To accommodate smoother penetration of the vagina during sexual intercourse or othersexual activity, vaginal moisture increases duringsexual arousal in human females and other female mammals. This increase in moisture providesvaginal lubrication, which reduces friction. The texture of the vaginal walls creates friction for thepenis during sexual intercourse and stimulates it towardejaculation, enablingfertilization. Along with pleasure and bonding, women's sexual behavior with other people can result insexually transmitted infections (STIs), the risk of which can be reduced by recommendedsafe sex practices.Other health issues may also affect the human vagina.
The vagina has evoked strong reactions in societies throughout history, including negative perceptions and language, culturaltaboos, and their use as symbols forfemale sexuality, spirituality, or regeneration of life. Incommon speech, the word "vagina" is often used incorrectly to refer to thevulva or to the female genitals in general.
Etymology and definition
The termvagina is fromLatinvāgīna, meaning "sheath" or "scabbard".[1] The vagina may also be referred to as thebirth canal in the context ofpregnancy andchildbirth.[2][3] Although by its dictionary and anatomical definitions, the termvagina refers exclusively to the specific internal structure, it iscolloquially used to refer to thevulva or to both the vagina and vulva.[4][5]
Using the termvagina to mean "vulva" can pose medical or legal confusion; for example, a person's interpretation of its location might not match another's interpretation of the location.[4][6] Medically, one description of the vagina is that it is the canal between thehymen (or remnants of the hymen) and thecervix, while a legal description is that it begins at the vulva (between thelabia).[4] It may be that the incorrect use of the termvagina is due to not as much thought going into the anatomy of the female genitals as has gone into the study of male genitals, and that this has contributed to an absence of correct vocabulary for the external female genitalia among both the general public and health professionals. Because a better understanding of female genitalia can help combat sexual and psychological harm with regard to female development, researchers endorse correct terminology for the vulva.[6][7][8]
Pelvic anatomy including organs of the female reproductive system
The human vagina is an elastic, muscular canal that extends from the vulva to the cervix.[9][10] The opening of the vagina lies in theurogenital triangle. The urogenital triangle is the front triangle of theperineum and also consists of the urethral opening and associated parts of the external genitalia.[11] Thevaginal canal travels upwards and backwards, between the urethra at the front, and the rectum at the back. Near the upper vagina, the cervix protrudes into the vagina on its front surface at approximately a 90 degree angle.[12] The vaginal and urethral openings are protected by the labia.[13]
When notsexually aroused, the vagina is a collapsed tube, with the front and back walls placed together. The lateral walls, especially their middle area, are relatively more rigid. Because of this, the collapsed vagina has an H-shaped cross section.[10][14] Behind, the upper vagina is separated from therectum by therecto-uterine pouch, the middle vagina by looseconnective tissue, and the lower vagina by theperineal body.[15] Where the vaginallumen surrounds the cervix of the uterus, it is divided into four continuous regions (vaginal fornices); these are the anterior, posterior, right lateral, and left lateral fornices.[9][10] The posterior fornix is deeper than the anterior fornix.[10]
Supporting the vagina are its upper, middle, and lower third muscles and ligaments. The upper third are thelevator ani muscles, and the transcervical,pubocervical, and sacrocervical ligaments.[9][16] It is supported by the upper portions of thecardinal ligaments and theparametrium.[17] The middle third of the vagina involves theurogenital diaphragm.[9] It is supported by the levator ani muscles and the lower portion of the cardinal ligaments.[17] The lower third is supported by the perineal body,[9][18] or the urogenital andpelvic diaphragms.[19] The lower third may also be described as being supported by the perineal body and the pubovaginal part of the levator ani muscle.[16]
Vaginal opening and hymen
A human vulva with vaginal opening labeled
Thevaginal opening (also known as thevaginal introitus and the Latinostium vaginae)[20][21] is at the posterior end of thevulval vestibule, behind theurethral opening. The termintroitus is more technically correct than "opening", since the vagina is usually collapsed, with the opening closed. The opening to the vagina is normally obscured by thelabia minora (inner lips), but may be exposed aftervaginal delivery.[10]
Thehymen is a thin layer ofmucosal tissue that surrounds or partially covers the vaginal opening.[10] The effects ofintercourse and childbirth on the hymen vary. Where it is broken, it may completely disappear or remnants known ascarunculae myrtiformes may persist. Otherwise, being very elastic, it may return to its normal position.[22] Additionally, the hymen may be lacerated by disease, injury,medical examination,masturbation orphysical exercise. For these reasons,virginity cannot be definitively determined by examining the hymen.[22][23]
The length of the vaginavaries among women of child-bearing age. Because of the presence of the cervix in the front wall of the vagina, there is a difference in length between the front wall, approximately 7.5 cm (2.5 to 3 in) long, and the back wall, approximately 9 cm (3.5 in) long.[10][24] During sexual arousal, the vagina expands both in length and width. If a woman stands upright, the vaginal canal points in an upward-backward direction and forms an angle of approximately 45 degrees with the uterus.[10][18] The vaginal opening and hymen also vary in size; in children, although the hymen commonly appearscrescent-shaped, many shapes are possible.[10][25]
An illustration showing a cut-away portion of the vagina and upper female genital tract (only one ovary and fallopian tube shown). Circular folds (also called rugae) of vaginal mucosa can be seen.
The vaginal plate is the precursor to the vagina.[26] During development, the vaginal plate begins to grow where the fused ends of theparamesonephric ducts (Müllerian ducts) enter the back wall of theurogenital sinus as thesinus tubercle. As the plate grows, it significantly separates the cervix and the urogenital sinus; eventually, the central cells of the plate break down to form the vaginallumen.[26] This usually occurs by the twenty to twenty-fourth week of development. If the lumen does not form, or is incomplete, membranes known asvaginal septa can form across or around the tract, causing obstruction of the outflow tract later in life.[26]
There are conflicting views on the embryologic origin of the vagina. The majority view is Koff's 1933 description, which posits that the upper two-thirds of the vagina originate from the caudal part of the Müllerian duct, while the lower part of the vagina develops from the urogenital sinus.[27][28] Other views are Bulmer's 1957 description that the vaginal epithelium derives solely from the urogenital sinus epithelium,[29] and Witschi's 1970 research, which reexamined Koff's description and concluded that thesinovaginal bulbs are the same as the lower portions of theWolffian ducts.[28][30] Witschi's view is supported by research by Acién et al., Bok and Drews.[28][30] Robboy et al. reviewed Koff and Bulmer's theories, and support Bulmer's description in light of their own research.[29] The debates stem from the complexity of the interrelated tissues and the absence of an animal model that matches human vaginal development.[29][31] Because of this, study of human vaginal development is ongoing and may help resolve the conflicting data.[28]
Medium-power magnificationmicrograph of aH&E stained slide showing a portion of a vaginal wall.Stratified squamous epithelium and underling connective tissue can be seen. The deeper muscular layers are not shown. The black line points to a fold in the mucosa.
Thevaginal wall from the lumen outwards consists firstly of amucosa ofstratified squamous epithelium that is notkeratinized, with alamina propria (a thin layer ofconnective tissue) underneath it. Secondly, there is a layer ofsmooth muscle with bundles of circular fibers internal to longitudinal fibers (those that run lengthwise). Lastly, is an outer layer of connective tissue called theadventitia. Some texts list four layers by counting the two sublayers of the mucosa (epithelium and lamina propria) separately.[32][33]
The smoothmuscular layer within the vagina has a weak contractive force that can create some pressure in the lumen of the vagina. Much stronger contractive force, such as during childbirth, comes from muscles in thepelvic floor that are attached to the adventitia around the vagina.[34]
The lamina propria is rich in blood vessels and lymphatic channels. The muscular layer is composed of smooth muscle fibers, with an outer layer of longitudinal muscle, an inner layer of circular muscle, and oblique muscle fibers between. The outer layer, the adventitia, is a thin dense layer of connective tissue and it blends with loose connective tissue containing blood vessels,lymphatic vessels and nerve fibers that are between pelvic organs.[12][33][24] The vaginal mucosa is absent of glands. It forms folds (transverse ridges orrugae), which are more prominent in the outer third of the vagina; their function is to provide the vagina with increased surface area for extension and stretching.[9][10]
Folds of mucosa (orvaginal rugae) are shown in the front third of a vagina.
The epithelium of the ectocervix (the portion of the uterine cervix extending into the vagina) is an extension of, and shares a border with, the vaginal epithelium.[35] The vaginal epithelium is made up of layers of cells, including thebasal cells, the parabasal cells, the superficialsquamous flat cells, and the intermediate cells.[36] The basal layer of the epithelium is the most mitotically active and reproduces new cells.[37] The superficial cellsshed continuously and basal cells replace them.[10][38][39]Estrogen induces the intermediate and superficial cells to fill withglycogen.[39][40] Cells from the lower basal layer transition from active metabolic activity to death (apoptosis). In these mid-layers of the epithelia, the cells begin to lose theirmitochondria and otherorganelles.[37][41] The cells retain a usually high level of glycogen compared to other epithelial tissue in the body.[37]
Under the influence of maternal estrogen, the vagina of a newborn is lined by thick stratified squamous epithelium (or mucosa) for two to four weeks after birth. Between then topuberty, the epithelium remains thin with only a few layers of cuboidal cells without glycogen.[39][42] The epithelium also has few rugae and is red in color before puberty.[4] When puberty begins, the mucosa thickens and again becomes stratified squamous epithelium with glycogen-containing cells, under the influence of the girl's rising estrogen levels.[39] Finally, the epithelium thins out frommenopause onward and eventually ceases to contain glycogen, because of the lack of estrogen.[10][38][43]
Flattened squamous cells are more resistant to both abrasion and infection.[42] The permeability of the epithelium allows for an effective response from theimmune system sinceantibodies and other immune components can easily reach the surface.[44] The vaginal epithelium differs from the similar tissue of the skin. Theepidermis of the skin is relatively resistant to water because it contains high levels of lipids. The vaginal epithelium contains lower levels of lipids. This allows the passage of water and water-soluble substances through the tissue.[44]
Keratinization happens when the epithelium is exposed to the dry external atmosphere.[10] In abnormal circumstances, such as inpelvic organ prolapse, the mucosa may be exposed to air, becoming dry and keratinized.[45]
Blood and nerve supply
Blood is supplied to the vagina mainly via thevaginal artery, which emerges from a branch of theinternal iliac artery or theuterine artery.[9][46] The vaginal arteriesanastamose (are joined) along the side of the vagina with the cervical branch of the uterine artery; this forms theazygos artery,[46] which lies on the midline of the anterior and posterior vagina.[15] Other arteries which supply the vagina include themiddle rectal artery and theinternal pudendal artery,[10] all branches of the internal iliac artery.[15] Three groups of lymphatic vessels accompany these arteries; the upper group accompanies the vaginal branches of the uterine artery; a middle group accompanies the vaginal arteries; and the lower group, draining lymph from the area outside the hymen, drain to theinguinal lymph nodes.[15][47] Ninety-five percent of the lymphatic channels of the vagina are within 3 mm of the surface of the vagina.[48]
Two main veins drain blood from the vagina, one on the left and one on the right. These form a network of smaller veins, thevaginal venous plexus, on the sides of the vagina, connecting with similar venous plexuses of theuterus,bladder, andrectum. These ultimately drain into theinternal iliac veins.[15]
Vaginal secretions are primarily from theuterus, cervix, and vaginal epithelium in addition to minusculevaginal lubrication from theBartholin's glands upon sexual arousal.[10] It takes little vaginal secretion to make the vagina moist; secretions may increase during sexual arousal, the middle of or a little prior tomenstruation, or duringpregnancy.[10] Menstruation (also known as a "period" or "monthly") is the regular discharge of blood and mucosal tissue (known as menses) from theinner lining of the uterus through the vagina.[49] The vaginal mucous membrane varies in thickness and composition during themenstrual cycle,[50] which is the regular, natural change that occurs in thefemale reproductive system (specifically the uterus andovaries) that makes pregnancy possible.[51][52] Differenthygiene products such astampons,menstrual cups, andsanitary napkins are available to absorb or capture menstrual blood.[53]
The Bartholin's glands, located near the vaginal opening, were originally considered the primary source for vaginal lubrication, but further examination showed that they provide only a few drops ofmucus.[54] Vaginal lubrication is mostly provided by plasma seepage known astransudate from the vaginal walls. This initially forms as sweat-like droplets, and is caused by increased fluid pressure in the tissue of the vagina (vasocongestion), resulting in the release of plasma as transudate from thecapillaries through the vaginal epithelium.[54][55][56]
Before and duringovulation, the mucous glands within the cervix secrete different variations of mucus, which provides analkaline,fertile environment in the vaginal canal that is favorable to the survival ofsperm.[57] Following menopause, vaginal lubrication naturally decreases.[58]
Nerve endings in the vagina can provide pleasurable sensations when the vagina is stimulated during sexual activity. Women may derive pleasure from one part of the vagina, or from a feeling of closeness and fullness during vaginal penetration.[59] Because the vagina is not rich in nerve endings, women often do not receive sufficient sexual stimulation, ororgasm, solely from vaginal penetration.[59][60][61] Although the literature commonly cites a greater concentration of nerve endings and therefore greater sensitivity near the vaginal entrance (the outer one-third or lower third),[60][61][62] some scientific examinations of vaginal wall innervation indicate no single area with a greater density of nerve endings.[63][64] Other research indicates that only some women have a greater density of nerve endings in the anterior vaginal wall.[63][65] Because of the fewer nerve endings in the vagina, childbirth pain is significantly more tolerable.[61][66][67]
Most women require direct stimulation of theclitoris to orgasm.[60][61] The clitoris plays a part in vaginal stimulation. It is a sex organ of multiplanar structure containing an abundance of nerve endings, with a broad attachment to the pubic arch and extensive supporting tissue to the labia. Research indicates that it forms a tissue cluster with the vagina. This tissue is perhaps more extensive in some women than in others, which may contribute to orgasms experienced vaginally.[60][76][77]
During sexual arousal, and particularly the stimulation of the clitoris, the walls of the vagina lubricate. This begins after ten to thirty seconds of sexual arousal, and increases in amount the longer the woman is aroused.[78] It reduces friction or injury that can be caused by insertion of the penis into the vagina or other penetration of the vagina during sexual activity. The vagina lengthens during the arousal, and can continue to lengthen in response to pressure; as the woman becomes fully aroused, the vagina expands in length and width, while the cervix retracts.[78][79] With the upper two-thirds of the vagina expanding and lengthening, the uterus rises into thegreater pelvis, and the cervix is elevated above the vaginal floor, resulting in tenting of the mid-vaginal plane.[78] This is known as the tenting or ballooning effect.[80] As the elastic walls of the vaginastretch or contract, with support from the pelvic muscles, to wrap around the inserted penis (or other object),[62] this creates friction for the penis and helps to cause a man to experience orgasm andejaculation, which in turn enablesfertilization.[81]
An area in the vagina that may be anerogenous zone is theG-spot. It is typically defined as being located at the anterior wall of the vagina, a couple or few inches in from the entrance, and some women experience intense pleasure, and sometimes an orgasm, if this area is stimulated during sexual activity.[63][65] A G-spot orgasm may be responsible forfemale ejaculation, leading some doctors and researchers to believe that G-spot pleasure comes from theSkene's glands, a femalehomologue of theprostate, rather than any particular spot on the vaginal wall; other researchers consider the connection between the Skene's glands and the G-spot area to be weak.[63][64][65] The G-spot's existence (and existence as a distinct structure) is still under dispute because reports of its location can vary from woman to woman, it appears to be nonexistent in some women, and it is hypothesized to be an extension of the clitoris and therefore the reason for orgasms experienced vaginally.[63][66][77]
The vagina is the birth canal for thedelivery of a baby. When labor nears, several signs may occur, including vaginal discharge and therupture of membranes (water breaking). The latter results in a gush or small stream ofamniotic fluid from the vagina.[82] Water breaking most commonly happens at the beginning of labor. It happens before labor if there is apremature rupture of membranes, which occurs in 10% of cases.[83] Among women giving birth for the first time,Braxton Hicks contractions are mistaken for actualcontractions,[84] but they are instead a way for the body to prepare for true labor. They do not signal the beginning of labor,[85] but they are usually very strong in the days leading up to labor.[84][85]
As the body prepares for childbirth, the cervix softens,thins, moves forward to face the front, and begins to open. This allows the fetus to settle into the pelvis, a process known as lightening.[86] As the fetus settles into the pelvis, pain from thesciatic nerves, increased vaginal discharge, and increased urinary frequency can occur.[86] While lightening is likelier to happen after labor has begun for women who have given birth before, it may happen ten to fourteen days before labor in women experiencing labor for the first time.[87]
The fetus begins to lose the support of the cervix when contractions begin. Withcervical dilation reaching 10 cm to accommodate the head of the fetus, the head moves from the uterus to the vagina.[82][88] The elasticity of the vagina allows it to stretch to many times its normal diameter in order to deliver the child.[89]
Vaginal births are more common, but if there is a risk of complications acaesarean section (C-section) may be performed.[90] The vaginal mucosa has an abnormal accumulation of fluid (edematous) and is thin, with few rugae, a little after birth. The mucosa thickens and rugae return in approximately three weeks once the ovaries regain usual function and estrogen flow is restored. The vaginal opening gapes and is relaxed, until it returns to its approximate pre-pregnant state six to eight weeks after delivery, known as thepostpartum period; however, the vagina will continue to be larger in size than it was previously.[91]
After giving birth, there is a phase of vaginal discharge calledlochia that can vary significantly in the amount of loss and its duration but can go on for up to six weeks.[92]
Gram stain of lactobacilli and squamous epithelial cells in vaginal swab
Thevaginal flora is a complexecosystem that changes throughout life, from birth to menopause. The vaginal microbiota resides in and on the outermost layer of the vaginal epithelium.[44] This microbiome consists of species and genera, which typically do not cause symptoms or infections in women with normal immunity. The vaginal microbiome is dominated byLactobacillus species.[93] These speciesmetabolize glycogen, breaking it down into sugar.Lactobacilli metabolize the sugar into glucose and lactic acid.[94] Under the influence of hormones, such as estrogen, progesterone andfollicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), the vaginal ecosystem undergoes cyclic or periodic changes.[94]
Clinical significance
Pelvic examinations
A disposable plastic bi-valved vaginalspeculum used ingynecological examinationA normalcervix of an adult as seen through the vagina (per vaginam or PV) using abivalved vaginal speculum. The blades of the speculum are above and below and stretched vaginal walls are seen on the left and right.
Vaginal health can be assessed during apelvic examination, along with the health of most of the organs of the female reproductive system.[95][96][97] Such exams may include thePap test (or cervical smear). In the United States, Pap test screening is recommended starting around 21 years of age until the age of 65.[98] However, other countries do not recommend pap testing in non-sexually active women.[99] Guidelines on frequency vary from every three to five years.[99][100][101] Routine pelvic examination on women who are not pregnant and lack symptoms may be more harmful than beneficial.[102] A normal finding during the pelvic exam of a pregnant woman is a bluish tinge to the vaginal wall.[95]
Pelvic exams are most often performed when there are unexplained symptoms of discharge, pain, unexpected bleeding or urinary problems.[95][103][104] During a pelvic exam, the vaginal opening is assessed for position,symmetry, presence of the hymen, and shape. The vagina is assessed internally by the examiner with gloved fingers, before the speculum is inserted, to note the presence of any weakness, lumps ornodules. Inflammation and discharge are noted if present. During this time, the Skene's and Bartolin's glands are palpated to identify abnormalities in these structures. After the digital examination of the vagina is complete, the speculum, an instrument to visualize internal structures, is carefully inserted to make the cervix visible.[95] Examination of the vagina may also be done during acavity search.[105]
Lacerations or other injuries to the vagina can occur duringsexual assault or othersexual abuse.[4][95] These can be tears, bruises, inflammation and abrasions. Sexual assault with objects can damage the vagina andX-ray examination may reveal the presence of foreign objects.[4] If consent is given, a pelvic examination is part of the assessment of sexual assault.[106] Pelvic exams are also performed during pregnancy, and women with high risk pregnancies have exams more often.[95][107]
Before the baby emerges from the womb, an injection for pain control during childbirth may be administered through the vaginal wall and near thepudendal nerve. Because the pudendal nerve carries motor and sensory fibers that innervate the pelvic muscles, apudendal nerve block relieves birth pain. The medicine does not harm the child, and is without significant complications.[112]
Vaginal infections or diseases includeyeast infection,vaginitis,sexually transmitted infections (STIs) andcancer.Lactobacillus gasseri and otherLactobacillus species in the vaginal flora provide some protection from infections by their secretion ofbacteriocins andhydrogen peroxide.[113] The healthy vagina of a woman of child-bearing age isacidic, with apH normally ranging between 3.8 and 4.5.[94] The low pH prohibits growth of many strains ofpathogenic microbes.[94] The acidic balance of the vagina may also be affected by semen,[114][115] pregnancy, menstruation,diabetes or other illness,birth control pills, certainantibiotics, poor diet, and stress.[116] Any of these changes to the acidic balance of the vagina may contribute to yeast infection.[117] An elevated pH (greater than 4.5) of the vaginal fluid can be caused by an overgrowth of bacteria as inbacterial vaginosis, or in the parasitic infectiontrichomoniasis, both of which have vaginitis as a symptom.[94][118] Vaginal flora populated by a number of different bacteria characteristic of bacterial vaginosis increases the risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes.[119] During a pelvic exam, samples of vaginal fluids may be taken to screen for sexually transmitted infections or other infections.[95][120]
Because the vagina is self-cleansing, it usually does not need special hygiene.[121] Clinicians generally discourage the practice ofdouching for maintaining vulvovaginal health.[121][122] Since the vaginal flora gives protection against disease, a disturbance of this balance may lead to infection and abnormal discharge.[121] Vaginal discharge may indicate a vaginal infection by color and odor, or the resulting symptoms of discharge, such as irritation or burning.[123][124] Abnormal vaginal discharge may be caused by STIs, diabetes, douches, fragranced soaps, bubble baths, birth control pills, yeast infection (commonly as a result of antibiotic use) or another form of vaginitis.[123] While vaginitis is an inflammation of the vagina, and is attributed to infection, hormonal issues, or irritants,[125][126]vaginismus is an involuntary tightening of the vagina muscles during vaginal penetration that is caused by aconditioned reflex or disease.[125] Vaginal discharge due to yeast infection is usually thick, creamy in color and odorless, while discharge due to bacterial vaginosis is gray-white in color, and discharge due to trichomoniasis is usually a gray color, thin in consistency, and has a fishy odor. Discharge in 25% of the trichomoniasis cases is yellow-green.[124]
HIV/AIDS,human papillomavirus (HPV),genital herpes and trichomoniasis are some STIs that may affect the vagina, and health sources recommendsafe sex (or barrier method) practices to prevent the transmission of these and other STIs.[127][128] Safe sex commonly involves the use ofcondoms, and sometimesfemale condoms (which give women more control). Both types can help avert pregnancy by preventing semen from coming in contact with the vagina.[129][130] There is, however, little research on whether female condoms are as effective as male condoms at preventing STIs,[130] and they are slightly less effective than male condoms at preventing pregnancy, which may be because the female condom fits less tightly than the male condom or because it can slip into the vagina and spill semen.[131]
The vaginal lymph nodes often trapcancerous cells that originate in the vagina. These nodes can be assessed for the presence of disease. Selective surgical removal (rather than total and more invasive removal) of vaginal lymph nodes reduces the risk of complications that can accompany more radical surgeries. These selective nodes act as sentinel lymph nodes.[48] Instead of surgery, the lymph nodes of concern are sometimes treated withradiation therapy administered to the patient's pelvic, inguinal lymph nodes, or both.[132]
Vaginal cancer andvulvar cancer are very rare, and primarily affect older women.[133][134]Cervical cancer (which is relatively common) increases the risk of vaginal cancer,[135] which is why there is a significant chance for vaginal cancer to occur at the same time as, or after, cervical cancer. It may be that their causes are the same.[135][133][136] Cervical cancer may be prevented by pap smear screening andHPV vaccines, but HPV vaccines only cover HPV types 16 and 18, the cause of 70% of cervical cancers.[137][138] Some symptoms of cervical and vaginal cancer aredyspareunia, and abnormalvaginal bleeding or vaginal discharge, especiallyafter sexual intercourse or menopause.[139][140] However, most cervical cancers areasymptomatic (present no symptoms).[139] Vaginal intracavity brachytherapy (VBT) is used to treatendometrial, vaginal and cervical cancer. An applicator is inserted into the vagina to allow the administration of radiation as close to the site of the cancer as possible.[141][142] Survival rates increase with VBT when compared to external beam radiation therapy.[141] By using the vagina to place the emitter as close to the cancerous growth as possible, the systemic effects of radiation therapy are reduced and cure rates for vaginal cancer are higher.[143] Research is unclear on whether treating cervical cancer with radiation therapy increases the risk of vaginal cancer.[135]
Effects of aging and childbirth
Age and hormone levels significantly correlate with the pH of the vagina.[144] Estrogen, glycogen and lactobacilli impact these levels.[145][146] At birth, the vagina is acidic with a pH of approximately 4.5,[144] and ceases to be acidic by three to six weeks of age,[147] becoming alkaline.[148] Average vaginal pH is 7.0 in pre-pubertal girls.[145] Although there is a high degree of variability in timing, girls who are approximately seven to twelve years of age will continue to have labial development as the hymen thickens and the vagina elongates to approximately 8 cm. The vaginal mucosa thickens and the vaginal pH becomes acidic again. Girls may also experience a thin, white vaginal discharge calledleukorrhea.[148] The vaginal microbiota of adolescent girls aged 13 to 18 years is similar to women of reproductive age,[146] who have an average vaginal pH of 3.8–4.5,[94] but research is not as clear on whether this is the same for premenarcheal or perimenarcheal girls.[146] The vaginal pH during menopause is 6.5–7.0 (withouthormone replacement therapy), or 4.5–5.0 with hormone replacement therapy.[146]
Pre-menopausal vaginal mucosa (left) versus menopausal vaginal mucosa (right)
After menopause, the body produces less estrogen. This causesatrophic vaginitis (thinning and inflammation of the vaginal walls),[38][149] which can lead to vaginal itching, burning, bleeding, soreness, orvaginal dryness (a decrease in lubrication).[150] Vaginal dryness can cause discomfort on its own or discomfort or pain during sexual intercourse.[150][151]Hot flashes are also characteristic of menopause.[116][152] Menopause also affects the composition of vaginal support structures. The vascular structures become fewer with advancing age.[153] Specificcollagens become altered in composition and ratios. It is thought that the weakening of the support structures of the vagina is due to the physiological changes in this connective tissue.[154]
Menopausal symptoms can be eased by estrogen-containing vaginal creams,[152] non-prescription, non-hormonal medications,[150] vaginal estrogen rings such as theFemring,[155] or other hormone replacement therapies,[152] but there are risks (including adverse effects) associated with hormone replacement therapy.[156][157] Vaginal creams and vaginal estrogen rings may not have the same risks as other hormone replacement treatments.[158] Hormone replacement therapy can treat vaginal dryness,[155] but apersonal lubricant may be used to temporarily remedy vaginal dryness specifically for sexual intercourse.[151] Some women have an increase in sexual desire following menopause.[150] It may be that menopausal women who continue to engage in sexual activity regularly experience vaginal lubrication similar to levels in women who have not entered menopause, and can enjoy sexual intercourse fully.[150] They may have less vaginal atrophy and fewer problems concerning sexual intercourse.[159]
Vaginal changes that happen with aging and childbirth include mucosal redundancy, rounding of the posterior aspect of the vagina with shortening of the distance from the distal end of the anal canal to the vaginal opening,diastasis or disruption of thepubococcygeus muscles caused by poor repair of anepisiotomy, andblebs that may protrude beyond the area of the vaginal opening.[160] Other vaginal changes related to aging and childbirth arestress urinary incontinence,rectocele, andcystocele.[160] Physical changes resulting from pregnancy, childbirth, and menopause often contribute to stress urinary incontinence. If a woman has weakpelvic floor muscle support and tissue damage from childbirth or pelvic surgery, a lack of estrogen can further weaken the pelvic muscles and contribute to stress urinary incontinence.[161]Pelvic organ prolapse, such as a rectocele or cystocele, is characterized by the descent of pelvic organs from their normal positions to impinge upon the vagina.[162][163] A reduction in estrogen does not cause rectocele, cystocele oruterine prolapse, but childbirth and weakness in pelvic support structures can.[159] Prolapse may also occur when the pelvic floor becomes injured during ahysterectomy, gynecological cancer treatment, or heavy lifting.[162][163] Pelvic floor exercises such asKegel exercises can be used to strengthen the pelvic floor muscles,[164] preventing or arresting the progression of prolapse.[165] There is no evidence that doing Kegel exercisesisotonically or with some form of weight is superior; there are greater risks with using weights since a foreign object is introduced into the vagina.[166]
During the third stage of labor, while the infant is being born, the vagina undergoes significant changes. A gush of blood from the vagina may be seen right before the baby is born. Lacerations to the vagina that can occur during birth vary in depth, severity and the amount of adjacent tissue involvement.[4][167] The laceration can be so extensive as to involve the rectum andanus. This event can be especially distressing to a new mother.[167][168] When this occurs,fecal incontinence develops and stool can leave through the vagina.[167] Close to 85% ofspontaneous vaginal births develop some form of tearing. Out of these, 60–70% requiresuturing.[169][170] Lacerations from labor do not always occur.[44]
Surgery
The vagina, including the vaginal opening, may be altered as a result of surgeries such as an episiotomy,vaginectomy,vaginoplasty orlabiaplasty.[160][171] Those who undergo vaginoplasty are usually older and have given birth.[160] A thorough examination of the vagina before a vaginoplasty is standard, as well as a referral to aurogynecologist to diagnose possible vaginal disorders.[160] With regard to labiaplasty, reduction of the labia minora is quick without hindrance, complications are minor and rare, and can be corrected. Any scarring from the procedure is minimal, and long-term problems have not been identified.[160]
During an episiotomy, a surgical incision is made during the second stage of labor to enlarge the vaginal opening for the baby to pass through.[44][141] Although its routine use is no longer recommended,[172] and not having an episiotomy is found to have better results than an episiotomy,[44] it is one of the most common medical procedures performed on women. The incision is made through the skin, vaginal epithelium, subcutaneous fat, perineal body and superficial transverse perineal muscle and extends from the vagina to the anus.[173][174] Episiotomies can be painful after delivery. Women often report pain during sexual intercourse up to three months after laceration repair or an episiotomy.[169][170] Some surgical techniques result in less pain than others.[169] The two types of episiotomies performed are the medial incision and the medio-lateral incision. The median incision is a perpendicular cut between the vagina and the anus and is the most common.[44][175] The medio-lateral incision is made between the vagina at an angle and is not as likely to tear through to the anus. The medio-lateral cut takes more time to heal than the median cut.[44]
Vaginectomy is surgery to remove all or part of the vagina, and is usually used to treat malignancy.[171] Removal of some or all of the sexual organs can result in damage to the nerves and leave behind scarring oradhesions.[176] Sexual function may also be impaired as a result, as in the case of some cervical cancer surgeries. These surgeries can impact pain, elasticity, vaginal lubrication and sexual arousal. This often resolves after one year but may take longer.[176]
Women, especially those who are older and have had multiple births, may choose to surgically correct vaginal laxity. This surgery has been described as vaginal tightening or rejuvenation.[177] While a woman may experience an improvement inself-image and sexual pleasure by undergoing vaginal tightening or rejuvenation,[177] there are risks associated with the procedures, including infection, narrowing of the vaginal opening, insufficient tightening, decreased sexual function (such aspain during sexual intercourse), andrectovaginal fistula. Women who undergo this procedure may unknowingly have a medical issue, such as a prolapse, and an attempt to correct this is also made during the surgery.[178]
Surgery on the vagina can be elective or cosmetic. Women who seek cosmetic surgery can havecongenital conditions, physical discomfort or wish to alter the appearance of their genitals. Concerns over average genital appearance or measurements are largely unavailable and make defining a successful outcome for such surgery difficult.[179] A number ofsex reassignment surgeries are available totransgender people. Although not allintersex conditions require surgical treatment, some choose genital surgery to correct atypical anatomical conditions.[180]
Vaginal anomalies are defects that result in an abnormal or absent vagina.[181][182] The most common obstructive vaginal anomaly is animperforate hymen, a condition in which the hymen obstructs menstrual flow or other vaginal secretions.[183][184] Another vaginal anomaly is atransverse vaginal septum, which partially or completely blocks the vaginal canal.[183] The precise cause of an obstruction must be determined before it is repaired, since corrective surgery differs depending on the cause.[185] In some cases, such as isolatedvaginal agenesis, the external genitalia may appear normal.[186]
Abnormal openings known asfistulas can causeurine orfeces to enter the vagina, resulting in incontinence.[187][188] The vagina is susceptible to fistula formation because of its proximity to theurinary andgastrointestinal tracts.[189] Specific causes are manifold and include obstructed labor, hysterectomy,malignancy, radiation,episiotomy, and bowel disorders.[190][191] A small number of vaginal fistulas arecongenital.[192] Various surgical methods are employed to repair fistulas.[193][187] Untreated, fistulas can result in significantdisability and have a profound impact onquality of life.[187]
Cysts may also affect the vagina. Various types ofvaginal cysts can develop on the surface of the vaginal epithelium or in deeper layers of the vagina and can grow to be as large as 7 cm.[195][196] Often, they are an incidental finding during a routine pelvic examination.[197] Vaginal cysts can mimic other structures that protrude from the vagina such as a rectocele and cystocele.[195] Cysts that can be present includeMüllerian cysts,Gartner's duct cysts, andepidermoid cysts.[198][199] A vaginal cyst is most likely to develop in women between the ages of 30 and 40.[195] It is estimated that 1 out of 200 women has a vaginal cyst.[195][200] TheBartholin's cyst is of vulvar rather than vaginal origin,[201] but it presents as a lump at the vaginal opening.[202] It is more common in younger women and is usually without symptoms,[203] but it can cause pain if anabscess forms,[203] block the entrance to thevulval vestibule if large,[204] and impede walking or cause painful sexual intercourse.[203]
Various perceptions of the vagina have existed throughout history, including the belief it is the center ofsexual desire, a metaphor for life via birth, inferior to the penis, unappealing to sight or smell, orvulgar.[205][206][207] These views can largely be attributed tosex differences, and how they are interpreted.David Buss, anevolutionary psychologist, stated that because a penis is significantly larger than a clitoris and is readily visible while the vagina is not, and males urinate through the penis, boys are taught from childhood to touch their penises while girls are often taught that they should not touch their own genitalia, which implies that there is harm in doing so. Buss attributed this as the reason many women are not as familiar with their genitalia, and that researchers assume these sex differences explain why boys learn to masturbate before girls and do so more often.[208]
The wordvagina is commonly avoided in conversation,[209] and many people are confused about the vagina's anatomy and may be unaware that it is not used for urination.[210][211][212] This is exacerbated by phrases such as "boys have a penis, girls have a vagina", which causes children to think that girls have one orifice in the pelvic area.[211] Author Hilda Hutcherson stated, "Because many [women] have been conditioned since childhood through verbal and nonverbal cues to think of [their] genitals as ugly, smelly and unclean, [they] aren't able to fully enjoy intimate encounters" because of fear that their partner will dislike the sight, smell, or taste of their genitals. She argued that women, unlike men, did not have locker room experiences in school where they compared each other's genitals, which is one reason so many women wonder if their genitals are normal.[206] ScholarCatherine Blackledge [pl] stated that having a vagina meant she would typically be treated less well than her vagina-less counterparts and subject to inequalities (such asjob inequality), which she categorized as being treated like a second-class citizen.[209]
The womb represents a powerful symbol as theyoni inHinduism. Pictured is a stone yoni found in Cát Tiên sanctuary, Lâm Đồng, Vietnam.
Negative views of the vagina are simultaneously contrasted by views that it is a powerful symbol of female sexuality, spirituality, or life. Author Denise Linn stated that the vagina "is a powerful symbol of womanliness, openness, acceptance, and receptivity. It is the inner valley spirit".[213]Sigmund Freud placed significant value on the vagina,[214] postulating the concept that vaginal orgasm is separate from clitoral orgasm, and that, upon reaching puberty, the proper response of mature women is a changeover to vaginal orgasms (meaning orgasms without any clitoral stimulation). This theory made many women feel inadequate, as the majority of women cannot achieve orgasm via vaginal intercourse alone.[215][216][217] Regarding religion, the womb represents a powerful symbol as theyoni inHinduism, which represents "the feminine potency", and this may indicate the value that Hindu society has given female sexuality and the vagina's ability to deliver life;[218] however,yoni as a representation of "womb" is not the primary denotation.[219]
While, in ancient times, the vagina was often considered equivalent (homologous) to the penis, with anatomistsGalen (129 AD – 200 AD) andVesalius (1514–1564) regarding the organs as structurally the same except for the vagina being inverted, anatomical studies over latter centuries showed the clitoris to be the penile equivalent.[76][220] Another perception of the vagina was that the release of vaginal fluids would cure or remedy a number of ailments; various methods were used over the centuries to release "female seed" (via vaginal lubrication or female ejaculation) as a treatment forsuffocatio ex semine retento (suffocation of the womb,lit. 'suffocation from retained seed'),green sickness, and possibly forfemale hysteria. Reported methods for treatment included amidwife rubbing the walls of the vagina or insertion of the penis or penis-shaped objects into the vagina. Symptoms of the female hysteria diagnosis – a concept that is no longer recognized by medical authorities as a medical disorder – included faintness, nervousness, insomnia, fluid retention, heaviness in abdomen, muscle spasm, shortness of breath, irritability, loss of appetite for food or sex, and a propensity for causing trouble.[221] It may be that women who were considered suffering from female hysteria condition would sometimes undergo "pelvic massage" – stimulation of the genitals by the doctor until the woman experienced "hysterical paroxysm" (i.e., orgasm). In this case, paroxysm was regarded as a medical treatment, and not a sexual release.[221]
The vagina has been given many vulgar names, three of which arepussy,twat, andcunt.Cunt is also used as aderogatoryepithet referring to people of either sex. This usage is relatively recent, dating from the late nineteenth century.[222] Reflectingdifferent national usages,cunt is described as "an unpleasant or stupid person" in theCompact Oxford English Dictionary,[223] whereas theMerriam-Webster has a usage of the term as "usually disparaging and obscene: woman",[224] noting that it is used in the United States as "an offensive way to refer to a woman".[225]Random House defines it as "a despicable, contemptible or foolish man".[222] Somefeminists of the 1970s sought to eliminate disparaging terms such ascunt.[226]Twat is widely used as a derogatory epithet, especially inBritish English, referring to a person considered obnoxious or stupid.[227][228]Pussy can indicate "cowardice orweakness", and "the human vulva or vagina" or by extension "sexual intercourse with a woman".[229] In English, the use of the wordpussy to refer to women is considered derogatory or demeaning, treating people as sexual objects.[230]
Thevagina loquens, or "talking vagina", is a significant tradition in literature and art, dating back to the ancientfolkloremotifs of the "talking cunt".[231][232] These tales usually involve vaginas talking by the effect of magic or charms, and often admitting to their lack ofchastity.[231] Other folk tales relate the vagina as having teeth –vagina dentata (Latin for "toothed vagina"). These carry the implication that sexual intercourse might result in injury,emasculation, orcastration for the man involved. These stories were frequently told ascautionary tales warning of the dangers of unknown women and to discouragerape.[233]
In 1966, the French artistNiki de Saint Phalle collaborated withDadaist artistJean Tinguely and Per Olof Ultvedt on a large sculpture installation entitled"hon-en katedral" (also spelled"Hon-en-Katedrall", which means "she-a cathedral") for Moderna Museet, in Stockholm, Sweden. The outer form is a giant, reclining sculpture of a woman which visitors can enter through a door-sized vaginal opening between her spread legs.[234]
The Vagina Monologues, a 1996 episodic play byEve Ensler, has contributed to making female sexuality a topic of public discourse. It is made up of a varying number of monologues read by a number of women. Initially, Ensler performed every monologue herself, with subsequent performances featuring three actresses; latter versions feature a different actress for every role. Each of the monologues deals with an aspect of thefeminine experience, touching on matters such as sexual activity, love, rape, menstruation, female genital mutilation, masturbation, birth, orgasm, the various common names for the vagina, or simply as a physical aspect of the body. A recurring theme throughout the pieces is the vagina as a tool of female empowerment, and the ultimate embodiment of individuality.[235][236]
Societal views, influenced by tradition, a lack of knowledge on anatomy, orsexism, can significantly impact a person's decision to alter their own or another person's genitalia.[178][237] Women may want to alter their genitalia (vagina or vulva) because they believe that its appearance, such as the length of the labia minora covering the vaginal opening, is not normal, or because they desire a smaller vaginal opening or tighter vagina. Women may want to remain youthful in appearance and sexual function. These views are often influenced by the media,[178][238] includingpornography,[238] and women can have low self-esteem as a result.[178] They may be embarrassed to be naked in front of a sexual partner and may insist on having sex with the lights off.[178] When modification surgery is performed purely for cosmetic reasons, it is often viewed poorly,[178] and some doctors have compared such surgeries tofemale genital mutilation (FGM).[238]
Female genital mutilation, also known as female circumcision or female genital cutting, is genital modification with no health benefits.[239][240] The most severe form is Type III FGM, which isinfibulation and involves removing all or part of thelabia and the vagina being closed up. A small hole is left for the passage of urine and menstrual blood, and the vagina is opened up for sexual intercourse and childbirth.[240]
Significant controversy surrounds female genital mutilation,[239][240] with theWorld Health Organization (WHO) and other health organizations campaigning against the procedures on behalf ofhuman rights, stating that it is "a violation of the human rights of girls and women" and "reflects deep-rooted inequality between the sexes".[240] Female genital mutilation has existed at one point or another in almost all human civilizations,[241] most commonly to exert control over the sexual behavior, including masturbation, of girls and women.[240][241] It is carried out in several countries, especially inAfrica, and to a lesser extent in other parts of theMiddle East andSoutheast Asia, on girls from a few days old to mid-adolescent, often to reduce sexual desire in an effort to preserve vaginal virginity.[239][240][241]Comfort Momoh stated it may be that female genital mutilation was "practiced in ancient Egypt as a sign of distinction among the aristocracy"; there are reports that traces of infibulation are on Egyptian mummies.[241]
Custom and tradition are the most frequently cited reasons for the practice of female genital mutilation. Some cultures believe that female genital mutilation is part of a girl's initiation into adulthood and that not performing it can disrupt social and political cohesion.[240][241] In these societies, a girl is often not considered an adult unless she has undergone the procedure.[240]
Other animals
1902 illustration of the female reproductive system of aEuropean rabbit (vagina labeled "va")
The vagina is a structure of animals in which the female isinternally fertilized, rather than bytraumatic insemination used by some invertebrates. Although research on the vagina is especially lacking for different animals, its location, structure and size are documented as varying among species. Intherian mammals (placentals andmarsupials), the vagina leads from the uterus to the exterior of the female body. Female placentals have two openings in the vulva; these are the urethral opening for the urinary tract and the vaginal opening for the genital tract. Depending on the species, these openings may be within the internalurogenital sinus or on the external vestibule.[242] Female marsupialshave two lateral vaginas, which lead to separate uteri, but both open externally through the same orifice;[243] a third canal, which is known as the median vagina, and can be transitory or permanent, is used for birth.[244] The femalespotted hyena does not have an external vaginal opening. Instead, the vaginaexits through the clitoris, allowing the females to urinate, copulate and give birth through the clitoris.[245] In femalecanids, the vagina contracts during copulation, forming acopulatory tie.[246] Femalecetaceans have vaginal folds that are not found in other mammals.[247][248]
Monotremes,birds,reptiles andamphibians have acloaca and is the single external opening for the gastrointestinal, urinary, and reproductive tracts. Some of these vertebrates have a part of theoviduct that leads to the cloaca.[249][250] Chickens have a vaginal aperture that opens from the vertical apex of the cloaca. The vagina extends upward from the aperture and becomes the egg gland.[250] In somejawless fish, there is neither oviduct nor vagina and instead the egg travels directly through the body cavity (and is fertilised externally as in mostfish and amphibians). In insects and otherinvertebrates, the vagina can be a part of the oviduct (seeinsect reproductive system).[251] Birds have a cloaca into which the urinary, reproductive tract (vagina) and gastrointestinal tract empty.[252] Females of some waterfowl species have developed vaginal structures called dead end sacs and clockwise coils to protect themselves fromsexual coercion.[253]
A lack of research on the vagina and other female genitalia, especially for different animals, has stifled knowledge on female sexual anatomy.[254][255] One explanation for why male genitalia is studied more includes penises being significantly simpler to analyze than female genital cavities, because male genitals usually protrude and are therefore easier to assess and measure. By contrast, female genitals are more often concealed, and require more dissection, which in turn requires more time.[254] Another explanation is that a main function of the penis is to impregnate, while female genitals may alter shape upon interaction with male organs, especially as to benefit or hinderreproductive success.[254]
Non-humanprimates are optimal models for human biomedical research because humans and non-human primates share physiological characteristics as a result ofevolution.[256] While menstruation is heavily associated with human females, and they have the most pronounced menstruation, it is also typical ofape relatives andmonkeys.[257][258] Femalemacaques menstruate, with a cycle length over the course of a lifetime that is comparable to that of female humans. Estrogens andprogestogens in themenstrual cycles and during premenarche and postmenopause are also similar in female humans and macaques; however, only in macaques does keratinization of the epithelium occur during thefollicular phase.[256] The vaginal pH of macaques also differs, with near-neutral to slightly alkaline median values and is widely variable, which may be due to its lack of lactobacilli in the vaginal flora.[256] This is one reason why, although macaques are used for studying HIV transmission and testingmicrobicides,[256] animal models are not often used in the study of sexually transmitted infections, such as trichomoniasis. Another is that such conditions' causes are inextricably bound to humans' genetic makeup, making results from other species difficult to apply to humans.[259]
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