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Voiceless dental fricative

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Consonantal sound represented by ⟨θ⟩ in IPA

Voiceless dental fricative
θ
IPA number	130
Audio sample
source · help
Encoding
Entity(decimal)	`θ`
Unicode(hex)	U+03B8
X-SAMPA	`T`
Braille

Avoiceless dental non-sibilant fricative is a type ofconsonantal sound used in somespoken languages. It is familiar to most English speakers as the 'th' inthink. Though rather rare as a phoneme among the world's languages, it is encountered in some of the most widespread and influential ones. The symbol in theInternational Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨θ⟩. The IPA symbol is the lowercaseGreek lettertheta, which is used for this sound in post-classicalGreek, and the sound is thus often referred to as "theta".

Dental non-sibilant fricatives are often called "interdental" because they are often produced with the tongue between the upper and lowerteeth, and not just against the back of the upper or lower teeth, as they are with otherdental consonants.

These sounds and theirvoiced counterparts are uncommon as phonemes, occurring in 4% of languages in a phonological analysis of 2,155 languages.^[1] Among the more than 60 languages with over 10 million speakers, onlyEnglish, northern varieties of theBerber languages of North Africa, Standard PeninsularSpanish, variousdialects of Arabic,Swahili (in words derived from Arabic), andGreek have the voiceless dental non-sibilant fricative.^{[citation needed]} Speakers of languages and dialects without the sound sometimes have difficulty producing or distinguishing it from similar sounds, especially if they have had no chance to acquire it in childhood, and typically replace it with avoiceless alveolar fricative (/s/) (as inIndonesian),voiceless dental stop (/t/), or avoiceless labiodental fricative (/f/); known respectively asth-alveolarization,th-stopping,^[2] andth-fronting.^[3]

These sounds are known to have disappeared from a number of languages, e.g. from most of theGermanic languages or dialects, where it is retained only inScots,English, andIcelandic, but it isalveolar in the last of these.^[4]^[5] Among non-GermanicIndo-European languages as a whole, the sound was also once much more widespread, but is today preserved in a few languages including theBrythonic languages,Peninsular Spanish,Galician,Venetian,Tuscan,Albanian, someOccitan dialects andGreek. It has likewise disappeared from many modern vernacularvarieties of Arabic, likeEgyptian Arabic.Standard Arabic, and various dialects likeMesopotamian Arabic still retain the sound and its voiced counterpart/ð/. Similarly, withSpanish, it is only found in most parts of Spain, including in the standard pronunciation, but has almost entirely disappeared fromLatin America.

On the other hand, there are a very few languages, includingTurkmen andStandard Zhuang, where these sounds have replaced /s/ and are even spelled with "s" or its orthographic equivalent.

Features

[edit]

Features of a voiceless dental non-sibilant fricative:

Itsmanner of articulation isfricative, which means it is produced by constricting air flow through a narrow channel at the place of articulation, causingturbulence. It does not have the grooved tongue and directed airflow, or the high frequencies, of asibilant.
Itsplace of articulation isdental, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the upperteeth, termed respectivelyapical andlaminal. Note that most stops and liquids described as dental are actuallydenti-alveolar.
Itsphonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords. In some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless; in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds.
It is anoral consonant, which means that air is not allowed to escape through the nose.
It is acentral consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue, rather than to the sides.
Itsairstream mechanism ispulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air only with theintercostal muscles andabdominal muscles, as in most sounds.

Occurrence

[edit]

Language		Word	IPA	Meaning	Notes
Albanian		thotë	[θɔtə]	'says'
Arabic	Modern Standard^[6]	ثَوْب	[θawb]^ⓘ	'a dress'	Represented by⟨ث⟩. SeeArabic phonology.
	Eastern Libya	ثِلاثة	[θɪˈlæːθæ]	'three'
	Sanaa, Yemen^[7]^{[full citation needed]}	يِثَمَّن	[jɪˈθæmːæn]	'it is priced'
	Iraq	ثمانْية	[θ(ɪ)ˈmæːnjæ]	'eight'
	Khuzestan, Iran^[8]	الثانْية	[ɪθˈθæːnjæ]	'the second one'
Aragonese		arbuzo	[arˈbuθo]	'bush'
Arapaho		yoo3on	[jɔːθɔn]	'five'
Arpitan	Genevan [fr] andSavoyard	marchiê	[maʁθˈia]	'market'
	Fribourgeois [fr]	èthêla	[eˈθɛːla]	'star'
	Valaisan [fr]	cllâf	[θo]	'key'	Limited tol'Étivaz [fr] (VD),Bourg-Saint-Pierre (VS), and a few other villages.
Assyrian		ܒܝܬܐ bèṭa	[beːθa]	'house'	Mostly used in theWestern,Barwari,Tel Keppe,Batnaya andAlqosh dialects; realized as[t] in other varieties.
Asturian		zusmiu	[ˈθusmju]	'juice'
Avestan		𐬑𐬱𐬀𐬚𐬭𐬀‎xšaθra	[xʃaθra]	'kingdom'	Ancient deadsacred language.
Bashkir		дуҫ / duθ	[duθ]^ⓘ	'friend'
Berber		Ṯmaziɣṯ	[θmæzɪɣθ]	'Berber (language)'(noun)	This pronunciation is common in northern Morocco, central Morocco, and northern Algeria.
Berta		[θɪ́ŋɑ̀]		'to eat'
Burmese^[9]		သုံး /thon:	[θòʊ̯̃]	'three'	Commonly realized as an affricate[t̪͡θ].^[10]
Cornish		eth	[ɛθ]	'eight'
Emiliano-Romagnol^[11]		fâza	[ˈfaːθɐ]	'face'
English	Most dialects	thin	[θɪn]^ⓘ	'thin'	SeeEnglish phonology
Galician	Most dialects^[12]	cero	[ˈθɛɾʊ]	'zero'	Merges with/s/ into[s] in Western dialects.^[12] SeeGalician phonology
Greek		θάλασσα	[ˈθalasa]	'sea'	SeeModern Greek phonology
Gweno		[riθo]		'eye'
Gwich’in		thał	[θaɬ]	'pants'
Halkomelem		θqet	[θqet]	'tree'
Hän		nihthän	[nihθɑn]	'I want'
Harsusi		[θəroː]		'two'
Hebrew	Iraqi	עברית	[ʕibˈriːθ]	'Hebrew' (language)	SeeModern Hebrew phonology
Hebrew	Yemenite	עברית	[ʕivˈriːθ]	'Hebrew' (language)	SeeModern Hebrew phonology
Hindi		थ़लास़ा	[θəlaːsa]	'three' (transliteration of Arabicثِلاثة)	A Devanagari transcription of/θ/, used to represent Arabicث.^[13]
Hlai	Basadung	[θsio]		'one'
Italian	Tuscan^[14]	i capitani	[iˌhäɸiˈθäːni]	'the captains'	Intervocalic allophone of/t/.^[14] SeeItalian phonology andTuscan gorgia
Kabyle		ṯafaṯ	[θafaθ]	'light'(noun)
Karen	Sgaw	သၢ	[θə˧]	'three'
Karuk		yiθa	[jiθa]	'one'
Kickapoo		neθwi	[nɛθwi]	'three'
Kwama		[mɑ̄ˈθíl]		'to laugh'
Leonese		ceru	[θeɾu]	'zero'
Lorediakarkar		[θar]		'four'
Malay		Selasa	[θəlaθa]	'Tuesday'	Mostly occurs in Arabic loanwords originally containing this sound, but the writing is not distinguished from the Arabic loanwords with the[s] sound and this sound must be learned separately by the speakers. SeeMalay phonology.
Massa		[faθ]		'five'
Occitan	Gascon	macipon	[maθiˈpu]	'(male) child'	Limited the sub-dialects of the region of Castillonais, in theAriège department.
Occitan	Vivaro-Alpine	chin	[θĩ]	'dog'	Limited to Vénosc, in theIsère department.
Old Persian		𐎧𐏁𐎠𐎹𐎰𐎡𐎹xšāyaθiya	[xʃaːjaθija]	'king'	This sound does not occur in modern Persian.
Saanich		TÁŦES	[teθʔəs]	'eight'
Sardinian	Nuorese	petha	[pɛθa]	'meat'
Scottish Gaelic	Tayinloan andJura	sruthan	[θɾuʔan]	'stream'	Dialectal allophone of/s̪/ before/ɾ/ in certainArgyll dialects.
Shark Bay		[θar]		'four'
Shawnee		nthwi	[nθwɪ]	'three'
Sioux	Nakoda	ktusa	[ktũˈθa]	'four'
Spanish	European^[15]	cazar	[käˈθ̪͆äɾ]	'to hunt'	Interdental. SeeSpanish phonology andSeseo. This sound is not contrastive in the Americas, southern Andalusia or the Canary Islands.
Spanish	Castilian	pared	[paˈɾeθ]	'wall'	Word-final, especially inMadrid.^[16]^[17] Corresponds to[ð] in standard Spanish.
Swahili		thamini	[θɑˈmini]	'value'	Mostly occurs in Arabic loanwords originally containing this sound.
Tanacross		thiit	[θiːtʰ]	'embers'
Toda			[wɨnboθ]	'nine'
Turkmen		sen	[θɛn]	'you'	Realization of the /z/ phoneme
Tutchone	Northern	tho	[θo]	'pants'
Tutchone	Southern	thü	[θɨ]	'pants'
Upland Yuman	Havasupai	[θerap]		'five'
	Hualapai	[θarap]
	Yavapai	[θerapi]
Venetian	Eastern dialects	çinque	[ˈθiŋkwe]	'five'	Corresponds to/s/ in other dialects.
Wolaytta		shiththa	[ɕiθθa]	'flower'
Welsh		saith	[saiθ]	'seven'
Zhuang		saw	[θaːu˨˦]	'language'
Zotung	Standard dialect of Lungngo	kacciade	[kəˈθʲaːðɛ]	'I go'	Realized as[sʲ] and[t] in Aikap and other Northern dialects. It can also be voiced depending on the preceding consonant.

Voiceless denti-alveolar sibilant

[edit]

Voiceless denti-alveolar sibilant

s̻̪

s̟

Encoding

X-SAMPA s_m_d

Image

Thevoiceless denti-alveolar sibilant is the only sibilant fricative in some dialects ofAndalusian Spanish. It has no official symbol in theInternational Phonetic Alphabet, though its features would be transcribed ⟨s̻̪⟩ or ⟨s̪̻⟩ (using the ⟨◌̻⟩, the diacritic marking alaminal consonant, and ⟨◌̪⟩, the diacritic marking adental consonant). It is usually represented by an ad-hoc symbol such as ⟨s̄⟩, ⟨θˢ̣⟩, or ⟨s̟⟩ (advanced diacritic).

Dalbor (1980) describes this sound as follows: "[s̄] is a voiceless, corono-dentoalveolar groove fricative, the so-calleds coronal ors plana because of the relatively flat shape of the tongue body.... To this writer, the coronal[s̄], heard throughout Andalusia, should be characterized by such terms as "soft," "fuzzy," or "imprecise," which, as we shall see, brings it quite close to one variety of/θ/ ... Canfield has referred, quite correctly, in our opinion, to this[s̄] as "the lisping coronal-dental," and Amado Alonso remarks how close it is to the post-dental[θ̦], suggesting a combined symbol[θˢ̣] to represent it".

Features

[edit]

Features of the voiceless denti-alveolar sibilant:

Itsmanner of articulation issibilant fricative, which means it is generally produced by channeling air flow along agroove in the back of the tongue up to the place of articulation, at which point it is focused against the sharp edge of the nearly clenched teeth, causing high-frequencyturbulence.
Itsplace of articulation isdenti-alveolar, which means it is articulated with a flat tongue against thealveolar ridge and upper teeth.
It is normallylaminal, which means it is pronounced with the blade of the tongue.^[18]
Itsphonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords. In some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless; in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds.
It is anoral consonant, which means that air is not allowed to escape through the nose.
Itsmanner of articulation isfricative, which means it is produced by constricting air flow through a narrow channel at the place of articulation, causingturbulence.
Itsairstream mechanism ispulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air only with theintercostal muscles andabdominal muscles, as in most sounds.

Occurrence

[edit]

Language		Word	IPA	Meaning	Notes
Spanish	Andalusian^[18]	casa	[ˈkäs̻̪ä]	'house'	Present in dialects withceceo. SeeSpanish phonology

Notes

[edit]

^Phoible.org. (2018). PHOIBLE Online - Segments. [online] Available at:http://phoible.org/parameters.
^Wells (1982:565–66, 635)
^Wells (1982:96–97, 328–30, 498, 500, 553, 557–58, 635)
^Pétursson (1971:?), cited inLadefoged & Maddieson (1996:145)
^Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996:144–145)
^Thelwall (1990:37)
^[[#CITEREF|]]:224)
^Versteegh (2001:159)
^Watkins (2001:291–292)
^Watkins (2001:292)
^Fig. 11 La zeta bolognese(in Italian)
^^a ^bRegueira (1996:119–120)
^"थ़",Wiktionary, the free dictionary, 2024-05-27, retrieved2025-10-25
^^a ^bHall (1944:75)
^Martínez-Celdrán, Fernández-Planas & Carrera-Sabaté (2003:255)
^García Mouton & Molina Martos (2016:283–296)
^Molina Martos (2016:347–367)
^^a ^bDalbor (1980:9)

References

[edit]

Dalbor, John B. (1980), "Observations on Present-Day Seseo and Ceceo in Southern Spain",Hispania,63 (1), American Association of Teachers of Spanish and Portuguese:5–19,doi:10.2307/340806,JSTOR 340806
Einhorn, E. (1974),Old French: A Concise Handbook, Cambridge University Press,ISBN 0-521-09838-6
Hall, Robert A. Jr. (1944). "Italian phonemes and orthography".Italica.21 (2). American Association of Teachers of Italian:72–82.doi:10.2307/475860.JSTOR 475860.
Hickey, Raymond (1984), "Coronal Segments in Irish English",Journal of Linguistics,20 (2):233–250,doi:10.1017/S0022226700013876,S2CID 145672742
Ladefoged, Peter (2005),Vowels and Consonants (2nd ed.), Blackwell
Ladefoged, Peter;Maddieson, Ian (1996).The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell.ISBN 0-631-19815-6.
Marotta, Giovanna; Barth, Marlen (2005),"Acoustic and sociolingustic aspects of lenition in Liverpool English"(PDF),Studi Linguistici e Filologici Online,3 (2):377–413, archived fromthe original(PDF) on 2021-02-25, retrieved2008-11-15
Martínez-Celdrán, Eugenio; Fernández-Planas, Ana Ma.; Carrera-Sabaté, Josefina (2003), "Castilian Spanish",Journal of the International Phonetic Association,33 (2):255–259,doi:10.1017/S0025100303001373
Pétursson, Magnus (1971),"Étude de la réalisation des consonnes islandaises þ, ð, s, dans la prononciation d'un sujet islandais à partir de la radiocinématographie",Phonetica,33 (4):203–216,doi:10.1159/000259344,S2CID 145316121
Regueira, Xosé Luís (1996), "Galician",Journal of the International Phonetic Association,26 (2):119–122,doi:10.1017/s0025100300006162,S2CID 241094214
Thelwall, Robin (1990), "Illustrations of the IPA: Arabic",Journal of the International Phonetic Association,20 (2):37–41,doi:10.1017/S0025100300004266,S2CID 243640727
Versteegh, Kees (2001),The Arabic Language, Columbia University Press,ISBN 978-0748614363
Watkins, Justin W. (2001),"Illustrations of the IPA: Burmese"(PDF),Journal of the International Phonetic Association,31 (2):291–295,doi:10.1017/S0025100301002122,S2CID 232344700
Wells, John C (1982),Accents of English, vol. second,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,ISBN 0-521-24224-X
Molina Martos, Isabel (December 2016), "Variación de la -/d/ final de palabra en Madrid: ¿prestigio abierto o encubierto?",Boletín de filología (in Spanish),51 (2):347–367,doi:10.4067/S0718-93032016000200013
García Mouton, Pilar; Molina Martos, Isabel (1 January 2016), "La –/d/ final en el atlas dialectal de Madrid (ADIM): un cambio en marcha",Lapurdum (in Spanish) (19):283–296,doi:10.4000/lapurdum.3375,hdl:10261/265245

External links

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International Phonetic Alphabet(chart)

IPA topics

IPA	International Phonetic Association History of the alphabet Extensions for disordered speech (extIPA) Voice Quality Symbols (VoQS) Journal of the IPA (JIPA)
Special topics	Cursive forms Case variants Obsolete and nonstandard symbols Naming conventions Sinological extensions World Orthography IPA chart for English dialects
Encodings	ASCII encodings SAMPA X-SAMPA Usenet ASCII-IPA TIPA Phonetic symbols in Unicode IPA number IPA Braille

Consonants

Pulmonic consonants

Place →	Labial					Coronal										Dorsal					Laryngeal
Manner ↓	Bilabial		Labiodental		Linguolabial		Dental		Alveolar		Postalveolar		Retroflex		Palatal		Velar		Uvular		Pharyngeal/epiglottal		Glottal
Nasal	m̥	m	ɱ̊	ɱ		n̼	n̪̊	n̪	n̥	n	n̠̊	n̠	ɳ̊	ɳ	ɲ̊	ɲ	ŋ̊	ŋ	ɴ̥	ɴ
Plosive	p	b	p̪	b̪	t̼	d̼	t̪	d̪	t	d			ʈ	ɖ	c	ɟ	k	ɡ	q	ɢ	ʡ		ʔ
Sibilant affricate							t̪s̪	d̪z̪	ts	dz	t̠ʃ	d̠ʒ	tʂ	dʐ	tɕ	dʑ
Non-sibilant affricate	pɸ	bβ	p̪f	b̪v			t̪θ	d̪ð	tɹ̝̊	dɹ̝	t̠ɹ̠̊˔	d̠ɹ̠˔			cç	ɟʝ	kx	ɡɣ	qχ	ɢʁ	ʡʜ	ʡʢ	ʔh
Sibilantfricative							s̪	z̪	s	z	ʃ	ʒ	ʂ	ʐ	ɕ	ʑ
Non-sibilant fricative	ɸ	β	f	v	θ̼	ð̼	θ	ð	θ̠	ð̠	ɹ̠̊˔	ɹ̠˔	ɻ̊˔	ɻ˔	ç	ʝ	x	ɣ	χ	ʁ	ħ	ʕ	h	ɦ
Approximant		β̞		ʋ				ð̞		ɹ		ɹ̠		ɻ		j		ɰ						˷
Tap/flap		ⱱ̟		ⱱ		ɾ̼			ɾ̥	ɾ			ɽ̊	ɽ						ɢ̆		ʡ̮
Trill	ʙ̥	ʙ							r̥	r		r̠	ɽ̊r̥	ɽr					ʀ̥	ʀ	ʜ	ʢ
Lateral affricate									tɬ	dɮ			tꞎ	d𝼅	c𝼆	ɟʎ̝	k𝼄	ɡʟ̝
Lateral fricative							ɬ̪		ɬ	ɮ			ꞎ	𝼅	𝼆	ʎ̝	𝼄	ʟ̝
Lateral approximant								l̪	l̥	l		l̠	ɭ̊	ɭ	ʎ̥	ʎ	ʟ̥	ʟ		ʟ̠
Lateral tap/flap									ɺ̥	ɺ			𝼈̊	𝼈		ʎ̮		ʟ̆

Symbols to the right in a cell arevoiced, to the left arevoiceless.Shaded areas denote articulations judged impossible.

Non-pulmonic consonants

		BL	LD	D	A	PA	RF	P	V	U
Implosive	Voiced	ɓ			ɗ		ᶑ	ʄ	ɠ	ʛ
Implosive	Voiceless	ɓ̥			ɗ̥		ᶑ̊	ʄ̊	ɠ̊	ʛ̥
Ejective	Stop	pʼ			tʼ		ʈʼ	cʼ	kʼ	qʼ
	Affricate		p̪fʼ	t̪θʼ	tsʼ	t̠ʃʼ	tʂʼ	tɕʼ	kxʼ	qχʼ
	Fricative	ɸʼ	fʼ	θʼ	sʼ	ʃʼ	ʂʼ	ɕʼ	xʼ	χʼ
	Lateral affricate				tɬʼ			c𝼆ʼ	k𝼄ʼ	q𝼄ʼ
	Lateral fricative				ɬʼ
Click (top: velar; bottom: uvular)	Tenuis	kʘ qʘ		kǀ qǀ	kǃ qǃ		k𝼊 q𝼊	kǂ qǂ
	Voiced	ɡʘ ɢʘ		ɡǀ ɢǀ	ɡǃ ɢǃ		ɡ𝼊 ɢ𝼊	ɡǂ ɢǂ
	Nasal	ŋʘ ɴʘ		ŋǀ ɴǀ	ŋǃ ɴǃ		ŋ𝼊 ɴ𝼊	ŋǂ ɴǂ	ʞ
	Tenuislateral				kǁ qǁ
	Voiced lateral				ɡǁ ɢǁ
	Nasal lateral				ŋǁ ɴǁ