The city serves as a majortransport hub of theNorthwest of Russia. TheMinistry of Culture of the Russian Federation has classified Vologda as a historic city, one of 41 in Russia and one of only three in Vologda Oblast.[18] The Russian Cultinfo website wrote that there were 224 monuments of historical, artistic and cultural importance in Vologda.[19]
The official founding year of Vologda is 1147,[20][21] based on the 17th century "Tale of Miracles of Gerasimus of Vologda" and Ivan Slobodsky's 1716 "Chronicler", which tells the story of the arrival of the monk Gerasimus who founded the Trinity Monastery near theVologda river.[22][23] This date, which would make Vologda about the same age asMoscow, was introduced by the historian Aleksey Zasetsky in 1780.[24]
However, historians and archaeologists have expressed doubts on the official founding year,[22] due to the age and secondary nature of the sources and also due to archaeological excavations dating no earlier than the 13th century.[25] Instead, they believe that the city was founded in the 13th century with Vologda being mentioned in a 1264 agreement between theNovgorod Republic and theGrand Prince of Vladimir as an outlying possession of the Novgorod Republic.[26]
The nucleus of Vologda in the 13th century was not located in the area which is now the city center, but rather the area known now as "Lazy ground" (Ленивая площадка), close to the Resurrection church. This area was the center of Vologda up to 1565. Until that year, no stone constructions existed in Vologda; all of the city fortifications, bridges, houses, churches, and industrial enterprises were made of wood.[21]
The unique position of Vologda on important waterways connecting Moscow, Novgorod, and theWhite Sea (via theNorthern Dvina) made it attractive for theNovgorod Republic, as well as for the princes ofTver andMoscow, who fought numerous wars between the 13th and the 15th centuries.
In 1371,Dmitry Prilutsky, a monk from theNikolsky Monastery inPereslavl-Zalessky, founded Nikolsky Monastery, now known asSpaso-Prilutsky Monastery, close to the city.Dmitry Donskoy, the Grand Prince of Moscow, was the chief benefactor of the monastery and viewed it as a stronghold of the influence of the Grand Duchy of Moscow in the Northern lands in competition with Novgorod.
In 1397, during the reign ofVasily I, Vologda was added to the Grand Duchy of Moscow. Subsequently, the city was several times attacked by Novgorod forces. During theMuscovite Civil War, Vologda played a key role. AfterVasily II the Blind, the Grand Prince of Moscow, was defeated byDmitry Shemyaka in 1447, he swore to never start a war against Shemyaka, was exiled to Vologda, and got the city as a personal possession. From there Vasily traveled to theKirillo-Belozersky Monastery where the hegumen released him from the oath. The civil war continued, and in 1450, Vologda was besieged by the troops ofDmitry Shemyaka; however, they did not manage to occupy the town.
After the death of Vasily in 1462, Vologda passed to the possession of his sonAndrey Menshoy and became the center of thePrincipality of Vologda. In 1481, after the death of Andrey who had no successors, Vologda passed toIvan III, the Grand Duke of Moscow, and was included to theGrand Duchy of Moscow.
During the reign ofTsarIvan the Terrible, Vologda became one of the major transit centers of Russia's trade. The foreign trade was conducted mostly with England, Holland, and other western countries via theWhite Sea.Arkhangelsk was the major foreign trade haven, and Vologda stood on the waterway connecting Moscow with Arkhangelsk. The trade with Siberia was conducted via theSukhona and theVychegda, and Vologda also played an important role as a transit center. The state courtyard was built in the city on the bank of the Vologda. In 1553, Vologda was visited by the English seafarerRichard Chancellor who officially established diplomatic relations between theTsardom of Russia and England. In 1554, trading agent John Gass described Vologda to English merchants as a city with an abundance of bread where the goods were twice as cheap as in Moscow andNovgorod, and that there was no city in Russia that would not trade with Vologda. Following the reports of John Gass, in 1555 England opened a trading office in the city, and the first Russian ambassador sent to England for negotiations becameOsip Nepeya, a native of Vologda.
In 1565, Ivan the Terrible introduced the policy ofOprichnina and included Vologda in the structure of Oprichnina lands. That year, he visited the city for the first time and decided to make it the center of Oprichnina and consequently the capital of the country. The Tsar ordered to build a new fortress. It was decided to build it not in the former town center, but rather in another part of the town, limited on the one side by the river, and on the other side by what are now Leningradskaya, Oktyabrskaya, and Mira Streets. The fortress was surrounded by amoat. Ivan the Terrible traveled to Vologda in person to supervise the foundation of the fortress on April 28, 1566, which was the day to celebrate the memory ofSaint Jason (Nason in the Russian tradition) andSaint Sosipater. Therefore, the territory of the fortress located in the new part of Vologda was named the "Nason-gorod" (Nason-town). The other name of the Nason-gorod was the Vologda Kremlin (currently, the name is sometimes referred only as the Bishop's courtyard).
Between 1568 and 1570, a new cathedral was built in the new fortress. TheSaint Sophia Cathedral became the first stone building in Vologda. The design of the cathedral copied theDormition Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. This was the idea of Ivan the Terrible who wanted to make his new capital similar to Moscow. He personally supervised the construction, headed by the architectRazmysl Petrov. In 1571, Vologda became the center of theDiocese of Vologda and Perm that was formed in 1492 and previously had its main church in the distant settlement ofUst-Vym in Perm lands. Thereby, Vologda was strengthened not only in trading, military and political influence, but also in ecclesiastical affairs.
However, in 1571 Ivan the Terrible unexpectedly stopped the construction work in Vologda and left the city for good. Presumably, this was connected with his decision to abolish Oprichnina, and Vologda was not needed as the second capital any longer. According to the legend, when Ivan visited the Saint Sophia Cathedral, a little stone fell from the roof on his head. The superstitious Tsar who received a serious head injury took it as a sign of misfortune and decided to leave the city. In any case, it is known that the Tsar wanted even to demolish the cathedral, and that the cathedral was never consecrated during his lifetime. The consecration took place only during the reign his sonFeodor I in 1587. Parts of the incomplete fortress which were later in the 17th century strengthened with wooden walls stayed up to the 19th century when they were disassembled by the city authorities and local residents and used as a material for stone building.
TheTime of Troubles for Vologda began with aplague epidemic in 1605. In 1608, when Russia was split into areas controlled by TsarVasily Shuysky and areas controlled by the pretenderFalse Dmitry II supported by Polish troops, the people of Vologda made an oath to False Dmitry. By gaining Vologda not only did he get control over Russian and English trading warehouses, but he also positioned himself to gain control over northern Russia. However, abuses and property seizures by the new administration sent to Vologda caused extreme discontent among the population. As a result, Vologda denounced False Dmitry II and supported Shuysky. Moreover, in February 1609 a national home guard headed by Nikita Vysheslavtsev was formed in Vologda and went to fight against False Dmitry II.
In 1612, people of Vologda rendered sizable food and military help to the home guard organized byKuzma Minin andDmitry Pozharsky, which eventually defeated Polish troops. However, after the city sent huge military forces to support the second home guard, it remained without sufficient protection, and on September 22, 1612 one of the Lithuanian extortionate groups seized Vologda without resistance, later burning down the city and killing and imprisoning many of its inhabitants.
Vologda butterThe Spaso-Prilutsky Monastery in the early 19th century
After 1613, Vologda quickly recovered due to its convenient location and once again became an important center of foreign trade. During the reign ofPeter the Great, Vologda became one of the main military bases of Russia. Military and technical equipment for fortresses and military ships under construction was stored there. Vessels which delivered food supplies toArkhangelsk were constructed in Vologda. Peter intended to hold them onLake Kubenskoye, 30 kilometers (19 mi) north of Vologda. However, after personally inspecting the lake in 1692, he abandoned the idea deciding that the lake is improper for that purpose.
Peter the Great visited Vologda on no less than ten occasions, on six of which (in 1692, 1693, 1694, 1702, 1722, and 1724) he stayed in the city for extended time. He always stayed in a small house of the Dutch merchant Goutman, which in 1872 was bought by the city authorities, and in 1885 was transformed into the memorial museum of Peter the Great and became the first museum of Vologda.
However, afterSt. Petersburg was founded and foreign trade was rerouted to theBaltic Sea, the importance of Vologda as a center of foreign trade decayed. In 1722, Peter issued the decree restricting trade throughArkhangelsk, which damaged Vologda even further. In the course of theadministrative reform carried out in 1708, Vologda lost its functions as an administrative center and was included as a town ofArchangelgorod Governorate.
The revival began only during the reign ofCatherine the Great who in 1780 made Vologda the center ofVologda Viceroyalty, a successor ofArchangelgorod Governorate. In 1796, the viceroyalty, administered by a governor-general, was transformed intoVologda Governorate, the borders of which stretched up to the Ural mountains in the east. The center of Vologda was rebuilt according to the plan of a provincial city issued in 1781. The street network is still in use now.
A new economic lifting of the city was connected with a steamship movement across theSukhona and with the building of a new railroad line connecting Vologda withYaroslavl and Moscow (1872), withArkhangelsk (1898), withSt. Petersburg andVyatka (1905).
In 1871, the Danish merchant Friedrich Buman opened a specialized butter factory in the manor of Fominskoye, 13 kilometers (8.1 mi) from Vologda. It was the first butter factory both inVologda Governorate and in Russia. Since then Vologda became the center of the butter industry, and theVologda butter, a special type of butter with the taste of nuts invented by Nikolay Vereschagin and Buman, became a world trademark. In 1911, the manor of Fominskoye together with the Buman's creamery was given to the state and became the base for the Vologda dairy institute. Thereby Vologda turned to one of the largest dairy centers of Russia.[27]
Since the 15th century, Vologda was a political exile destination and was even known as "Siberia close to the capital". In the 19th–20th centuries, such persons asJoseph Stalin,Vyacheslav Molotov (later the Minister of Foreign Affairs),Nikolai Berdyaev (the famous Russian philosopher),Boris Savinkov (later known as a successful terrorist),Mariya Ulyanova, andAlexander Bogdanov were sent to Vologda.Anatoly Lunacharsky chose to go there to join Bogdanov, and to marry Anna Alexandrovna Malinovskaya, Bogdanov's sister.
Soviet power was established in Vologda in December 1917, and up to the summer of 1918 co-existed with thezemstvo and municipal administration. In February 1918, Vologda became the "diplomatic capital of Russia" for several months. Embassies located in Saint Petersburg were threatened by the German army, so Western powers, led by American AmbassadorDavid R. Francis, relocated them to Vologda. However, pressured by the Bolsheviks, on July 24, 1918, the diplomats were compelled to leave Vologda and repatriate viaArkhangelsk.
In 1924 the government ordered to close theVsegradsky cathedral, that used to be one of the biggest and most revered in the city.[28][29] In 1929, the Vologda Governorate was abolished and included into the structure of a new formation,Northern Krai, which also included formerArkhangelsk andNorthern Dvina Governorates, as well as theKomi-Zyryan Autonomous Oblast. The administrative center of Northern Krai was located in Arkhangelsk. In December 1936, Northern Krai was abolished and divided into the Komi ASSR andNorthern Oblast, with the administrative center still located in Arkhangelsk. On September 23, 1937, Northern Oblast was divided intoArkhangelsk Oblast andVologda Oblast by the decision of the Central Executive Committee of the Soviet Union. According to the same decision, districts of formerCherepovets Okrug ofLeningrad Oblast were attached toVologda Oblast. These districts currently make for the western part of Vologda Oblast. Thereby the current borders of Vologda Oblast were determined.
In the 1930s, a flax factory, a coach-repair factory, and a sawmill, "Northern Communard," were constructed.
DuringWorld War II, martial law was declared in Vologda, and its industrial enterprises shifted to military production. In the fall of 1941, Finnish troops crossed the borders of Vologda Oblast, and Vologda thus became a front city. The inhabitants were mobilized to dig trenches. In the city, bomb-proof shelters and elementary shelters were under construction, systems of air defense which protected the railway junction and the military-industrial enterprises were developed. As a result, though attempts of bombardments were numerous, no bombs fell on the city. To commemorate these events, a monument to the air defense forces was later erected on Zosimovskaya Street in Vologda. The monument has the shape of an anti-aircraft gun. In addition, Vologda was a railway hub used to supply the army and to evacuate equipment. It also served as a large hospital center. Residents of Vologda donated blood, money, and jewellery. The tank detachment "Vologda Collective Farmer" was funded by these donations. To commemorate these events the monument to the tank T-34 was built on Mira Street.
Between 1961 and 1985,Anatoly Drygin was the first secretary of theCPSU Vologda Oblast Committee and the head of the oblast. During this period, notable changes in many aspects of economy both of the city and of the oblast occurred. In particular, abearing plant, a mechanical plant, and an optical-mechanical factory were built in Vologda. A polytechnical university was opened. A large-scale poultry farm was established. A major construction initiative was carried out, and, in particular, the first buildings higher than five floors were constructed. The city expanded, with new residential areas built; in particular, Byvalovo, GPZ, the fifth and the sixthMicrodistricts. In 1976, theVologda trolleybus system opened.
In November 1991, the city administration was formed and the reform of local governments began. In October 1993, the Soviets of People's Deputies of all levels were abolished. After the dissolution of the Vologda Soviet, theCity Duma was established. The first Duma elections took place on March 20, 1994. This first Duma only had six seats, but in 1995, after the next elections, it was expanded to thirty deputies.
On July 25, 1996, the City Duma adopted the main city document: theCharter of Vologda. On October 6, 1996, the first mayoral elections in the history of Vologda took place.Alexey Yakunichev was elected and became the head of the city. His term ended in 2008.
In 2003, the construction of a ring road started. Before that, theМ8 highway connecting Moscow and Arkhangelsk ran through the city center, causing congestion. Since the completion, the ring road connects the highways А114 (Vologda –Novaya Ladoga), Р5 (Vologda –Medvezhyegorsk), and М8 (Moscow –Arkhangelsk). On August 25, 2005, the City Duma approved the new Charter of Vologda. Even though the deputies introduced more than four hundred amendments and the document increased more than twice in volume as compared with the Charter of 1996, the changes were relatively minor. On October 12, 2008,Yevgeny Shulepov was elected to be the City Head.
Vologda's climate ismild humid continental (Dfb)[30] under theKöppen classification and temperate continental with mild summer and cold winter (Dclo)[31] under theTrewartha classification. Winter is long and cold but not severe and lasts for five months. Spring and autumn are cool, summer is mild, the coldest months are January and February, the warmest month is July. Rain is most frequent in the summer and autumn.
Mean annual temperature: +3.1 °C (37.6 °F)
Mean annual speed of wind: 3.0 m/s
Mean annual humidity of air: 80%
Climate data for Vologda (1991–2020, extremes 1844–present)
The population of the city and the oblast consists mainly of ethnicRussians. A considerable part of the city population are government officials and civil servants of different levels – according to various estimates, their number reaches fifty thousand people. The reason is that Vologda is not only a big city but also the administrative center of Vologda Oblast. Around 43 million hectares of farmland is unused, hence government has announced giving away free land. Vologda will lend 468,000 hectares of land for agriculture and raising livestock purpose.[citation needed]
TheVologda City Duma is a representative body. It comprises 30 deputies elected based on universal, equal, and direct suffrage in 30 single-mandate constituencies. The term of office of the City Council is five years. The Vologda City Duma is controlled and accountable to all elected officials (including the head of the city of Vologda), the city administration, and the Chamber of Control and Accounts. The activities of the city duma are managed by its chairman and presidium (consisting of the chairman, deputy chairmen, heads of factions and standing committees, and a representative of the head of the city of Vologda).[34] The only faction in the Vologda City Duma is theUnited Russia faction (26 people).[35]
TheMayor of Vologda is the highest official in the city, authorized to manage the city economy, budget, distribution of funds, and management of the city administration. On 24 November 2017, Sergei Voropanov (United Russia)[36] was appointed acting mayor of Vologda, being the first deputy head of the city. On 26 November 2019, he was appointed to the post of mayor.
Thehead of the city of Vologda is a city official authorized for external municipal relations, accountable to the federal authorities. Appointed by deputies of the city duma and the governor for five years. Reports to the Vologda City Duma at least once a year. Since 26 September 2016, Yuri Sapozhnikov has been appointed mayor of Vologda.
TheVologda city administration is an executive and administrative body. It consists of 7 departments (directly carry out management), 5 departments and 2 departments (provide the work of the administration). The head of administration is the head of the city of Vologda. Deputy heads of the city are heads of departments.[37]
TheChamber of Control and Accounts of the city of Vologda is a control body. It is formed by the Vologda City Duma and reports to it. Controls the execution of the budget and the disposal of property owned by the city, conducts budgetary examinations of municipal legal acts, and audits the effectiveness of the use of budgetary funds.
Vologda is one of the best preserved big cities of Russia combining traditional wooden architecture and stone monuments. In Vologda, 193 monuments of architecture and history are designated as cultural monuments of federal significance.[38] The most known of them are
In Vologda, there are ten museums, four showrooms of the Vologda Regional Art Gallery, and the gallery "Red bridge". The largest cultural center of the Russian North is the Vologda State Museum Reserve. Its structure now includes the following museums,
Vologda Kremlin (Bishop's courtyard)
Peter the Great's house museum (Peter's house) – the first museum of Vologda (opened in 1885)
Museum of Architecture and Ethnography (Semyonkovo)
Additionally, Vologda is home to a unique Russian private museum of political history—theMuseum of Diplomatic Corps which highlights the short stay of diplomatic corps in Vologda in 1918.
Vologda is a major transportation hub, located at the intersection of highways, railways, and waterways.
The public transport network is well developed in the city: There are both bus andtrolleybus lines. The city has four big automobile bridges: two automobile bridges across theVologda and two bridges across railways. There is one pedestrian bridge (the Red bridge) in the city center.
Vologda is the largest sorting and transit spot of theNorthern Railway. It includes the stations Vologda-1, Vologda-2, Rybkino, and Losta. The stretch between Vologda-2 and Losta is the most active one in the railroad network of theRussian Federation, with more than 120–150 pairs of trains running through it daily. Suburban trains and long-distance trains originate from the railway station of Vologda-1. TheRybkino railway station, a railway station for freight trains, is near Vologda.[43][44]
Federal highway М8 (Moscow–Yaroslavl–Vologda–Arkhangelsk–Severodvinsk). The entrance to Vologda from the Moscow side (south) is Okruzhnoe shosse and Koneva street, from the Arkhangelsk side (north) to Chernyshevskaya street.
Road А-114 (Vologda–Cherepovets–Novaya Ladoga). The entrance to Vologda is Leningradskoe shosse and Okruzhnoe shosse.
The new ring road with modern exits connecting roads A-114, Р-5 and М-8 (the Arkhangelsk destination) is under construction around Vologda. The Arkhangelsk direction is still not connected by the ring road.
The municipal transportation of Vologda is carried out by bus andtrolleybus routes, and also by lines offixed-route taxis. Regular bus service started in Vologda in 1929, the trolleybus service was open in 1976. As of November 2009, in Vologda there were five trolleybus routes, nineteen municipal bus routes, and about fortymarshrutkas (routed taxis). The main transport companies are the open society "VologdaElectroTrans" (trolleybuses), PATP-1 and PATP-32 (municipal bus routes).
Currently, there are more than ten thousand enterprises of various patterns of ownership in Vologda. The most notable ones are:
Closed joint-stock company "Vologda Bearing Factory" – produces bearings of various types
Open joint stock company "Vagron" – alcohol production
Open joint stock company "Vologda Machine-Building Plant" – produces various processing equipment for agriculture
Open joint stock company "Vologda Optical and Mechanical Plant" – produces optical devices
State-owned enterprise "Vologda Railway-Carriage Repair Works", branch of the Open Society of the Russian Railway – produces various trains, makes repair and reconstruction of old carriages
Open joint stock company "Byvalovsky machinery plant" – the leading enterprise of theNorthwest of Russia that produces cranes
Open joint stock company "ElectroTechMash" – produces electric household and technological products
Limited liability company "Central operating company" – building, designing, management of dwellings, management of the commercial real estate
Open joint stock company "Trans-alpha" (former "Vologda mechanical factory") – produces trolleybuses and buses
Opened joint-stock company "Vologda building designs and road machines factory" – produces mobile buildings for household, public, and industrial use
Closed joint-stock company "SoyuzLesMontazh" – produces a wide range of equipment for wood processing and equipment for the paper industry
Traditional national crafts are presented by the closed joint-stock company «Snowflake» (lace), limited liability company "Hope" and other enterprises.
Vologda has large sports venues such as the stadiums "Dynamo", "Locomotive", "Vityaz", the swimming pools "Dynamo" and "Lagoon", the sports and concert complex "Spectrum", fitness centers, regional athletic spots.Vologda is a home to:
^Afanas'Yev, A. P. (1989). "The impact of the water routes of Novgorod and northeastern Rus' on the physical environment of the Transvolga in the 12th-14th centuries".Soviet Geography.30 (7): 551.doi:10.1080/00385417.1989.10640789.
Вологодская городская Дума. Решение №301 от 25 августа 2005 г. «О принятии Устава муниципального образования "Город Вологда"», в ред. Решения №649 от 4 мая 2011 г «О внесении изменений в Устав муниципального образования "Город Вологда"». Вступил в силу 1 января 2006 г.. Опубликован: "Вологодские новости", №34, 31 августа 2005 г. (Vologda City Duma. Decision #301 of August 25, 2005On the Adoption of the Charter of the "City of Vologda" Municipal Formation, as amended by the Decision #649 of May 4, 2011On Amending the Charter of the "City of Vologda" Municipal Formation. Effective as of January 1, 2006.).
Законодательное Собрание Вологодской области. Закон №371-ОЗ от 4 июня 1999 г. «О вопросах административно-территориального устройства Вологодской области», в ред. Закона №2916-ОЗ от 7 декабря 2012 г. «О внесении изменений в Закон области "О вопросах административно-территориального устройства Вологодской области"». Вступил в силу со дня официального опубликования. Опубликован: "Красный Север", №124–125, 29 июля 1999 г. (Legislative Assembly of Vologda Oblast. Law #371-OZ of June 4, 1999On the Matters of the Administrative-Territorial Structure of Vologda Oblast, as amended by the Law #2916-OZ of December 7, 2012On Amending the Oblast Law "On the Matters of the Administrative-Territorial Structure of Vologda Oblast". Effective as of the day of the official publication.).
Правительство Вологодской области. Постановление №178 от 1 марта 2010 г. «Об утверждении реестра административно-территориальных единиц Вологодской области», в ред. Постановления №686 от 25 июня 2012 г. «О внесении изменений в некоторые Постановления Правительства области». Вступил в силу 20 марта 2010 г. Опубликован: "Красный Север", №29, 20 марта 2010 г. (Government of Vologda Oblast. Resolution #178 of March 1, 2010On Adopting the Registry of the Administrative-Territorial Units of Vologda Oblast, as amended by the Resolution #686 of June 25, 2012On Amending Various Resolutions of the Oblast Government. Effective as of March 20, 2010.).
Законодательное Собрание Вологодской области. Закон №1103-ОЗ от 6 декабря 2004 г. «Об установлении границ муниципального образования "Город Вологда" и наделении его статусом городского округа», в ред. Закона №2809-ОЗ от 5 июля 2012 г. «О внесении изменений в отдельные законы области, устанавливающие границы и статус муниципальных образований области». Вступил в силу через 10 дней со дня официального опубликования (21 декабря 2004 г.). Опубликован: "Красный Север", №242, 11 декабря 2004 г. (Legislative Assembly of Vologda Oblast. Law #1103-OZ of December 6, 2004On Establishing the Borders of the Municipal Formation of the "City of Vologda" and on Granting It Urban Okrug Status, as amended by the Law #2809-OZ of July 5, 2012On Amending Various Laws of the Oblast, Establishing the Borders and the Status of the Municipal Formations of the Oblast. Effective as of after 10 days from the day of the official publication (December 21, 2004).).
Законодательное Собрание Вологодской области. Закон №1112-ОЗ от 6 декабря 2004 г. «Об установлении границ Вологодского муниципального района, границах и статусе муниципальных образований, входящих в его состав», в ред. Закона №2809-ОЗ от 5 июля 2012 г. «О внесении изменений в отдельные Законы области, устанавливающие границы и статус муниципальных образований области». Вступил в силу через 10 дней со дня официального опубликования. Опубликован: "Красный Север", №242, 11 декабря 2004 г. (Legislative Assembly of Vologda Oblast. Law #1112-OZ of December 6, 2004On Establishing the Borders of Vologodsky Municipal District, on the Borders and Status of the Municipal Formations It Comprises, as amended by the Law #2809-OZ of July 5, 2012On Amending Various Laws of the Oblast, Establishing the Borders and the Status of the Municipal Formations of the Oblast. Effective as of after 10 days from the day of the official publication.).
Brumfield, William.Vologda Album (Moscow: Tri Kvadrata, 2005)ISBN5-94607-050-9 (in English and in Russian)
_(1780).svg)
.svg)
_._%25D0%25A4%25D0%25B0%25D1%2581%25D0%25B0%25D0%25B4_%25D0%25BF%25D0%25BE_%25D0%259B%25D0%25B5%25D0%25BD%25D0%25B8%25D0%25BD%25D0%25B3%25D1%2580%25D0%25B0%25D0%25B4%25D1%2581%25D0%25BA%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B9.JPG)
![[icon]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aWiki_letter_w_cropped.svg)
.jpg)
