Wa State | |
|---|---|
 Emblem | |
| Anthem: Aux muih Meung Vax (Parauk) 我爱佤邦 (Chinese) "I love Wa State" | |
 Claimed territory (green) within Myanmar (dark grey) | |
| Status | Autonomous self-governing polity (de jure)[1][2][3][4] Independent state (de facto)[5][6][7] |
| Capital | Pangkham 22°10′N99°11′E / 22.167°N 99.183°E /22.167; 99.183 |
| Largest city | Mong Pawk |
| Official languages | None |
| Recognised national languages | Wa |
| Recognised regional languages | |
| Working language | Standard Chinese |
| Ethnic groups | Wa,Hui (Panthay),Han Chinese,Dai,Lahu,Akha, and others |
| Government | Maoistone-partysocialist state[8] |
• President | Bao Youxiang[9] |
• Vice President | Zhao Guo-an, Lau Yaku[10] |
• Chairman ofWPPCC | Zhao Ai Dao[11] |
| History | |
| 17 April 1989 | |
• Ceasefire between the UWSA and theTatmadaw | 9 May 1989 |
• Creation of theWa Self-Administered Division | 20 August 2010 |
| Area | |
• Total | 30,000 km2 (12,000 sq mi) |
| Population | |
• Estimate | |
• Density | 32.8/km2 (85.0/sq mi) |
| Currency | Renminbi (north) Thai baht (south) |
| Time zone | UTC+06:30 (MMT) |
| Calling code | +86 (0)879 (north) +66 (0)53 (south) |
Wa State[n 1] is ade facto independent state[5][6][7][8] andde jureself-governing region[14][15] inMyanmar that has its ownpolitical system,administrative divisions andarmy.[5][6][7] While the Wa State government recognises Myanmar'ssovereignty over all of its territory,[1][2][3][4] this does not include allegiance to any specific government.[16] The2008 Constitution of Myanmar officially recognises the northern part of Wa State as theWa Self-Administered Division ofShan State.[17] It is run as ade factoone-partysocialist state ruled by theUnited Wa State Party (UWSP),[8] which split from theCommunist Party of Burma (CPB) in 1989. Wa State is divided into three counties, two special districts, and oneeconomic development zone. The administrative capital isPangkham, formerly known as Pangsang. The nameWa is derived from theWa ethnic group, who speak anAustroasiatic language.
For a long time,[timeframe?] headman tribes were dispersed around the Wa mountainous area, with no unified governance. During theQing dynasty, the region became separated from the tribal military control of theDai people.British rule in Burma did not administer the Wa States[18] and the border with China was left undefined.[19]
From the late 1940s, during theChinese Civil War, remnants of the ChineseNational Revolutionary Army retreated to territory within Burma as the communists took over mainland China. Within the mountain regionKuomintang forces of theEighth Army 237 division and 26th Army 93 division held their position for two decades in preparation for a counterattack towards mainland China. Under pressure from the United Nations, the counterattack was cancelled and the army was recalled to northern Thailand and later back toTaiwan; however, some troops decided to remain within Burma. East of theSalween river, indigenous tribal guerrilla groups exercised control with the support of theCommunist Party of Burma.
During the 1960s, the Communist Party of Burma lost its base of operations within central Burma, and with the assistance of the Chinese communists, expanded within the border regions in the northeast. Many intellectual youths from China joined the Communist Party of Burma, and these forces also absorbed many local guerrillas.[20] The Burmese communists gained control over Pangkham, which became their base of operations.
At the end of the 1980s, the ethnic minorities of northeast Burma became politically separated from the Communist Party of Burma. On 17 April 1989,Bao Youxiang's armed forces announced their separation from the Communist Party of Burma, and formed the United Myanmar Ethnicities Party, which later became the United Wa State Party. On 18 May, the United Wa State Army signed a ceasefire agreement with theState Law and Order Restoration Council, which replacedNe Win's military regime following the8888 Uprising.[21] After the ceasefire, the Myanmar government began to call the region "Shan State Special Region No. 2 (Wa Region)"[22]: 111–112 (Parauk:Hak Tiex Baux Nong (2) Meung Man;[23]Chinese:缅甸掸邦第二特区;Burmese:"ဝ" အထူးဒေသ(၂)).
In 1990s, Wa State obtainedSouthern area by force. From 1999 to 2002, 80,000 former opium farmers from the northern area of Wa State were forcefully resettled into the more fertile south for food production, improving food security and laying the groundwork for a ban on drug production in Wa State. Some groups report that thousands died as a result of resettlement.[24]
Tensions between the central government and Wa State were heightened in 2009.[25] During this time, peace initiative proposals by Wa State were rejected by the Myanmar government.[26] The government warned on 27 April 2010 that the WHP program could push Myanmar and Wa State into further conflict.[27][clarification needed]
In 2012, Wa State began a major road construction program to link all townships with asphalt roads.[22]: 60 By 2014, asphalt roads ran through the northern townships of Wa State and connected the Wa townships of Kunma, Nam Tit, and Mengmao to the Chinese towns of Cangyuan and Ximeng.[22]: 60
After the2021 Myanmar coup d'état the Wa began to oppose theMyanmar government more directly, shifting away from their strategy of "forward defense" of supporting smaller anti-government forces militarily which was supposed to keep theTatmadaw from violating ceasefires, with the goal of extending their political and military influence towards Central Myanmar.[28]
When fighting in northern Shan State escalated in late October and early November in 2023, Wa State took aneutral position urging on 1 Nov for a ceasefire. The UWSP has again stated that they would retaliate against any military action against Wa.[29][30]
Tensions between Wa State andThailand increased in November 2024 over the presence ofUWSA bases allegedly encroaching on Thai territory.[31]
Wa State is divided into northern and southern regions which are separated from one another, with the 13,000 km2 (5,000 sq mi) southern region bordering Thailand and consisting of 200,000 people.[32] The total area of the region controlled by Wa State is approximately 27,000 kilometers.[22]: 4 The political leaders of Wa State are mostly ethnicWa people.
The working language of the Wa State government isMandarin Chinese.[33][34][35]Southwest Mandarin andWa are widely spoken by the population, with the language of education beingStandard Chinese. Television broadcasts within Wa State are broadcast in both Mandarin and Wa. Commodities within Wa State are brought over from China, and therenminbi is commonly used for exchanges.China Mobile has cellular coverage over some parts of Wa State.[32]
The Wa State government emulates many political features of the government of thePeople's Republic of China, having a central party known as the United Wa State Party, which also has a Central Committee and a Politburo. Wa State also has a Wa People's Congress and a Wa People's Political Consultative Conference, respectively mimicking theNational People's Congress and theChinese People's Political Consultative Conference. Before the2021 Myanmar coup d'état, whilst Wa State was highly autonomous from the control of the central government inNaypyidaw,[36][37] their relationship was based on peaceful coexistence and Wa State recognised the sovereignty of the central government over all of Myanmar.[32]
The legal system in Wa State is based on thecivil law system, with reference to thelaws of China. As of at least 2015, Wa State imposes the death penalty (which is abolished at the national level in Myanmar) for armed assault, rape, murder, and child abuse.[22]: 53 After being sentenced to death, prisoners are sent directly to the execution ground.[38]
Labour camps exist in Wa State and relatives of those who are imprisoned orconscripted are often taken hostage by the state. The state is governed by a network of Maoist insurgents, traditional leaders such as headmen, businessmen, and traders, without democratic elections or the rule of law.[39]
Most people do not have Chinese or Myanmar ID cards, but Wa State ID cards are often recognised in those countries. It is easy for citizens to enter them if they avoid the official border crossings.[39]
The most-practiced religion, outnumberingIslam,Buddhism andfolk religions, is Christianity, even though there are frequent crackdowns on it conducted by the Maoist government. An example for this is a campaign against churches built after 1992 in September 2018.[40][41][42]
There used to be up to 100,000 Chinese nationals residing in Wa State, many of them engaging in business. In 2021, the Chinese government ordered them to return to their homeland to combat online fraud allegedly committed by many of them.[43] The Chinese exodus has had a negative impact on the Wa economy.[44]
Wa State is divided into counties (Parauk:kaung:;Chinese:县), special districts (Parauk:lum;Chinese:特区), an economic development zone and an administrative affairs committee. Each county is further divided into districts (Parauk:veng;Chinese:区).
Below these are township-level administrations: townships (Parauk:ndaex eeng / yaong:;Chinese:乡) and streets (Parauk:laih;Chinese:街).
| Level | County-level | District-level | Township | Village |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Division Type | Special District (lum /特区) | Street (laih /街) Town (ceung /镇) Township (daux eeng: /乡) | Group (组) Village (yaong: /村) | |
| Economic Development Zone (经济开发区) | ||||
| County (kaung: /县) | Avenue (daux laih /街道) District (veng /ဝဵင်း /区) | |||
| Administrative Affairs Committee (行政事务管理委员会) | Township (southern) (yaong: /乡) | |||
In the table above, names in apostrophes are in Wa/Dai/Mandarin order. Avenue (daux laih /街道) is found only once in Mong Maoe County; town (镇 / "ceung") is found only once in Mong Phing EDZ. Avenues and streets are metaphorical urban-type division name analogical tosubdistricts of China and should not be understood literally. They are further subdivided into groups. Villages are rural counterparts of groups and are below townships. In southern Wa, townships are given the township identity (乡) according to their Mandarin name yet not subdivided into villages with their Wa names indicate they are natural settlements (yaong: /寨), but might be a part of compound likedaux eeng yaong: XX (XX-settlement township /XX寨乡).
In general, the Wa names of divisions follow theRomance naming order. For example,Veng Yaong Leen means Yaong Leen District and is aveng (district) instead of ayaong: (natural settlement). That of the town of Mong Phing in Mong Phing EDZ is an exception – it follows theGermanic naming order as "Mong Phing Ceung" instead of "Ceung Mong Phing". In the Wa language,x at the end of a syllable represents aglottal stop.
In the sections below, names inbold indicate county seats. Names with "quotation marks" arepinyin transcriptions of Mandarin while names initalics are Burmese transcriptions of Mandarin. Although Mandarin is one of the four working languages of Wa State, some Mandarin administrative names are non-canonical. For example,班阳区 and邦洋区 are two different transcriptions of the same official Wa or Dai name ofPang Yang District.
Wa State's northern area is divided into four counties and one special district. Each county is further divided into districts; there are 25 districts in total.
Wa State overlaps with sevende jure townships designated by the Burmese government. The geographic relationship between districts (second level) and special districts (first level) of Wa State and districts of Shan State are listed below:
On 15 January 2024,Hopang andPan Lon are officially transferred to Wa State by Myanmar's government.[11][45]
Wa State's southern area is administered by the Fourth Theater Command as the "171st military region" and enjoys a high degree of local autonomy. For example, the UWSP allowed it to implement its ownCOVID-19 policies.[46] The region is not part oftraditional Wa territory, but was granted in 1989 by thethen-ruling Burmese military junta for the UWSA's cooperation in their efforts against drug warlordKhun Sa.[47] These territories were originally inhabited by the AustroasiaticTai Loi peoples, but now include significantLahu andShan communities, as well asWa settlers.
The Southern area is administrated by the Southern Administrative Affairs Committee (Parauk:Meung Vax Plak Caw,Chinese:南部行政事务管理委员会). The area can further divided into several districts:
Kha Na District seems to have been merged into Wan Hoong District.
In recent years tens of thousands of people (according to the Lahu National Development Organization claims 125,933 from 1999 to 2001 alone) have resettled from northern Wa State and central Shan State to the southern area, often due to pressure by the Wa government. These actions were intended to strengthen the Wa government's position there, especially the Mong Yawn valley which is surrounded by mountains on all sides is a strategically important location.[24] Wa people were also relocated from villages on mountain peaks to the surrounding valleys, officially to offer the residents an alternative to the cultivation ofopium. After the resettlement, the Wa government allowed ethnic Wa settlers to grow opium for three more years and sell it freely. Serious human rights violations were reported during the resettlement and many people have died, around 10,000 alone during the rains of 2000 since the Wa settlers were not accustomed to tropical diseases like malaria in the warmer southern area.[48][24]
The original inhabitants of the area have been discriminated against by the settlers; their belongings were seized by them without compensation. Many abuses occur, including enslaving of the ones who complain about the Wa government. They have to work in the fields with chained-up legs. When a minority person cannot give enough money to the rulers, they can sell children seven years or older as soldiers to theUnited Wa State Army. Due to these harsh living conditions, many had no other choice but to leave their hometowns.[24]
The region is mainly mountainous, with deep valleys. The lowest points are approximately 600 metres (2,000 ft) above sea level, with the highest mountains over 3,000 metres (9,800 ft).[citation needed] Initially Wa State was heavily reliant on opium production.[49] With Chinese assistance, there has been a move towards growing rubber and tea plantations.[50] Wa State cultivates 220,000 acres of rubber.[51] Due to the resettlement of residents from mountainous areas to fertile valleys,[52] there is also cultivation of wet rice, corn and vegetables. Dozens died during the resettlement due to disease and road accidents.[51] One of the main income sources of Wa State is the mining of resources liketin,zinc, lead and smaller amounts of gold.[53] The proven tin ore reserves of Wa State amount to more than 50 million tons, currently 95% of the tin mine production of Myanmar comes from there, around one sixth of the world production.[54][55]
Additionally, there is also a thriving industry around sectors like prostitution and gambling in the capitalPangkham that are related to tourism from China which was thriving before theCOVID-19 pandemic.[56] The region was able to vaccinate nearly all of its population againstthe virus by July 2021, one of the earliest dates in the world.[57] In general, the state of development of Wa State is considerably higher than in the government-controlled areas ofMyanmar, which is especially true for its capital.[56][58] Wa State is economically dependent on China, which supports it financially and provides military and civilian advisors and weapons.[59][60] It shares 82 miles (133 km) of frontier with China.[61]
TheMyanmar kyat is not legal tender anywhere in the Wa State. In the north, theChinese yuan is legal tender, whilst thebaht is legal tender in the south.[62]
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TheUnited Wa State Army (UWSA) is among the largestnarcotics trafficking organizations in Southeast Asia.[63]
The UWSA cultivated vast areas of land for the opium poppy, which was later refined to heroin.Methamphetamine trafficking was also important to the economy of Wa State.[51] The money from the opium was primarily used for purchasing weapons which continues to be the case to some extent. At the same time, while opium poppy cultivation in Myanmar had declined year-on-year since 2015, cultivation area increased by 33% totalling 40,100 hectares alongside an 88% increase in yield potential to 790 metric tonnes in 2022 according to latest data from theUnited Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) Myanmar Opium Survey 2022[64] With that said, theUnited Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) has also warned that opium production in Myanmar may rise again if the economic crunch brought on by COVID-19 and the country's February 1 military coup persists, with significant public health and security consequences for much of Asia.[65]
In August 1990, government officials began drafting a plan to end drug production and trafficking in Wa State.[66] According to an interview with Wa officials in 1994, Bao Youyi (Tax Kuad Rang; also known as Bao Youyu) becamewanted by theChinese police for his involvement in drug trafficking. As a result, Bao Youxiang and Zhao Nyi-Lai went toCangyuan Va Autonomous County of China and signed the Cangyuan Agreement with local officials, which stated that, "No drugs will go into the international society (from Wa State); no drugs will go into China (from Wa State); no drugs will go into Burmese government-controlled areas (from Wa State)."[67] However, the agreement did not mention whether or not Wa State could sell drugs to insurgent groups.
In 1997, the United Wa State Party officially proclaimed that Wa State would be drug-free by the end of 2005.[66] In 2005, Wa State authorities banned opium, and thereafter launched yearly drug crackdown campaigns.[22]: 54 With the help of the United Nations (which began opium-substitution programs in 1998)[22]: 174 and the Chinese government, many opium farmers in Wa State shifted to the production of rubber and tea. However, somepoppy farmers continued to cultivate the flower outside of Wa State.[68] Anti-drug strategies involved opium substitution programs for farmers, seeking alternative revenue sources in the area, roadbuilding to improve access to the hills, strict enforcement, and a population resettlement program.[22]: 54 Between 1999 and 2006, the United Wa State Army began both voluntary resettlement and forced resettlement of between 50,000 and 100,000 villagers from the northern Wa State territory to the non-contiguous southern Wa State territory.[22]: 54 Malaria and travel-related deaths were significant among the relocated population.[22]: 54
Although opium cultivation in Myanmar declined from 1997 to 2006 on the whole, the opium ban in Wa State eventually led to increased production elsewhere in Myanmar as opium producers sought to benefit from rising opium prices following the ban.[22]: 174 From 2006 to 2012, overall opium cultivation in Myanmar doubled as production shifted to non-Wa State areas.[22]: 174
This population resettlement strategy relieved population pressures in the north Wa State hills and increased opportunities for the cultivation of rubber as an alternative cash crop to opium.[22]: 55 However, international commodity prices for rubber decreased radically by December 2012, fell to a low in November 2015, and remained low from 2015 to 2018.[22]: 56 Low rubber prices severely hampered Wa State's legitimate revenue and the income of rural people.[22]: 56
A BBC presentation aired on 19 November 2016 showed the burning ofmethamphetamine, as well as a thriving trade in illegal animal parts.[69]
The production ofcrystal meth of high quality as well asheroin is still thriving and worth billions of dollars as of 2021. Cheaperya ba tablets are made by neighboring rebel groups which depend on the Wa for raw materials – namelyprecursor chemicals sourced from thechemical industry in China andchemical industry in India which enter Myanmar directly or by transit through theGolden Triangle (Southeast Asia) and specifically Lao PDR via Viet Nam and Thailand.[28][70] The regional synthetic drug production and trafficking industry, in which Wa State plays an important role, has become a major source of illegal drugs now exported across the region and beyond.[71][72][73][74]
Bertil Lintner, a Swedish author who is a leading authority on Myanmar, said Wa leaders have made no new political demands since the military seized control in Naypyitaw, such as a push for formal independence. An informal peace agreement between the Wa and the central government has lasted since 1989, giving the Wa self-government in return for recognition of Myanmar sovereignty.
Though the state is nominally part of Myanmar, the Wa have their own political structures...
"Wa State is a part of the Union of Burma and cannot be cut out of the union. We won't demand an independent Wa state or ask for secession."
'Officially, Bao Youxiang is still the President of the Wa State Government and Commander-in-Chief of the United Wa State Army,' said a Thai security officer, a ten-year veteran on the Thai-Burma border ...
佤邦联合党中央政治局常委、佤邦政府副主席兼对外关系部部长赵国安，佤邦联合党中央政治局常委、佤邦政府副主席罗亚库
Wa leaders accept that their territory is part of Myanmar, but they govern autonomously, maintaining an army strong enough to deter any attempt to bring the region under state control.
The UWSA, by far the most powerful ethnic armed organization, controls an autonomous region within Myanmar's northeastern Shan State...
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