the military.[125] The UK government spends £1.75bn per year on the military in Wales, which is almost as much as Wales spends on education every year (£1.8 billion in 2018/19) and five times as much as the total amount spent on the police in Wales (£365 million).[126]
From the middle of the 19th century until the post-war era, the mining and export of coal was the dominant industry. At its peak of production in 1913, nearly 233,000 men and women were employed in theSouth Wales coalfield, mining 56 million tons of coal.[127] Cardiff was once the largest coal-exporting port in the world and, for a few years before the First World War, handled a greater tonnage of cargo than either London or Liverpool.[128] In the 1920s, over 40 per cent of the male Welsh population worked inheavy industry.[129] According toPhil Williams, theGreat Depression "devastated Wales", north and south, because of its "overwhelming dependence on coal and steel".[129] From the mid-1970s, the Welsh economy faced massive restructuring with large numbers of jobs in heavy industry disappearing and being replaced eventually by new ones inlight industry and in services. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Wales was successful in attracting an above average share offoreign direct investment in the UK.[130] Much of the new industry was essentially of a "branch (or "screwdriver") factory" type where a manufacturing plant or call centre is in Wales but the most highly-paid jobs in the company are elsewhere.[131][132]
Poor-quality soil in much of Wales is unsuitable for crop-growing, so livestock farming has been the focus of farming. About 78 per cent of the land surface is used for agriculture.[133] The Welsh landscape, with its three national parks andBlue Flag beaches, attractslarge numbers of tourists, who bolster the economy of rural areas.[134] Wales, like Northern Ireland, has relatively few highvalue-added employment in sectors such as finance and research and development, attributable in part to a comparative lack of "economic mass" (i.e. population) – Wales lacks a large metropolitan centre.[132] The lack of high value-added employment is reflected in lower economic output per head relative to other regions of the UK: in 2002 it stood at 90 per cent of the EU25 average and around 80 per cent of the UK average.[132] In June 2008, Wales made history by becoming the first nation to be awardedFairtrade status.[135]
Thepound sterling is the currency used in Wales. Numerous Welsh banks issued their own banknotes in the 19th century: the last bank to do so closed in 1908. Since then theBank of England has had a monopoly on the issue of banknotes in Wales.[136] TheCommercial Bank of Wales, established in Cardiff bySir Julian Hodge in 1971, was taken over by theBank of Scotland in 1988 and absorbed into its parent company in 2002.[137] TheRoyal Mint, which issues thecoinage circulating through the whole of the UK, has been based at a single site inLlantrisant since 1980.[138] Sincedecimalisation, in 1971, at least one of the coins in circulation emphasises Wales such as the 1995 and 2000 one pound coin. As at 2012, the last designs devoted to Wales saw production in 2008.[139]
During 2020, and well into 2021, the restrictions and lockdowns necessitated by theCOVID-19 pandemic affected all sectors of the economy and "tourism and hospitality suffered notable losses from the pandemic" across the UK.[140]
TheA55 expressway has a similar role along the North Wales coast, connectingHolyhead andBangor with Wrexham and Flintshire. It also links to northwest England, principallyChester.[142]
The main north-south Wales link is theA470, which runs from Cardiff toLlandudno.[143]
Cardiff Airport is the international airport of Wales. Providing links to European, African and Asian destinations,[151] it is about 12 miles (19 km) southwest ofCardiff city centre, in the Vale of Glamorgan. Intra-Wales flights used to run between Anglesey (Valley) and Cardiff, and were operated since 2017 byEastern Airways;[152] as of 2022, those flights are no longer available. Other internal flights operate to northern England, Scotland and Northern Ireland.[153] Wales has four commercial ferry ports. Regular ferry services to Ireland operate fromHolyhead,Pembroke Dock andFishguard. The Swansea toCork service was cancelled in 2006, reinstated in March 2010, and withdrawn again in 2012.[154]
St. David's Building, Lampeter campus,University of Wales, Trinity Saint David (Prifysgol Cymru, Y Drindod Dewi Sant). Founded in 1822, it is the oldest degree-awarding institution in Wales.[155]
A distinct education system has developed in Wales.[156] Formal education before the 18th century was the preserve of the elite. The first grammar schools were established in Welsh towns such asRuthin, Brecon and Cowbridge.[156] One of the first successful schooling systems was started byGriffith Jones, who introduced the circulating schools in the 1730s; these are believed to have taught half the country's population to read.[157] In the early 19th century, English became the usual language of instruction at schools in Wales. While the country's working class was largely Welsh-speaking at the time, Welsh public opinion wished for children to learn English.[158][159] Many schools used corporal punishment to stop children from speaking Welsh in the first half of the 19th century;[160] the practice declined in the second half of the century.[161][162] The British government never prohibited the use of Welsh at schools but it treated English as the assumed language of instruction.[163] More Welsh was gradually used at schools in Welsh-speaking areas in the mid to late 19th century[164][165] and teaching of the language began to receive moderate government support from the late 19th century.[166]
TheUniversity College of Wales opened in Aberystwyth in 1872.Cardiff andBangor followed, and the three colleges came together in 1893 to form theUniversity of Wales.[157] TheWelsh Intermediate Education Act of 1889 created 95 secondary schools. The Welsh Department for the Board of Education followed in 1907, which gave Wales its first significant educational devolution.[157] A resurgence in Welsh-language schools in the latter half of the 20th century at nursery and primary level saw attitudes shift towards teaching in the medium of Welsh.[167] Welsh is a compulsory subject in all of Wales's state schools for pupils aged 5–16 years old.[168] While there has never been an exclusively Welsh-language college, Welsh-medium higher education is delivered through the individual universities and has since 2011 been supported by theColeg Cymraeg Cenedlaethol (Welsh-language National College) as a delocalised federal institution. In 2021–2022, there were 1,470 maintained schools in Wales.[169] In 2021–22, the country had 471,131 pupils taught by 25,210 full-time equivalent teachers.[170][171]
Public healthcare in Wales is provided byNHS Wales (GIG Cymru), throughseven local health boards and three all-Wales trusts. It was originally formed as part of the NHS structure for England and Wales by theNational Health Service Act 1946, but with powers over the NHS in Wales coming under the Secretary of State for Wales in 1969.[172] Responsibility for NHS Wales passed to the Welsh Assembly under devolution in 1999, and is now the responsibility of theMinister for Health and Social Services.[173] Historically, Wales was served by smaller 'cottage' hospitals, built as voluntary institutions.[174] As newer, more expensive, diagnostic techniques and treatments became available, clinical work has been concentrated in newer, larger district hospitals.[174] In 2006, there were seventeen district hospitals in Wales.[174] NHS Wales directly employs over 90,000 staff, making it Wales's biggest employer.[175] The National Survey for Wales in 2021–22 reported that 72 per cent of adults surveyed had good or very good general health, 19 per cent had fair general health and 8 had bad or very bad general health.[176] The survey recorded that 46 per cent of Welsh adults had a long-standing illness, such as arthritis, asthma, diabetes or heart disease.[177] The survey also reported that 13 per cent of the adult population weresmokers, 16 per cent admitted drinking alcohol above weekly recommended guidelines, while 56 per cent undertook the recommended 150 minutes of physical activity each week.[178] According to the survey, 30 per cent of adults in Wales reported to have eaten at least 5 portions of fruit or vegetables the previous day and 36 per cent reported a healthy weight.[179]
Estimated (pre-1801); census (post-1801)[180] 2001 census[181] 2021 census[182]
The population of Wales doubled from 587,000 in 1801 to 1,163,000 in 1851 and had reached 2,421,000 by 1911. Most of the increase came in the coal mining districts, especiallyGlamorganshire, which grew from 71,000 in 1801 to 232,000 in 1851 and 1,122,000 in 1911.[183] Part of this increase can be attributed to thedemographic transition seen in most industrialising countries during theIndustrial Revolution, as death rates dropped and birth rates remained steady. However, there was also large-scale migration into Wales during the Industrial Revolution. The English were the most numerous group, but there were also considerable numbers of Irish and smaller numbers of other ethnic groups,[184] includingItalians, who migrated to South Wales.[185] Wales also received immigration from various parts of the BritishCommonwealth of Nations in the 20th century, andAfrican-Caribbean andAsian communities add to the ethnocultural mix, particularly in urban Wales. Many of these self-identify as Welsh.[186] In 2021,Poland continued to be the most frequent country of birth outside Wales. The biggest percentage increase since 2011 was seen among people who identifiedRomania as their country of birth. The number of residents in Wales born in Romania grew nearly five times (469.9%) from 2011 to 2021, rising by 7,025 individuals.[187] In 2021, 5.1% (3,630) identified asGypsy or Irish Traveller.[188]
The population in 1972 stood at 2.74 million and remained broadly static for the rest of the decade. However, in the early 1980s, the population fell due to netmigration out of Wales. Since the 1980s, net migration has generally been inward, and has contributed more topopulation growth thannatural change.[189] The resident population of Wales in 2021 according to thecensus was 3,107,500 (1,586,600 female and 1,521,000 male), an increase of 1.4 per cent over 2011. A decreased change from the 5 per cent increase between 2001 and 2011.[190] Wales accounted for 5.2 per cent of thepopulation of England and Wales in 2021.Wales has seven cities: Cardiff, Newport, Swansea, Wrexham,Bangor,St Asaph andSt Davids. (The last two of these havecity status in the United Kingdom despite their small populations.)[191] Wrexham, north Wales's largest settlement, became Wales's newest and seventh city in September2022.[192]
The proportion of respondents in the 2011 census who said they could speak Welsh
Welsh is an official language in Wales as legislated by the Welsh Language (Wales) Measure 2011.[194] Both Welsh and English are also official languages of the Senedd.[195] The proportion of the Welsh population able to speak the Welsh language fell from just under 50 per cent in 1901 to 43.5 per cent in 1911, and continued to fall to 18.9 per cent in 1981.[196] The results of the 2001 Census showed an increase in the number of Welsh speakers to 21 per cent of the population aged 3 and older, compared with 18.7 per cent in 1991 and 19 per cent in 1981. This compares with a pattern of steady decline indicated by census results during the 20th century.[196] In the 2011 census it was recorded that the proportion of people able to speak Welsh had dropped from 20.8 per cent to 19 per cent (still higher than 1991). Despite an increase in the overall size of the Welsh population this still meant that the number of Welsh speakers in Wales dropped from 582,000 in 2001 to 562,000 in 2011. However, this figure was still higher than the 508,000 people (or 18.7 per cent of the population) who said they could speak Welsh in the 1991 census.[197]
According to the2021 census, the Welsh-speaking population of Wales aged three or older was 17.8 per cent (538,300 people) and nearly three-quarters of the population in Wales said they had no Welsh language skills.[198] Other estimates suggest that 29.7 per cent (899,500) of people aged three or older in Wales could speak Welsh in June 2022.[199]
English is spoken by almost all people in Wales and is the main language in most of the country.Code-switching is common in all parts of Wales and is known by various terms, though none is recognised by professional linguists.[200] "Wenglish" is the Welsh dialect of the English language. It has been influenced significantly by Welsh grammar and includes words derived from Welsh.[201] Northern and western Wales retain many areas where Welsh is spoken as a first language by the majority of the population, and English learnt as a second language. Althoughmonoglotism in young children continues, life-long monoglotism in Welsh no longer occurs.[202]
SincePoland joined the European Union, Wales has seen a significant increase in Polish immigrants. This has madePolish the most common main language in Wales after English and Welsh, at 0.7 per cent of the population.[203]
Forms ofChristianity have dominated religious life in what is now Wales for more than 1,400 years.[204][205]The 2021 census recorded that 46.5 per cent had "No religion", more than any single religious affiliation and up from 32.1 per cent in 2011.[206] The largest religion in Wales is Christianity, with 43.6 per cent of the population describing themselves as Christian in the 2021 census.[206] Thepatron saint of Wales isSaint David (Dewi Sant), withSaint David's Day (Dydd Gŵyl Dewi Sant) celebrated annually on 1 March.[207] The early 20th century saw a religious revival, the1904–1905 Welsh Revival, which started through the evangelism ofEvan Roberts and brought large numbers of converts, sometimes whole communities, to non-Anglican Christianity.[208]
Non-Christian religions are small in Wales, making up approximately 2.7 per cent of the population.[211]Islam is the largest, with 24,000 (0.8 per cent) reported Muslims in the 2011 census.[211] There are also communities ofHindus andSikhs, mainly in the south Wales cities of Newport, Cardiff and Swansea, while the largest concentration ofBuddhists is in the western rural county ofCeredigion.[212]Judaism was the first non-Christian faith to be established in Wales since Roman times, though by 2001 the community had declined to approximately 2,000[213] and as of 2019 only numbers in the hundreds.[214]
The 2021 census showed that 93.8 per cent of the population of Wales identified as "White", compared to 95.6 per cent in 2011. 90.6 per cent of the population identified as "White: Welsh, English, Scottish, Northern Irish or British" in 2021. The second-highest ethnicity in 2021 was "Asian, Asian Welsh or Asian British" at 2.9 per cent of the population, compared to 2.3 per cent in 2011. 1.6 per cent of the population identified as "Mixed or multiple ethnic groups", compared to 1.0 per cent in 2011; 0.9 per cent of the population identified as "Black, Black Welsh, Black British, Caribbean or African", compared to 0.6 per cent in 2011; and 0.9 per cent identified as "Other ethnic group" compared to 0.5 per cent in 2011. The local authorities with the highest proportions of "high-level" ethnic groups other than "White" were mainly urban areas including Cardiff, Newport and Swansea. 5.3 per cent of households in Wales were multiple ethnic group households, up from 4.2 per cent in 2011.[215]
In 2021, the first statue of a named, non-fictional woman outdoors was raised for Wales's first black headteacher,Betty Campbell. In 2023,Patti Flynn (a contemporary ofShirley Bassey, both ofTiger Bay, Cardiff) became the first black Welsh woman to be awarded a purple plaque.[216]
In 2024,Vaughan Gething was elected First Minister of Wales becoming the first black head of government in Europe; he had previously served as Secretary for Finance.[217]
The 2021 census showed that 55.2 per cent identified as "Welsh only" and 8.1 per cent identified as "Welsh and British", giving the combined proportion of 63.3 per cent for people identifying as Welsh.[218] The Welsh Annual Population Survey showed that the proportion of people who identified as Welsh versus another identity was 62.3 per cent in 2022, compared to 69.2 per cent in 2001.[219] A 2022 YouGov poll found that 21 per cent considered themselves Welsh not British, 15 per cent more Welsh than British, 24 per cent equally Welsh and British, 7 per cent more British than Welsh, 20 per cent British and not Welsh, and 8 per cent other; a total of 67 per cent thus considered themselves Welsh to some degree.[220]
Despite the extinction of the professional poet, the integration of the native elite into a wider cultural world did bring other literary benefits.[229] Renaissance scholars such asWilliam Salesbury andJohn Davies broughthumanist ideals from English universities.[229] In 1588William Morgan became the first person to translate theBible into Welsh.[229] From the 16th century the proliferation of the 'free-metre' verse became the most important development in Welsh poetry, but from the middle of the 17th century a host of imported accentual metres from England became very popular.[229] By the 19th century the creation of a Welsh epic, fuelled by the eisteddfod, became an obsession with Welsh-language writers.[230] The output of this period was prolific in quantity but unequal in quality.[231] Initially excluded, religious denominations came to dominate the competitions, with bardic themes becoming scriptural and didactic.[231]
Developments in 19th-century Welsh literature includeLady Charlotte Guest's translation into English of the Mabinogion, one of the most important medieval Welsh prose works of Celtic mythology. 1885 saw the publication ofRhys Lewis byDaniel Owen, credited as the first novel written in the Welsh language. The 20th century saw a move from the verbose Victorian Welsh style, with works such asThomas Gwynn Jones'sYmadawiad Arthur.[230] The First World War had a profound effect on Welsh literature with a more pessimistic style championed byT. H. Parry-Williams andR. Williams Parry.[230] The industrialisation of south Wales saw a further shift with the likes ofRhydwen Williams who used the poetry and metre of a bygone rural Wales but in the context of an industrial landscape. The inter-war period is dominated bySaunders Lewis, for his political and reactionary views as much as his plays, poetry and criticism.[230]
The careers of some 1930s writers continued after World War Two, including those ofGwyn Thomas,Vernon Watkins, andDylan Thomas, whose most famous workUnder Milk Wood was first broadcast in 1954. Thomas was one of the most notable and popular Welsh writers of the 20th century and one of the most innovative poets of his time.[232] The attitude of the post-war generation of Welsh writers in English towards Wales differs from the previous generation, with greater sympathy for Welsh nationalism and the Welsh language. The change is linked to the nationalism ofSaunders Lewis and the burning of the Bombing School on theLlŷn Peninsula in 1936.[233] In poetryR. S. Thomas (1913–2000) was the most important figure throughout the second half of the 20th century. He "did not learn the Welsh language until he was 30 and wrote all his poems in English".[234] Major writers in the second half of the 20th century includeEmyr Humphreys (1919–2020), who during his long writing career published over twenty novels,[235] andRaymond Williams (1921–1988).[236]
Some Welsh artists of the 16th–18th centuries tended to leave the country to work, moving to London or Italy.Richard Wilson (1714–1782) is arguably the first major British landscapist; although more notable for his Italian scenes, he painted several Welsh scenes on visits from London. By the late 18th century, the popularity oflandscape art grew and clients were found in the larger Welsh towns, allowing more Welsh artists to stay in their homeland. Artists from outside Wales were also drawn to paint Welsh scenery, at first because of theCeltic Revival.[241]
AnAct of Parliament in 1857 provided for the establishment of a number of art schools throughout the United Kingdom, and theCardiff School of Art opened in 1865. Graduates still very often had to leave Wales to work, butBetws-y-Coed became a popular centre for artists, and its artists' colony helped to form theRoyal Cambrian Academy of Art in 1881.[242] The sculptor Sir WilliamGoscombe John made works for Welsh commissions, although he had settled in London.Christopher Williams, whose subjects were mostly resolutely Welsh, was also based in London.Thomas E. Stephens[243] andAndrew Vicari had very successful careers as portraitists, based respectively in the United States and France.[244]
Welsh painters gravitated towards the art capitals of Europe.Augustus John and his sisterGwen John lived mostly in London and Paris. However, the landscapists SirKyffin Williams andPeter Prendergast lived in Wales for most of their lives, while remaining in touch with the wider art world.Ceri Richards was very engaged in the Welsh art scene as a teacher in Cardiff and even after moving to London; he was a figurative painter in international styles includingSurrealism. Various artists have moved to Wales, includingEric Gill, the London-WelshmanDavid Jones, and the sculptorJonah Jones.The Kardomah Gang was an intellectual circle in Swansea, centred on the poetDylan Thomas and the poet and artistVernon Watkins, which also included the painterAlfred Janes.[245]
South Wales had several notablepotteries, one of the first important sites being theEwenny Pottery inBridgend, which began producing earthenware in the 17th century.[246] In the 18th and 19th centuries, with more scientific methods becoming available, more refined ceramics were produced: this was led by theCambrian Pottery (1764–1870, also known as "Swansea pottery"), and laterNantgarw Pottery near Cardiff, which was in operation from 1813 to 1820 making fineporcelain, and then utilitarian pottery from 1833 until 1920.[246]Portmeirion Pottery, founded in 1960 bySusan Williams-Ellis (daughter ofClough Williams-Ellis, creator of the Italianate village ofPortmeirion,Gwynedd) is based inStoke-on-Trent, England.[247]
Wales is regarded as a modernCeltic nation which contributes to its national identity,[248][249] with Welsh artists regularly appearing atCeltic festivals.[250] Thered dragon is the principal symbol of national identity and pride, personifying the fearlessness of the Welsh nation.[251] The dragon is first referenced in literature as a symbol of the people in theHistoria Brittonum.Vortigern (Welsh:Gwrtheyrn),King of the Celtic Britons, is interrupted while attempting to build a fort at Dinas Emrys. He is told by Ambrosius[e] to dig up two dragons beneath the castle. He discovers a red dragon representing theCeltic Britons, and a white dragon representing Anglo-Saxons. Ambrosius prophesies that the Celtic Britons will reclaim the island and push the Anglo-Saxons back to the sea.[253]
As an emblem, the red dragon of Wales has been used since the reign ofCadwaladr,King of Gwynedd from around 655 AD, and appears prominently on the nationalflag of Wales, which became an official flag in 1959.[254] The banner ofOwain Glyndŵr is associated with Welsh nationhood; it was carried into battle by Welsh forces duringGlyndŵr's battles against the English, and includes four lions on red and gold.[255] The standard is similar to the arms ofLlywelyn ap Gruffudd (Llywelyn the Last), the last Prince of Wales before the conquest of Wales byEdward I of England. The design may also be influenced by the arms of Glyndŵr's parents, both of whom had lions in their arms.Owain Glyndŵr Day is celebrated on 16 September in Wales and there have been calls to make it a national bank holiday.[256][257][258] ThePrince of Wales's feathers is also used in Wales: it consists of three white feathers emerging from a gold coronet, and the German mottoIch dien (I serve). Several Welsh representative teams, includingthe Welsh rugby union, and Welsh regiments in theBritish Army, including theRoyal Welsh, use the badge or a stylised version of it.[259][260][f]
On 1 March, Welsh people celebrateSaint David's Day, commemorating the death of the country's patron saint in 589.[262] It is not a recognisedbank holiday although there have been calls to make it so.[263][264][265] The day is celebrated by schools and cultural societies across Wales, and customs include the wearing of aleek or adaffodil, which are two national emblems of Wales. Children also wear the national costume.[266] The origins of the leek can be traced to the 16th century, while the daffodil became popular in the 19th century, encouraged byDavid Lloyd George.[267] This is attributed to confusion (or association) between the Welsh for leeks,cennin, and that for daffodils,cennin Pedr or St. Peter's leeks.[74] A report in 1916 gave preference to the leek, which has appeared on British pound coins.[267] Other Welsh festivals includeMabsant when parishes would celebrate the patron saint of their local church, although this is now rarely observed,[268] and a more modern celebration,Dydd Santes Dwynwen (St Dwynwen's Day), observed on 25 January in a similar way to St Valentine's Day.[269]
"Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau" (English:Land of My Fathers) is thede facto, national anthem of Wales and is played at events such as football or rugby matches involving the Wales national team, as well as the opening of the Senedd and other official occasions.[270] "Cymru am byth" ("Wales forever") is a popular Welsh motto.[271] Another Welsh motto "YDdraig Goch Ddyry Cychwyn" ("thered dragon inspires action") has been used on theRoyal Badge of Wales when it was created in 1953.[272]
A number of BBC productions, such asDoctor Who andTorchwood, have been filmed in Wales.
Wales became the UK's firstdigital television nation in 2010.[295]BBC Cymru Wales is the national broadcaster,[296] producing both television and radio programmes in Welsh and English.[297] It has also produced programmes such asLife on Mars,Doctor Who andTorchwood for BBC's network audience across the United Kingdom.[296][298]ITV, the UK's main commercial broadcaster, has a Welsh-orientated service brandedITV Cymru Wales.[299]S4C began broadcasting in 1982. Its output was mostly in Welsh at peak hours, but shared English-language content withChannel 4 at other times. Since thedigital switchover the channel has broadcast exclusively in Welsh.[300]BBC Radio Cymru is the BBC's Welsh-language radio service, which broadcasts throughout Wales.[296] A number of independent radio stations broadcast in the Welsh regions, predominantly in English. In 2006, several regional radio stations broadcast in Welsh: output ranged from two two-minute news bulletins each weekday (Radio Maldwyn) to over 14 hours of Welsh-language programmes weekly (Swansea Sound) to essentially bilingual stations such asHeart Cymru andRadio Ceredigion.[301]
Most of the newspapers sold and read in Wales are national newspapers available throughout Britain. TheWestern Mail is Wales's only print national daily newspaper.[302] Wales-based regional daily newspapers include theDaily Post (which covers North Wales), theSouth Wales Evening Post (Swansea), theSouth Wales Echo (Cardiff), and theSouth Wales Argus (Newport).[302]Y Cymro is a Welsh-language newspaper, published weekly.[303]Wales on Sunday is the only Welsh Sunday newspaper that covers the whole of Wales.[304] TheBooks Council of Wales is the Welsh-Government-funded body tasked with promoting Welsh literature in Welsh and English.[305] The BCW provides publishing grants for qualifying English- and Welsh-language publications.[306] Around 650 books are published each year, by some of the dozens of Welsh publishers.[307][308] Wales's main publishing houses includeGomer Press,Gwasg Carreg Gwalch,Honno, theUniversity of Wales Press andY Lolfa.[307] Journals with a Welsh focus includeCambria (a Welsh affairs magazine published bi-monthly in English),[309]Planet, andPoetry Wales.[310] Welsh-language magazines include the current affairs titlesGolwg ("View"), published weekly, andBarn ("Opinion"), published monthly.[303]Y Wawr ("The Dawn") is published quarterly byMerched y Wawr, the national organisation for women.[303]Y Traethodydd ("The Essayist"), a quarterly publication by thePresbyterian Church of Wales, first appeared in 1845 and is the oldest Welsh publication still in print.[303]
Wales, "the land of song", is notable for its solo artists, itsmale voice choirs and its harpists.[314] The annualNational Eisteddfod is the country's main performance festival. TheLlangollenInternational Eisteddfod provides an opportunity for the singers and musicians of the world to perform. The Welsh Folk Song Society publishes collections of historical songs and tunes.[315] Traditional instruments of Wales include thetelyn deires (triple harp), fiddle,crwth (bowed lyre) and thepibgorn (hornpipe).[316] Male voice choirs emerged in the 19th century, formed as the tenor and bass sections of chapel choirs, and embraced the popular secular hymns of the day.[317] Welsh congregations and choirs were known for singing in a rousing four-voice style, becoming characteristic of the country.[318] Many of the historic choirs survive in modern Wales, singing a mixture of traditional and popular songs.[317]
The earliest surviving Welsh plays are two medievalmiracle plays,Y Tri Brenin o Gwlen ("The three Kings from Cologne") andY Dioddefaint a'r Atgyfodiad ("The Passion and the Resurrection").[325] A recognised Welsh tradition of theatre emerged during the 18th century, in the form of aninterlude, a metrical play performed at fairs and markets.[326] Drama in the early 20th century thrived, but the country established neither a Welsh National Theatre nor a national ballet company.[327] After the Second World War, the substantial number of amateur theatre companies reduced by two-thirds.[328] Competition from television in the mid-20th century led to greater professionalism in the theatre.[328] Plays byEmlyn Williams andAlun Owen and others were staged, while Welsh actors, includingRichard Burton andAnthony Hopkins, were establishing international reputations.[328][329][330] Wales has also produced some well-known comedians.[331]
Traditional dances include Welshfolk dancing andclog dancing. The first mention of dancing in Wales is in a 12th-century account byGiraldus Cambrensis, but by the 19th century traditional dance had all but died out due to religious opposition.[327] In the 20th century a revival was led byLois Blake (1890–1974).[327] Clog dancing was preserved and developed by Hywel Wood (1882–1967) and others who perpetuated the art on local and national stages.[332] The Welsh Folk Dance Society was founded in 1949.[332]Contemporary dance grew out of Cardiff in the 1970s.[332] TheNational Dance Company Wales, formed in 1983, is now resident at the Wales Millennium Centre.[333]
^ONS Standard Area Measurement, 'area to mean high water excluding inland water'
^ONS Standard Area Measurement, 'total extent of the realm' (area to mean low water)
^Both .wales and .cymru are notccTLDs, butGeoTLDs, open to use by all people in Wales and related to Wales..uk as part of the United Kingdom is also used.ISO 3166-1 isGB, but.gb is unused.
^"Latin:Ambrosius vocor, id est, Embreis Guletic.,lit. '"I am called Ambrosius, that is Embreis Guletic"'.[252] Embreis Guletic is probably Emrys Gwledig.
^Wales is not separately represented on theUnion Jack as, at the time of the flag's creation, Wales was considered part of England.[261]
^Tolkien, J. R. R. (1963).Angles and Britons: O'Donnell Lectures. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. English and Welsh, an O'Donnell Lecture delivered at Oxford on 21 October 1955.
^abcdefgJohnes, Martin (2019).Wales: England's colony?: the conquest, assimilation and re-creation of Wales. Cardigan: Parthian Books.ISBN9781912681419.
^Redknap, Mark (2000).Vikings in Wales: An Archaeological Quest. National Museums & Galleries of Wales.ISBN978-0-7200-0486-1.
^Williams, Glanmor (1993).Renewal and Reformation: Wales C. 1415-1642. Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-285277-9.
^Williams, Glanmor (1993).Renewal and Reformation: Wales C. 1415–1642. Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-285277-9.
^Williams, Glanmor (1987).Recovery, Reorientation, and Reformation: Wales c.1415–1642. History of Wales. Vol. 3. Oxford: Clarendon Press.ISBN978-0-19-821733-6.
^Parliament of the Kingdom of England,"Union with Scotland Act 1706 Article I",legislation.gov.uk,That the two Kingdoms of England and Scotland shall upon the First day of May which shall be in the year One thousand seven hundred and seven and forever after be united into one Kingdom by the name of Great Britain..."
^Williams, Gwyn A. (1985).When was Wales? : a history of the Welsh. London: Black Raven Press.ISBN0-85159-003-9.
^Jenkins, Geraint H. (1987).The Foundations of Modern Wales: Wales 1642–1780. Clarendon Press.ISBN978-0-19-821734-3.
^Jones, D. J. V. (1967). Morgan, Kenneth O. (ed.). "The Merthyr Riots of 1831".Welsh History Review.3 (2): 173.
^Ward, Paul (15 February 2011).Huw T. Edwards: British Labour and Welsh Socialism. University of Wales Press.ISBN978-0-7083-2329-8.
^Scully, Roger Awan (March 2020). "Wales and the 2019 Election".Political Insight.11 (1):20–21.doi:10.1177/2041905820911742.
^Morgan, Kenneth O. (2015).Kenneth O. Morgan : My Histories. Cardiff: University of Wales Press.ISBN978-1783163236.
^Wyn Jones, Richard (2012).Wales says yes : devolution and the 2011 Welsh referendum. Cardiff: University of Wales Press.ISBN978-0-7083-2485-1.
^McAllister, Laura; Campbell, Rosie; Childs, Sarah; Clements, Rob; Farrell, David; Renwick, Alan; Silk, Paul (2017).A parliament that works for Wales(PDF). Cardiff: National Assembly for Wales. Retrieved2 April 2023.
^"Aran Fawddwy". snowdoniaguide.com. Retrieved2 October 2010.
^Nuttall, John & Anne (1999). The Mountains of England & Wales – Volume 1: Wales (2nd edition ed.). Milnthorpe, Cumbria: Cicerone.ISBN978-1-85284-304-5.
^Energy Generation in Wales 2019(PDF). Regen;Welsh Government.Wales is a net exporter of electricity, having consumed approximately 14.7 TWh (1) of electricity in 2019, while generating approximately 27.9 TWh.
^L. Alcock,Kings and Warriors, Craftsmen and Priests in Northern Britain AD 550–850 (Edinburgh: Society of Antiquaries of Scotland),ISBN0-903903-24-5, p. 63.
^Lucas Quensel von Kalben, "The British Church and the Emergence of the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom", in T. Dickinson and D. Griffiths, eds,Anglo-Saxon Studies in Archaeology and History, 10: Papers for the 47th Sachsensymposium, York, September 1996 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999),ISBN086054138X, p. 93.
^Lush, Peter; Farrar, Dave (1998).Tries in the Valley: A History of Rugby League in Wales. London: London League Publications. p. 19.ISBN978-0-9526064-3-7.
^Evans, Alun."A Brief History of the League". Welsh Premier League. Archived from the original on 20 July 2011. Retrieved23 November 2010.
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