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Volta–Niger languages

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Hypothetical major branch of the Volta-Congo languages
Not to be confused with theEastern Mande languages, also known as "Niger–Volta".
Volta–Niger
West Benue–Congo or East Kwa
Geographic
distribution		West Africa, from Eastern Ghana to central Nigeria
Linguistic classificationNiger–Congo?
Subdivisions
Language codes
GlottologNone
Map cut-out of Volta-Niger family of languages area, with most of the languages bounded by the Volta river, in modern-day Ghana, and the Niger river, found in modern-day Nigeria

TheVolta–Niger family of languages, also known asWest Benue–Congo orEast Kwa, is one of the branches of theNiger–Congo language family, with perhaps 70 million speakers. Among these are the most important languages of southernNigeria,Benin,Togo, and southeastGhana:Yoruba,Igbo,Bini, andGbe.

These languages have variously been placed within theKwa orBenue–Congo families or, starting in the 1970s, combined with them altogether. Williamson & Blench (2000) separate the languages here called Volta-Niger from the others. Güldemann (2018) fails to see clear criteria for dividing the languages into two or three families and maintains the broad grouping and name of Benue-Kwa for all them.

Branches

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The constituent groups of the Volta–Niger family, along with the most important languages in terms of number of speakers, are as follows (with number of languages for each branch in parentheses):[according to whom?]

Volta–Niger  

Akpes (1)

Ayere–Ahan (2)

Gbe (21:Fon [2 million],Ewe [3 million],Adja [550,000],Phla–Pherá languages [600,000])

yeai

Yoruboid (Igala [1 million],Yorùbá [47 million],Ede languages [800,000],Itsekiri [800,000])

Edoid (27:Edo [2 million],Urhobo [2 million],Isoko [420,000],Esan [300,000],Etsako [270,000])

Akoko (1)

Igboid (7:Igbo [40 million],Ikwerre [2 million])

noi

Nupoid (12:Ebira [1 million],Nupe [1 million])

Oko (1)

Idomoid (9:Idoma [600,000])

?Ukaan (1)

The Yoruboid languages and Akoko were once linked as theDefoid branch, but more recently they, Edoid, and Igboid have been suggested to be primary branches of an as-yet unnamed group, often abbreviatedyeai. Similarly, Oko, Nupoid, and Idomoid are often grouped together under the acronymnoi.Ukaan is an Atlantic–Congo language, but it is unclear if it belongs to the Volta–Niger family; Blench suspects it is closer toBenue–Congo.

In an automated computational analysis (ASJP 4) by Müller et al. (2013):[1]

Branches and locations

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Clickable Volta-Niger languages displayed in pink

Below is a list of major Volta–Niger branches and their primary locations (centres of diversity) in Nigeria based on Blench (2019).[2]

Distributions of Volta–Niger branches[2]
BranchPrimary locations
AkpesAkoko North LGA,Ondo State
Ayere–AhanIjumu LGA,Kogi State
GbeBadagry LGA,Lagos State and adjacent areas
YoruboidSouthwestern and Central Nigeria
EdoidRivers, Edo, Ondo, Delta and Bayelsa States
AkokoAkoko North LGA,Ondo State
IgboidSoutheastern Nigeria, Rivers and Delta States
NupoidNiger, Kogi, Kwara, Nasarawa States
OkoOgori/Magongo LGA,Kogi State
IdomoidBenue, Cross River, Nasarawa States
UkaanAkoko North LGA,Ondo State,Akoko Edo LGA,Edo state

Comparative vocabulary

[edit]
Some important branches of the Volta–Niger and Benue–Congo families are concentrated in Nigeria, Cameroon, and Benin.

Sample basic vocabulary in different Volta–Niger branches:

Languageeyeearnosetoothtonguemouthbloodbonetreewatereatname
Yorubaojúetíimúeyínahọ́nẹnuẹ̀jẹegungunigiomijẹorúkọ
Proto-Yoruboid[3]*e-jú*e-tĩ́*ɪ-ŋmʊ̃́*e-ɲĩ́*ʊ-ɓã́*a-rʊ̃ã*ɛ̀-byɛ̀*V-k'ĩk'ũ*e-gĩ (i-)*o-mĩ*jɛ*o-ɗú
Proto-Yoruboid[4]*éjú*étí*ímṵ́*éŋḭ́Yor. ahá̰*ɛ́lṵ ?*ɛ̀gyɛ̀*égbṵ́gbṵ́Yor. igi*ómḭ*jɛṵ*órú- ?
Proto-Edoid[5]*dhI-dhω*ghU-chɔGɪ*I-chuəNi; *-chuveNi*dhI-kωN*U-dhamhɪ*A-nuə*U-ɟɪ-, -ɟɪa*U-thaNɪ*A-mɪN*dhɪ*dhI-ni
Proto-Gbe[6]*-tó*aɖú*-ɖɛ́*-ɖũ; *-ɖũkpá*-ʁʷũ*-χʷú*-tĩ́*-tsĩ*ɖu*yĩ́kɔ́
Akoko (Arigidi)[7]ódʒùoto(odʒ)uw̃ɔ̃̀éɲì̃ɛŕɛ̀õrũɛ̀dʒɛ̀ɛ̀dʒɛ̀ɔ́hɔ̃̄edʒĩdʒō
Proto-Akpes;[8] Akpes (Ajowa)[9]*èyò*àsùgù*àhũ*ìyũ*ìndàlì*onuìkɔ̃̀nɔhuniimiìmũ̀nũ̀
Ayere[10]ɛ́jɛ́éndíówṹéyĩ́únúanuèʃwèegbeoŋwuoyinʃeéwú
Ahan[10]ewúéndíowũeɲĩirɛ̃́arũèsèigbegbeoɲĩ
Proto-Nupoid[11]*e-wie*CV-tuNukpua*V-bhʊə*jiNkɔN*a-giNtara*V-giə*CV-kiukuNu*V-cigbɔNa*nuNŋʷa*gi*CV-jɛ
Proto-Ebiroid[11]*e-ji*ʊ-tɔkpa*a-ʃɪ*a-ɲɪ*ɪra-rɛ*aɲa*ʧʊku*ɔ-tʃɪ*e-ɲi*rɪ*ɪrɛ-ʃa
Oko[12]áɲẽ́ɔ́tɔ̃́ɔ́mɔ́dɔ́rɛ̀írúɛ́làárɛ́ówóɛ́ŋɔ̂ófúesámaébíjéíwúrù
Proto-Idomoid[13]*eyi*ʊrʊ/a-*eŋgwu*ìmàǹjī*ìmànyì; *ma-yeni ?*ri*ɛɲɪ
Proto-Ukaan[14]*ìdʒì*ʊrʊgV*ɔ̀kɔ̃́rɔ̃̀*ʊ̀ɲʊ̀gV; jɔ̀r*ɛ̀ɲʊ̃́*òŋʷṍ*ùɲṹ*òɣʷó*ɔ̀hʊ̃́nṽ*ùmɔ̃̀*jé*ìnĩ́
Proto-Benue–Congo[15]*-lito*-tuŋi*-zua*-nini, *-nino; *-sana; *-gaŋgo (±)*-lemi; *-lake*-zi; *-luŋ*-kupe*-titi; *-kwon*-izi (±); *-ni (±)*-zina

Numerals

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Comparison of numerals in individual languages:[16]

ClassificationLanguage12345678910
AkpesAkpesíɡbōn / ēkìnìīdīan(ì)īsās(ì)īnīŋ(ì)īʃōn(ì)ītʃānās(ì)ītʃēnētʃ(ì)ānāānīŋ(ì)ɔ̀kpɔ̄lɔ̀ʃ(ì)īyōf(ì)
Defoid, AkokoidAriɡidi (Iɡasi)[kɛ̀ɛ́ɲɛ̃][kèji][kedà][kenɛ][kéntɔ̀][kefà][keɸi][kerò][kéndà][kéjè]
Defoid, AkokoidÒɡè[ékán][ìyí][ídaː][ínɛ́][ítɔ̃̀][ìfà][ídʒúí][írò][ĩ́ŋa][íyè]
Defoid, Ayere-AhanAyere (Úwû)ĩ̀kã̌ìd͡ʒìītāĩ̄jẽ̄ĩ̄tṹìfàīd͡ʒʷīīrōĩ̄dã̂īɡʷá
Defoid, Ayere-AhanAyuɪdɪahwa /afahataaranaŋaʃatuɡenatɛɛrataraŋaʃ (3 ?)anababoɡ (4 ?)atuluboɡ (5 ?)iʃoɡ / ajalaboɡ
Defoid, Yoruboid, EdekiriCabe (Ede Cabe)ɔ̀kɛ̃mɛ̃́d͡ʒìmɛ̃́tamɛ̃́hɛ̃mɛ́húmɛ̃́fàméd͡ʒemɛ̃́d͡ʒɔmɛ̃́sɛ̃́mɛ̃́wá
Defoid, Yoruboid, EdekiriEde Ica (Ica)ɔkɔ̃eɟiɛtaɛ̃ɛ̃ɛwuɛfaɛɟɛɛɟɔɛsɔ̃ɛya
Defoid, Yoruboid, EdekiriIdaca (Ede Idaca)òbúméd͡ʒimɛ́tamírĩmɛrúmɛ́fàméd͡ʒemɛ́d͡ʒɔmɛ́sãmaa
Defoid, Yoruboid, EdekiriIfè (1)ɛnɛ́méèdzìmɛ́ɛtamɛ́ɛrɛ̃mɛ́ɛrúmɛ́ɛfàméedzemɛ́ɛdzɔmɛsã́maá
Defoid, Yoruboid, EdekiriIfè (2)ɛ̀nɛ / ɔ̀kɔ̃̀méèdzìmɛ́ɛtamɛ́ɛrɛ̃mɛ́ɛrúmɛ́ɛfàméedzemɛ́ɛdzɔmɛsã́maá
Defoid, Yoruboid, EdekiriUlukwumiɔ̀kɑ̃mɛ́zìmɛ́tɑmɛ́rɛ̃mɛ́rúmɛ́fɑ̀mézemɛ́zɔmɛ̀hɑ̃́mɛ́ɡʷɑ́
Defoid, Yoruboid, EdekiriYorubaoókan [oókɔ̃]eéjì [eéɟì]ẹẹ́ta [ɛɛ́ta]ẹẹ́rin [ɛɛ́ɾĩ]aárùn-ún [aáɾũ̀ṹ]ẹẹ́fà [ɛɛ́fà]eéje [eéɟe]ẹẹ́jọ [ɛɛ́ɟɔ]ẹẹ́sàn-án [ɛɛ́sɔ̃̀ɔ̃́]ẹẹ́wàá [ɛɛ́wàá]
Defoid, Yoruboid, IgalaIgala (1)éɲɛ́ / ǒkâèdʒìɛ̀taɛ̀lɛ̀ɛ̀lúɛ̀fàèbʲeɛ̀dʒɔɛ̀láɛ̀ɡʷá
Defoid, Yoruboid, IgalaIgala (2)ínyé̩ [íɲɛ́]èjì [èdʒì]ẹ̀tā [ɛ̀tā]ẹ̀lè̩ [ɛ̀lɛ̀]è̩lú [ɛ̀lú]ẹ̀fè̩ [ɛ̀fɛ̀]ẹ̀biē [èbjiē]ẹ̀jọ̄ [ɛ̀dʒɔ]ẹ̀lá [ɛ̀lá]ẹ̀ɡwá [ɛ̀ɡwá]
UkaanUkaan (Ikaan dialect)ʃíwātāːs / hrāhrnāʲ / nāhrʊ̀ːn / tòːnhràdáhránèʃìnàːnáʲ / nàːnáhráòʃìòpú *
Edoid, DeltaDegemaɔβʊ́iβə́sáj (ɪsáj)inísúwón (ɪsúwón)jɪ́sa (ɪjɪ́sá)síjéβə (isíjéβá)anɪ́ (ɪnʊ́mán)əsí (ɔβʊ óte mʊ iɡ͡beɲ) (10 -1)əɡ͡beɲ (iɡ͡béɲ)
Edoid, DeltaEngenniávʊ̀ívàɛ́sààínìììsyònìɛ̀nyísàìsyovàɛ̀nʊ̀màníàvʊ́mó (10 -1)íɡ͡bèì
Edoid, North-Central, Edo-Esan-OraẸdo (1)òwó [òwó] (used only to count)èvá [èvá]́èhá [èhá]èné [ènɛ́]ìsén [ìsɛ́] or [ìsɛ̃́] ??èhàn [èhã̀]ìhírọ̃n [ìhĩɺɔ]̃èrẹ̀nrẹ̀n [èɺɛ̃ɺɛ̃]ìhìnrín [ihĩɺĩ]ìɡ͡bé [ìɡ͡bé]
Edoid, North-Central, Edo-Esan-OraEdo (Bini) (2)ɔ̀k͡pá / òwo (used only to count)èváèháènɛ́ìsɛ́něhànìhinrɔ̀nèrɛ̀nrɛ́nìhìnrínìɡ͡bé
Edoid, North-Central, Edo-Esan-OraEmai (Emai-luleha-Ora)ɔ̀k͡paèvàèéàèélèìíhìɛ̀nèéhànìhíɔ́nèɛ́nìsínìɡ͡bé
Edoid, North-Central, Edo-Esan-OraEsanɔ̀k͡páèváéàénɛ̃̀ìsɛ̃́éhã́ìhĩ́lɔ̃̀èlɛ̃́lɛ̃̀ĩ̀sɪ̃́lɪ̃̀ìɡ͡bé
Edoid, North-Central, Ghotuo-Uneme-YekheeEtsako (Yekhee)ọkpa [ɔk͡pà]eva [évà]ela [élà]ejiẹ [éʒié]ise [ìsé]esa [ésà]isevha [ìsévhà]eleeh [éːléː]ithi [ìtií]iɡbe [ìɡ͡bé]̄
Edoid, North-Central, Ghotuo-Uneme-YekheeGhotuoɔ̀k͡pāèvāèēsàèēnèìīʒè / ìīʒìèìjhēhà / ìēhà jh = a week, vdìhīɲã̄ènhīē nh = n̥ voiceless n ?ìsīìɡ͡bē LM͡L
Edoid, North-Central, Ghotuo-Uneme-YekheeOkphela (1)oɡ͡ɣʷo ˥˩ ˨evɑ ˨ ˧esɛ ˧ ˨ene ˧ ˨iʃe ˧ ˨esesa ˨ ˧ ˨iʃilʷɑ ˨ ˧ ˨elele ˨ ˩˥ ˨itili ˨ ˩˥ ˧iɡ͡be ˨ ˧
Edoid, North-Central, Ghotuo-Uneme-YekheeIvbie-North-Okphele-Arhe (2)oɣuoevaesɛeneiʃieesesaiʃiluaeleleitiliiɡ͡be
Edoid, North-Central, Ghotuo-Uneme-YekheeOsosooɡwo [òɡwò]eva [èvá]esa [èsá]ene [èné]ichie [ìt͡ʃè]esesa [èsâsà]ifuena [ìfwènà]inyenye [ìɲèɲẽ́]isini [ìsĩ̀nĩ̀]iɡbe [ìɡ͡bé]
Edoid, Northwestern, SouthernOkpamheriɔkpaevaesaenenisheeazaizuonuaɛnienisieiɡ͡be
Edoid, SouthwesternIsoko (1)ɔvʊɪ́vɛɪ́saɪ́nɪɪ́sɔɪɪ́zɪ́zaɪ́hɾɛɪ́rɪ́ːɪ́zɪ́ːɪ́kpe
Edoid, SouthwesternIsoko (2)ọvụịvẹịsạịnịisoiịzịzaihrẹịrịịiziiikpe
Edoid, SouthwesternUrhoboɔ̀vòǐvɛ̀ěràɛ̌nèǐjòɾĩ̀ěsã́ǐɣwɾɛ̃́ɛ̌ɾéɾẽǐríɾĩǐxwè
Igboid, EkpeyeEkpeyenwùrnér, ŋìnɛ́ɓɨ̂bɔ́ bh = IPA [ɓ]ɓɨ́tɔ́ ir = IPA [ɨ]ɓɨ́nɔ̂ o̠r = IPA [ɔ]ɓísêɓísûɓɨ́sábɔ̀ɓɨ́sátɔ́ɓɨ́sánɔ̂ or nàzáma or nàzáma ɗiɗì dh = IPA [ɗ]
Igboid, IgboIgbo (1)ótùàbʊ̄ɔ́àtɔ́ànɔ́ìséìsiìàsáààsátɔ́ìtólúìri
Igboid, IgboÉchiè Igbo (2)otùàbʊ̀ɔ́ ~ m̀bʊ̀ɔ̀ ~ nam̀̀tɔ ~ àtɔ(ǹ)nɔ ~ ànɔse~ ìseʃiì ~ ìʃiìsaà ~ àsaàsatɔ̄ ~ àsatɔ̄totū ~ ìtolūìri
Igboid, IgboIgbo (3)otùàbʊɔ́àtɔànɔìseìsiìàsaààsatɔ́ìtolú, ̀tolúìri
Igboid, IgboIkwereótùɛ̀bɔ̀ɛ̀tɔ́ɛ̀nɔ̂ìsẽ̂ìsínùɛ̀sâɛ̀sátɔ́tólúǹrí
OkoOko (Oko-Eni-Osayen)ɔ̀ɔ́rɛ / ɔ̀jɛ́rɛɛ̀bɔ̀rɛ̀ɛ̀taɛ̀naùpiɔ̀pɔ́nɔ̀ɔ́rɛ (5 + 1) *úfɔ́mbɔ̀rɛ̀ (5 + 2) *ɔ̀nɔ́kɔ́nɔkɔ́nɔùbɔ́ɔ̀rɛ̀ (< 'ten is less than one ') *ɛ̀fɔ
Nupoid, Ebira-GadeEbiraɔ̀ɔ̀nyɪ̄ɛ̀ɛ̀vāɛ̀ɛ̀táɛ̀ɛ̀nàɛ̀ɛ̀hɪ́hɪ̋nɔ̋nyɪ̄ (5+ 1)hɪ̋m̋bā (5+ 2)hɪ̋n̋tá (5+ 3)hɪ̋ǹnà (5+ 4)ɛ̀ɛ̀wʊ́
Nupoid, Nupe-Gbagyi, Gbagyi-GbariGbariɡ͡bᵐaːɾíŋʷã̂baŋʷã̂t͡ʃaŋʷã̂ɲiŋʷã̂tⁿùtⁿúwĩ (5+ 1)tⁿâba (5+ 2)tⁿẫ̂t͡ʃa (5+ 3)tⁿâɲi (5+ 4)ŋʷã̂wò
Nupoid, Nupe-Gbagyi, NupeKakandaɡúníɡúbàɡútáɡúniɡútũɡútuaɲĩ̀ (5+ 1)ɡútuabà (5+ 2)ɡútòtá (5+ 3)ɡútuani (5+ 4)ɡúwo
Nupoid, Nupe-Gbagyi, NupeNupeniníɡúbàɡútáɡúniɡútsũɡútswàɲĩ (5+ 1)ɡútwàbà (5+ 2)ɡútotá (5+ 3)ɡútwã̀ni (5+ 4)ɡúwo
Idomoid, Akweya, EloyiEloyi (Afo) (1)ńɡwònzéńɡwòpóńɡwòláńɡwòndóńɡwolɔ́ńɡwɔ̀rɛ́nyíńɡwòrówóńɡwòràndáńɡwòròndóúwó
Idomoid, Akweya, EloyiEloyi (Afo) (2)ònzéòpāōláōndōɔ̄lɔ̀ o̠= ɔōròwòɔ̀rɛ̀nyiōràndáòròndōūwó
Idomoid, Akweya, EloyiEloyi (3)ònzéòpāōláōndōō̠lò̠ōròwòò̠rɛ̀nyiōràndáòròndōūwó
Idomoid, Akweya, Etulo-Idoma, IdomaAgatuóyè [ɔ́jè]ẹ̀pà [ɛ̀pà]ẹ̀tá [ɛ̀tá]ẹ̀nẹ̀ [ɛ́nɛ̀]ẹ̀họ́ [ɛ̀hɔ́]ẹ̀hílí [ɛ̀hílí]àhápà [àhápà]àhàtá [àhàtá]àhànè [àhànè]ìɡwó [ìɡwó ]
Idomoid, Akweya, Etulo-Idoma, IdomaAlagoójeèpàètaènɛ̀ɛ̀hɔìhirìàhapààhatáàhánɛ̀ìɡʷó
Idomoid, Akweya, Etulo-Idoma, IdomaIdomaéyè [éjè]ẹpà [ɛ́pà]ẹtá [ɛtá]ẹhẹ [ɛ́hɛ́]ẹhọ [ɛ́hɔ]ẹhili [ɛ́hili]àhapà [àhapà]àhátá [àhátá]àhánẹ [àhánɛ́]iɡwó [iɡwó ]
Idomoid, Akweya, Etulo-Idoma, IdomaIgedeóòk͡pók͡póhîmíìyèhītāīnêhērʊ̄ / īrʊ̄īrʷɔ̀nyɛ̀īrùyèhīnêkúhìhíkítʃúīwō
Idomoid, Akweya, Etulo-Idoma, IdomaYalaósèɛ̀pàɛ̀taɛ̀nɛ̀èrwɔèríwiàrapààratáàranɛ̀ìɡwó

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^Müller, André, Viveka Velupillai, Søren Wichmann, Cecil H. Brown, Eric W. Holman, Sebastian Sauppe, Pamela Brown, Harald Hammarström, Oleg Belyaev, Johann-Mattis List, Dik Bakker, Dmitri Egorov, Matthias Urban, Robert Mailhammer, Matthew S. Dryer, Evgenia Korovina, David Beck, Helen Geyer, Pattie Epps, Anthony Grant, and Pilar Valenzuela. 2013.ASJP World Language Trees of Lexical Similarity: Version 4 (October 2013).
  2. ^abBlench, Roger (2019).An Atlas of Nigerian Languages (4th ed.). Cambridge: Kay Williamson Educational Foundation.
  3. ^Akinkugbe, Olufẹmi Odutayo. 1978.A comparative phonology of Yoruba dialects, Iṣẹkiri and Igala. Doctoral dissertation, University of Ibadan.
  4. ^Aubry, N., H. Friedman & K. Pozdniakov. 2004.Proto-Yoruba-Igala Swadesh listArchived 2021-01-05 at theWayback Machine. Manuscript. Paris: Langage, Langues et Cultures d’Afrique (LLACAN), Centre National de la Récherche Sciéntifique (CNRS).
  5. ^Elugbe, Ben Ohiọmamhẹ. 1989.Comparative Edoid: phonology and lexicon. Delta Series No. 6. Port Harcourt: University of Port Harcourt Press.
  6. ^Capo, Hounkpati B.C. 1991.A Comparative Phonology of Gbe. Publications in African Languages and Linguistics, 14. Berlin/New York: Foris Publications & Garome, Bénin: Labo Gbe (Int).
  7. ^Fadọrọ, Jacob Oludare. 2010.Phonological and lexical variations in Akokoid. Doctoral dissertation, University of Ibadan.
  8. ^Blench, Roger. 2011. Comparative Akpes. m.s.
  9. ^Ibrahim-Arirabiyi, Femi 1989.A comparative reconstruction of Akpes lects: Akoko North, Ondo State. MA thesis. Department of Linguistics and Nigerian Languages, University of Port Harcourt.
  10. ^abBlench, Roger. 2007.The Ayere and Ahan languages of Central Nigeria and their affinities.
  11. ^abBankale, Oyetayo Abiodun. 2006.Comparative Ebiroid and Nupoid. Doctoral dissertation, University of Ibadan.
  12. ^Jungraithmayr, Herrmann. 1973. Eine Wortliste des Ọkọ, der Sprache von Ogori (Nigeria).Africana Marburgensia 6: 58-66.
  13. ^Armstrong, Robert G. 1983. The Idomoid Languages of the Benue and Cross River Valleys.Journal of West African Languages 13: 91-147.
  14. ^Abiodun, Michael Ajibola. 1999.A comparative phonology and morphology of Ukaan dialects of Old Akoko division. Doctoral dissertation. University of Ilorin.
  15. ^de Wolf, Paul. 1971.The Noun-Class System of Proto-Benue-Congo. Janua Linguarum. Series Practica 167. The Hague: Mouton.
  16. ^Chan, Eugene (2019)."The Niger-Congo Language Phylum". Numeral Systems of the World's Languages.
  • Güldemann, Tom (2018). The Languages and Linguistics of Africa. Berlin Boston: Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG.ISBN 978-3-11-042166-8.
  • Wolf, Paul Polydoor de (1971)The Noun Class System of Proto-Benue–Congo (Thesis, Leiden University). The Hague/Paris: Mouton.
  • Williamson, Kay (1989) 'Benue–Congo Overview', pp. 248–274 in Bendor-Samuel, John & Rhonda L. Hartell (eds.)The Niger–Congo Languages — A classification and description of Africa's largest language family. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America.
  • Williamson & Blench (2000) 'Niger–Congo', in Heine & Nurse,African Languages
Ayere-Ahan
Gbe
Igboid
Yoruboid
Edoid
Delta
North-Central
Northwestern
Southwestern
Nupoid
Idomoid
Others
Niger–Congo branches
Atlantic–Congo
Savannas
Adamawa
Gur
Ubangian
Volta–Congo
Benue–Congo
Platoid
Cross River
Northern Bantoid
Southern Bantoid
Volta–Niger
West Atlantic
Others (Ghana
andIvory Coast)
Mande
Southeast
Eastern
Southern
West
Central West
(Manding–Kpelle)
Northwest
(Samogo–Soninke)
Kordofanian
Others
Isolates
Unclassified
Proto-languages
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