Landform created by the eruption of mud or slurries, water, and gases
This article is about the landform. For the geothermal springs sometimes called "mud volcanoes", seemudpot.
A group of mud volcanoes inGobustan,AzerbaijanMud volcano in Htee Pwint Kan Umbrella Pond (Myanmar)Hydrate-bearing sediments, which often are associated with mud volcano activity. Source:USGS, 1996.
Amud volcano ormud dome is alandform created by the eruption ofmud orslurries, water and gases.[1][2][3] Several geological processes may cause the formation of mud volcanoes. Mud volcanoes are not trueigneousvolcanoes as they do not producelava and are not necessarily driven bymagmatic activity. Mud volcanoes may range in size from less than a meter high and 1 or 2 meters across, to 700 meters tall and 10 kilometers wide.[4] Smaller mud exudations are sometimes referred to as mud-pots.
The mud produced by mud volcanoes is mostly formed as hot water, which has been heated deep below the Earth's surface, begins to mix and blend with subterranean mineral deposits, thus creating the mud slurry exudate. This material is then forced upwards through a geological fault or fissure due to local subterranean pressure imbalances. Mud volcanoes are associated withsubduction zones and about 1100 have been identified on or near land. The temperature of any given active mud volcano generally remains fairly steady and is much lower than the typical temperatures found in igneous volcanoes. Mud volcano temperatures can range from near 100 °C (212 °F) to occasionally 2 °C (36 °F), some being used as popular "mud baths".[citation needed]
About 86% of the gas released from these structures ismethane, with much lesscarbon dioxide andnitrogen emitted. Ejected materials are most often a slurry of fine solids suspended in water that may contain a mixture ofsalts,acids and varioushydrocarbons.[citation needed]
Possible mud volcanoes have been identified onMars.[5]
A mud volcano may be the result of apiercement structure created by a pressurizedmuddiapir that breaches the Earth's surface or ocean bottom. Their temperatures may be as low as the freezing point of the ejected materials, particularly when venting is associated with the creation ofhydrocarbonclathrate hydrate deposits. Mud volcanoes are often associated withpetroleum deposits and tectonicsubduction zones andorogenic belts; hydrocarbon gases are often erupted. They are also often associated withlava volcanoes; in the case of such close proximity, mud volcanoes emit incombustible gases includinghelium, whereas lone mud volcanoes are more likely to emitmethane.
Approximately 1,100 mud volcanoes have been identified on land and in shallow water. It has been estimated that well over 10,000 may exist oncontinental slopes andabyssal plains.
Mud volcanoes are regularly found along the subsurface seafloor, they are primarily responsible for releasing methane into the water column along with other gases and fluids. The high pressure and low temperature associated with the bottom of the seafloor can be the predominant cause of why gases and fluids get trapped that are rising upward; this is a result of methane oversaturation. The total methane emission of offshore mud volcanoes is about 27 Tg per year.[6] This estimate does come with uncertainties, such as the total number of mud volcanoes and their release of methane into the atmosphere/water column is unknown.
Surface Mud Volcanoes
Most liquid and solid material is released during eruptions, but seeps occur during dormant periods. The chemical composition of mud volcanoes is almost entirelymethane andhydrocarbons found within the mud and the shale from the mud volcanoes.[7] The emissions from mud volcanoes can be entirely dependent on its location, mud volcanoes from NW China are more enriched with methane and have lower concentrations of propane and ethane.[8] The origin of the gas is most likely from below 5000m in the Earth's crust.
On top of Gekpatlawuk mud volcano, Western Turkmenistan
The mud is rich inhalite (rock salt).[citation needed] The overall chemical composition of mud volcanoes is similar to normalmagma concentrations. The content of the mud volcano from Kampun Meritam, Limbang are 59.51weight percent (wt. %) SiO2, 0.055 wt.% MnO, and 1.84 wt.% MgO.
First-order estimates of mud volcano emissions have been made (1 Tg = 1 million metric tonnes).
2002: L. I. Dimitrov estimated that 10.2–12.6 Tg/yr of methane is released from onshore and shallow offshore mud volcanoes.
2002: Etiope and Klusman estimated at least 1–2 and as much as 10–20 Tg/yr of methane may be emitted from onshore mud volcanoes.
2003: Etiope, in an estimate based on 120 mud volcanoes: "The emission results to be conservatively between 5 and 9 Tg/yr: that is 3–6% of the natural methane sources officially considered in theatmospheric methane budget. The total geologic source, including MVs (this work), seepage from seafloor (Kvenvolden et al., 2001), microseepage in hydrocarbon-prone areas and geothermal sources (Etiope and Klusman, 2002), would amount to 35–45 Tg/yr."[9]
2003: analysis by Milkov et al. suggests that the global gas flux may be as high as 33 Tg/yr (15.9 Tg/yr during quiescent periods plus 17.1 Tg/yr during eruptions). Six teragrams per year ofgreenhouse gases are from onshore and shallow offshore mud volcanoes. Deep-water sources may emit 27 Tg/yr. Total may be 9% of fossil CH4 missing in the modern atmospheric CH4 budget, and 12% in the preindustrial budget.[10]
2003: Alexei Milkov estimated approximately 30.5 Tg/yr of gases (mainly methane and CO2) may escape from mud volcanoes to the atmosphere and the ocean.[11]
2003: Achim J. Kopf estimated 1.97×1011 to 1.23×1014 m³ of methane is released by all mud volcanoes per year, of which 4.66×107 to 3.28×1011 m³ is from surface volcanoes.[12] That converts to 141–88,000 Tg/yr from all mud volcanoes, of which 0.033–235 Tg is from surface volcanoes.
Two mud volcanoes on the Taman Peninsula nearTaman Stanitsa, Russia
Dozens of mud volcanoes are located on theTaman Peninsula ofRussia and theKerch Peninsula ofCrimea, Ukraine along with the south-western portion ofBulgaria nearRupite. InItaly, they are located in Emilia-Romagna (Salse di Nirano and Salse di Regnano), in the northern front of theApennines as well as the southern part (Bolle della Malvizza), and inSicily. On 24 August 2013, a mud volcano appeared in the center of the via Coccia di Mortoroundabout inFiumicino nearRome.[13][14]
Many mud volcanoes exist on the shores of theBlack Sea andCaspian Sea.Tectonic forces and large sedimentary deposits around the latter have created several fields of mud volcanoes, many of them emitting methane and other hydrocarbons. Features over 200 metres (656 ft) high occur inAzerbaijan, with large eruptions sometimes producing flames of similar scale.[citation needed]
Turkmenistan is home to numerous mud volcanoes, mainly in the western part of the country includingCheleken Peninsula, which borders the Caspian Sea.[17]
Iran andPakistan possess mud volcanoes in theMakran range of mountains in the south of the two countries. A large mud volcano is located inBalochistan, Pakistan. It is known asBaba Chandrakup (literally Father Moonwell) on the way toHinglaj and is aHindupilgrim site.[18]
Azerbaijan and itsCaspian coastline are home to nearly400 mud volcanoes, more than half the total throughout the continents.[19] Most mud volcanoes in Azerbaijan are active; some are protected by the Azerbaijan Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources, and the admission of people, for security reasons, is prohibited.[20] In 2001, one mud volcano 15 kilometres (9 mi) fromBaku made world headlines when it started ejecting flames 15 metres (49 ft) high.[21]
In Azerbaijan, eruptions are driven from a deep mud reservoir which is connected to the surface even during dormant periods, when seeping water shows a deep origin.Seeps have temperatures that are generally above ambient ground temperature by 2 °C (3.6 °F) – 3 °C (5.4 °F).[22]
On 4 July 2021, a mud volcano eruption onDashli Island in the Caspian Sea, near an oil platform off the coast of Azerbaijan, caused a massive explosion and fireball, which was seen across the region, including from the capitalBaku, which is 74 kilometres (46 mi) to the north. The flames towered 500 metres (1,640 ft) into the air.[23][24][25] There were no reports of injuries or damage to any oil platforms.[26] The last previous volcanic eruption on the island was recorded in 1945 and the preceding one in 1920.[27]
Mud volcanism is a common phenomenon inIndonesia with dozens of structures present onshore and offshore.[29][30]
The IndonesianLusi mud eruption is a hybrid mud volcano, driven by pressure from steam and gas from a nearby (igneous) volcanic system, and from natural gas. Geochemical, petrography and geophysical results reveal that it is asediment-hosted[clarification needed] hydrothermal system connected at depth with the neighboringArjuno-Welirang volcanic complex.[31][32][33][34][35]
Drilling or anearthquake[36][30] in thePorong subdistrict ofEast Java province,Indonesia, may have resulted in theSidoarjo mud flow on 29 May 2006.[37][38][39] The mud covered about 440 hectares, 1,087 acres (4.40 km2) (2.73 mi2), and inundated four villages, homes, roads, rice fields, and factories, displacing about 24,000 people and killing 14. The gas exploration company involved was operated byPT Lapindo Brantas and the earthquake that may have triggered the mud volcano was the 6.4 magnitude[citation needed]Yogyakarta earthquake of 27 May 2006. According to geologists who have been monitoring Lusi and the surrounding area, the system is beginning to show signs of catastrophic collapse. It was forecast that the region could sag the vent and surrounding area by up to 150 metres (490 ft) in the next decade. In March 2008, the scientists observed drops of up to 3 metres (9.8 ft) in one night. Most of the subsidence in the area around the volcano is more gradual, at around 1 millimetre (0.039 in) per day. A study by a group of Indonesian geoscientists led by Bambang Istadi predicted the area affected by the mudflow over a ten-year period.[40] More recent studies carried out in 2011 predict that the mud will flow for another 20 years, or even longer.[41] Now namedLusi – a contraction ofLumpurSidoarjo, wherelumpur is the Indonesian word for "mud" – the eruption represent an active hybrid system.
In theSuwoh depression in Lampung, dozens of mud cones and mud pots varying in temperature are found.[citation needed]
InGrobogan, Bledug Kuwu mud volcano erupts at regular intervals,[42] about every 2 or 3 minutes.
There are 10 active mud volcanoes in theIzu–Bonin–Mariana Arc which can be found along a north to south trend, parallel to the Mariana trench.[43] The material erupted at these mud volcanoes consists primarily of blue and greenserpentinite mud which contains fresh and serpentinizedperidotite material from the subduction channel. Fluid from the descendingPacific Plate is released by dehydration and alteration of rocks and sediment.[43] This fluid interacts withmafic andultramafic rocks in the descending Pacific Plate and overridingPhilippine Plate, resulting in the formation of serpentinite mud.[44] All of these mud volcanoes are associated with faults, indicating that the faults act as conduits for the serpentine mud to migrate from the subduction channel to the surface.[43] These mud volcanoes are large features on the forearc, the largest of which has a diameter of ~50 kilometres (31 mi) and is over 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) high.
Satellite image of Changradup mud volcanoes in PakistanMount Mehdi mud volcano and its mud glacier in Balochistan province of Pakistan
InPakistan there are more than 155 active mud volcanoes or vents inBalochistan province; there are about 10 locations with clusters of mud volcanoes. In the west, inGwadar District, the mud volcanoes are very small and mostly sit in the south of Koh-e-Mehdi toward Sur Bandar. Many more are in the northeast ofOrmara. The remainder are inLasbela District and are scattered between south of Gorangatti on KohHinglaj to Koh Kuk in the North of Miani Hor in the Hangol Valley. In this region, the heights of mud volcanoes range between 300 and 2,600 feet (91.4 and 792.5 m).[citation needed] The most famous isChandragup. The biggest crater is of V15 mud volcano found at 25°33'13.63"N. 65°44'09.66"E is about 450 feet (137.16 m) in diameter. Most mud volcanoes in this region are in out-of-reach areas having very difficult terrain.Mount Mehdi mud volcano near Miani Hor is also famous for large mud glacier around its caldera. Dormant mud volcanoes stand like columns of mud in many other areas.[citation needed]. There are few near Qila Saifullah and Zhob region of Balochistan. The tallest of all in Balochistan stands at a height of around 7,500 feet (2,286.00 m) known as Khatkandi mud volcano.
In theTurtle Islands, in theprovince ofTawi-Tawi, the southwestern edge of thePhilippines borderingMalaysia, presence of mud volcanoes are evident on three of the islands – Lihiman, Great Bakkungan and Boan Islands. The northeastern part of Lihiman Island is distinguished for having a more violent kind of mud extrusions mixed with large pieces of rocks, creating a 20-m (66-ft) wide crater on that hilly part of the island.[45] Such extrusions are reported to be accompanied by mild earthquakes and evidence of extruded materials can be found high in the surrounding trees. Submarine mud extrusions off the island have been observed by local residents.[46]
There are mud volcanoes atMinbu Township,Magway Region, Myanmar (Burma). There is a local belief that these mud volcanoes are the refuge of mythologicalNāga.
There are two active mud volcanoes in southern Taiwan and several inactive ones. The Wushan Mud Volcanoes are in theYanchao District ofKaohsiung City. There are active mud volcanoes in Wandan township of Pingtung County.
There are mud volcanoes on the island ofPulau Tiga, off the western coast of the Malaysian state ofSabah on Borneo.
The Meritam Volcanic Mud, locally called the 'lumpur bebuak', located about 35 kilometres (22 mi) fromLimbang,Sarawak, Malaysia is a tourist attraction.[47]
A drilling accident offshore ofBrunei onBorneo in 1979 caused a mud volcano which took 20relief wells and nearly 30 years to halt.
A cold mud pot in Northern California, showing the scaleA cold mud pot inGlenblair, CaliforniaAerial view of mud volcanoes on theNahlin Plateau,British Columbia. Scale – each volcano approximately 20 m in diameter.
Mud volcanoes of the North American continent include:
An unnamed mud volcano 30 metres (98 ft) high and with a top about 100 metres (328 ft) wide, 24 kilometres (15 mi) offRedondo Beach, California, and 800 metres (2,620 ft) under the surface of thePacific Ocean.
A field of small (<3 metres (9.8 ft)) mud volcanoes in theSalton Sea geothermal area near the town ofNiland, California.[50] Emissions are mostly CO2. One, known as theNiland Geyser, continues to move erratically.[51]
Kaglulik mud volcano, 43 metres (141 ft) under the surface of theBeaufort Sea, near the northern boundary ofAlaska andCanada.Petroleum deposits are believed to exist in the area.
The name ofYellowstone National Park's "Mud Volcano" feature and the surrounding area is misleading; it consists ofhot springs,mud pots andfumaroles, rather than a true mud volcano. Depending upon the precise definition of the termmud volcano, the Yellowstone formation could be considered a hydrothermal mud volcano cluster. The feature is much less active than in its first recorded description, although the area is quite dynamic. Yellowstone is an activegeothermal area with a magma chamber near the surface, and active gases are chiefly steam, carbon dioxide, andhydrogen sulfide.
However, there are mud volcanoes and mud geysers elsewhere in Yellowstone.[52] One, the "Vertically Gifted Cyclic Mud Pot" sometimes acts as a geyser, throwing mud up to 30 feet high.
The mud volcano feature in Yellowstone was previously a mound until a thermal explosion in the 1800s ripped it apart.[53][page needed]
Mud volcano in southernTrinidad c. 1967One of the Devil's Woodyard Volcano (Trinidad & Tobago)
There are many mud volcanoes inTrinidad and Tobago in theCaribbean, nearoil reserves in southern parts of the island ofTrinidad. As of 15 August 2007, the mud volcano titled the Moruga Bouffle was said to being spitting up methane gas which shows that it is active. There are several other mud volcanoes in the tropical island which include:
Yagrumito mud volcano in Monagas, Venezuela (6 km from Maturín)
The eastern part ofVenezuela contains several mud volcanoes (or mud domes), all of them having an origin related to oil deposits. The mud of 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) fromMaturín, contains water, biogenic gas, hydrocarbons and an important quantity of salt. Cattle from thesavanna often gather around to lick the dried mud for its salt content.[citation needed]
VolcanEl Totumo,[55] which marks the division betweenBolívar andAtlantico inColombia. This volcano is approximately 50 feet (15 m) high and can accommodate 10 to 15 people in its crater; many tourists and locals visit this volcano due to the alleged medicinal benefits of the mud; it is next to acienaga, or lake. This volcano is under legal dispute between the Bolívar and Atlántico Departamentos because of its tourist value.[citation needed]
As well as theRunaruna Mud Volcano the size of the splatter cones associated with some of New Zealands many geothermalmud pools or mudpots might qualify, depending upon definition.
Wide view of field of mud volcanoes, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program
Close view of mud volcanoes, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program
Close view of mud volcanoes and boulders, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program
Wide view of mud volcanoes, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program
Close view of mud volcanoes, as seen by HiRISE
Close view of mud volcanoes, as seen by HiRISE Low area around the volcanoes contains transverse aeolian ridges (TAR's). Only part of picture is in color because HiRISE only takes a color strip in middle of image.
Close view of mud volcano, as seen by HiRISE. Picture is about 1 km across. This mud volcano has a different color than the surroundings because it consists of material brought up from depth. These structures may be useful to explore for remains of past life since they contain samples that would have been protected from the strong radiation at the surface.
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