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Voiceless alveolar fricative

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Consonantal sound often represented by ⟨s⟩ in IPA
Voiceless alveolar sibilant
s
IPA number132
Audio sample
Encoding
Entity(decimal)s
Unicode(hex)U+0073
X-SAMPAs
Braille⠎ (braille pattern dots-234)
Image

Voiceless alveolar fricatives are a type offricative consonant pronounced with thetip orblade of the tongue against thealveolar ridge (gum line) just behind the teeth. This refers to a class of sounds, not a single sound. There are at least six types with significant perceptual differences:

The first three types aresibilants, meaning that they are made by directing a stream of air with the tongue towards the teeth and have a piercing, perceptually prominent sound.

Voicelesscoronal fricatives
DentalDenti-
alveolar		AlveolarPost-alveolar
RetractedRetroflexPalato-
alveolar		Alveolo-
palatal
Sibilantplains̪s̟s͇s̠ʂʃɕ
Non-sibilantθθ͇ɻ̝̊
tappedɾ̞̊
Coronal sibilants
IPA
symbol		meaning
place
of articulation		passive
(mouth)		⟨s̪⟩dental
⟨s̟⟩advanced
(denti-alveolar)
⟨s͇⟩alveolar
⟨s̠⟩retracted
(postalveolar)
active
(tongue)		⟨s̺⟩apical
⟨s̻⟩laminal
⟨ʂ⟩retroflex
secondary⟨sʲ⟩palatalized coronal
⟨ɕ⟩alveolo-palatal
⟨ʃ⟩palato-alveolar
⟨sʷ⟩labialized coronal
⟨sˠ⟩velarized coronal
⟨sˤ⟩pharyngealized coronal
voice-onset time⟨sʰ⟩aspirated coronal

Voiceless alveolar sibilant

[edit]

Avoiceless alveolar sibilant is a common consonant sound in vocal languages. It is the sound in English words such assea andpass, and is represented in theInternational Phonetic Alphabet with ⟨s⟩. It has a characteristic high-pitched, highly perceptible hissing sound. For this reason, it is often used to get someone's attention, using a call often written assssst! orpsssst!.

Voiceless alveolar sibilants[s] are one of the most common sounds cross-linguistically. If a language has fricatives, it will most likely have[s].[2] However, some languages have a relatedsibilant sound, such as[ʃ], but no[s]. In addition, sibilants are absent from mostAustralian Aboriginal languages, in which fricatives are rare; however,[s] does occur inKalaw Lagaw Ya.[3]

Comparison between English and Spanish

[edit]

The term "voiceless alveolar sibilant" is potentially ambiguous in that it can refer to at least two different sounds. Various languages of northernIberia (e.g.,Astur-Leonese,Catalan,Basque,Galician,Portuguese andSpanish) have a so-called "voiceless apico-alveolar sibilant" that lacks the strong hissing of the[s] described in this article but has a duller, more "grave" sound quality somewhat reminiscent of avoiceless retroflex sibilant. Basque,Mirandese and some Portuguese dialects in northeast Portugal (as well as medieval Spanish and Portuguese in general) have both types of sounds in the same language.

There is no general agreement about what actual feature distinguishes these sounds. Spanish phoneticians normally describe the difference asapical (for the northern Iberian sound) vs.laminal (for the more common sound), but Ladefoged and Maddieson[4] claim that English/s/ can be pronounced apically, which is evidently not the same as the apical sibilant of Iberian Spanish and Basque. Also, Adams[5] asserts that many dialects ofModern Greek have a laminal sibilant with a sound quality similar to the "apico-alveolar" sibilant of northern Iberia.

Some authors have instead suggested that the difference lies intongue shape. Adams[5] describes the northern Iberian sibilant as "retracted". Ladefoged and Maddieson[4] appear to characterize the more common hissing variant asgrooved, but there is some doubt about whether all and only the "hissing" sounds actually have a "grooved" tongue shape.

Features

[edit]

Features of a voiceless alveolar sibilant:

  • Itsmanner of articulation issibilantfricative, which means it is generally produced by channeling air flow along agroove in the back of the tongue up to the place of articulation, at which point it is focused against the sharp edge of the nearly clenched teeth, causing high-frequencyturbulence.
  • There are at least three specific variants of[s]:
    • Dentalized laminalalveolar (commonly called "dental"), which means it is articulated with the tongue blade very close to the upper front teeth, with the tongue tip resting behind lower front teeth. The hissing effect in this variety of[s] is very strong.[6]
    • Non-retracted alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at thealveolar ridge, termed respectivelyapical andlaminal. According toLadefoged & Maddieson (1996) about half ofEnglish speakers use a non-retracted apical articulation.
    • Retracted alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue slightly behind the alveolar ridge, termed respectivelyapical andlaminal. Acoustically, it is close to laminal[ʂ] or (to a lesser extent)[ʃ].
  • Itsphonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords. In some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless; in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds.
  • It is anoral consonant, which means that air is not allowed to escape through the nose.
  • It is acentral consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue, rather than to the sides.
  • Itsairstream mechanism ispulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air only with theintercostal muscles andabdominal muscles, as in most sounds.

Occurrence

[edit]

Dentalized laminal alveolar

[edit]
LanguageWordIPAMeaningNotes
ArabicGulf[7]مسجد (masjid)[mɐˈs̪d͡ʒɪd̪]'mosque'
ArmenianEastern[8]սար (sar)[s̪ɑɾ]ⓘ'mountain'
Azerbaijani[9]su[s̪u]'water'
Basque[10]gauza[ɡäus̪ä]'thing'Contrasts with an apical sibilant.[10] SeeBasque phonology
Belarusian[11]стагоддзе (stağoddzě)[s̪t̪äˈɣod̪d̪͡z̪ʲe]'century'Contrasts withpalatalized form. SeeBelarusian phonology
Bulgarian[12]всеки (vseki)[ˈfs̪ɛkʲi]'everyone'Contrasts with palatalized form.
ChineseMandarin[13][14]三 (sān)[s̪a̋n]'three'SeeMandarin phonology
Czech[15]svět[s̪vjɛt̪]'world'SeeCzech phonology
Chuvashсавăт (savët)[s̪aʋət]'vessel, glass'
EnglishAuckland[16]sand[s̪ɛnˑd̥]'sand'SeeEnglish phonology
Multicultural London[17][s̪anˑd̥]
French[18][19][20]façade[fäs̪äd̪]'front'SeeFrench phonology
Hungarian[21]sziget[ˈs̪iɡɛt̪]'island'SeeHungarian phonology
ItalianStandard[22]sali[ˈsäːli]'you go up'Varies between dentalized laminal and non-retracted apical.[22] SeeItalian phonology
Ticino[23]Varies between dentalized laminal and non-retracted apical.[24] Both variants may be labiodentalized.[23] SeeItalian phonology
Kashubian[25][example needed]
Kazakh[26]сом (sum)[s̪u̯ʊm]'pure'
Kyrgyz[27]сабиз (sabiz)[s̪äˈbis̪]'carrot'
Latvian[28]sens[s̪en̪s̪]'ancient'SeeLatvian phonology
Macedonian[29]скока (skoka)[ˈs̪kɔkä]'jump'SeeMacedonian phonology
Mirandese[example needed]Contrasts sevensibilants altogether, preserving medievalIbero-Romance contrasts.
NorwegianUrban East[30]sand[sɑnː]'sand'Most often dentalized laminal, but can be non-retracted apical for some speakers.[30] SeeNorwegian phonology
Polish[6][31]sum[s̪um]ⓘ'catfish'SeePolish phonology
Romanian[32]surd[s̪ur̪d̪]'deaf'SeeRomanian phonology
Russian[33]волосы (volosy)[ˈvo̞ɫ̪əs̪ɨ̞]ⓘ'hair'Contrasts with palatalized form. SeeRussian phonology
Scottish Gaelic[34]Slàinte[ˈs̪ɫ̪äːn̪t̪ʰʲə]'cheers'SeeScottish Gaelic phonology
Serbo-Croatian[35][36]село (selo)[s̪ĕ̞lo̞]'village'SeeSerbo-Croatian phonology
Slovaksto[stɔ]'hundred'SeeSlovak phonology
Slovene[37]svet[s̪ʋêːt̪]'world'SeeSlovene phonology
SpanishIberian[38]estar[e̞s̪ˈt̪äɾ]'to be'Allophone of/s/ before dental consonants.[38] SeeSpanish phonology
Swedish[39]Central Standard[40][41]säte[ˈs̪ɛːt̪e]'seat'Retracted in some southern dialects.[42] SeeSwedish phonology
Toda[43][44]கொவ் (kos)[kɔs̪]'money'Contrasts/θs̪s̠ʃʂ/. Voiced allophones are found in fast speech.[45]
Turkish[18][46]su[s̪u]'water'SeeTurkish phonology
Ukrainian[47]село (selo)[s̪ɛˈɫ̪ɔ]'village'Contrasts withpalatalized form. SeeUkrainian phonology
Upper Sorbian[48]sowa[ˈs̪owä]'owl'
Uzbek[49]soät[ˈs̪o̞æt̪]'hour'
VietnameseHanoi[50]xa[s̪äː]'far'SeeVietnamese phonology

Non-retracted alveolar

[edit]
LanguageWordIPAMeaningNotes
Adygheсэ (sė)[sa]'I'
ArabicModern Standard[51]جَلَس (ǧalasa)[ˈdʒælæsɐ]'to sit'SeeArabic phonology
Assyrianܣܝܦܐ (sèpa)[seːpaː]'sword'
Bengaliরাস্তা[romanization needed][raːst̪a]'street'SeeBengali phonology
Burmeseစခန်း[romanization needed][səkʰáɰ̃]'camp'
Chechenсурт (surt)[suʊrt]'picture'
ChineseCantonese閃 (sim2)[siːm˧˥]'twinkle'SeeCantonese phonology
Danish[52][53][54]sælge[ˈseljə]'sell'Most often non-retracted apical, but can be dentalized laminal for some speakers.[52][53][54] SeeDanish phonology
DutchBelgian Standard[55]scheepvaart[ˈsxeːˌp̪͡faˑrt]ⓘ'navigation'Laminal.[55] SeeDutch phonology
Northern Standard[56][57][ˈsχep̪ˌfaˑɾtʰ]ⓘLaminal. It is laxer than in English, has a graver friction and is sometimes labialized. It is oftenretracted when preconsonantal, after rounded vowels and/r/.[56] SeeDutch phonology
Emiliansèl[ˈs̺ʲɛːl]'salt'Palatalized apical;[58] may be[ʂ] or[ʃ] instead.[58]
Englishsit[sɪʔtʰ]ⓘ'sit'SeeEnglish phonology
EsperantoEsperanto[espeˈranto]'Who hopes'SeeEsperanto phonology
Faroesesandur[sandʊɹ]'sand'
GermanStandard[59]Biss[bɪs]'bite'Varies between dentalized laminal, non-retracted laminal and non-retracted apical.[59] SeeStandard German phonology
Georgian[60]სამი (sami)[ˈsɑmi]'three'
Hebrewספר (sefer)[ˈsefeʁ]'book'SeeModern Hebrew phonology
Hindustaniसाल (sal) /سال (sal)[romanization needed][saːl]'year'SeeHindustani phonology
ItalianStandard[22]sali[ˈsäːli]'you go up'Varies between dentalized laminal and non-retracted apical.[22] SeeItalian phonology
Ticino[23]Varies between dentalized laminal and non-retracted apical.[24] Both variants may be labiodentalized.[23] SeeItalian phonology
Japanese[61]複数形 (fukusūkē)[ɸɯkɯ̊sɯːkeː]'plural'SeeJapanese phonology
Kabardianсэ (sė)[sa]'I'
KarenS'gaw Karenစ့ၤ[romanization needed][sē]'silver'
Western Pwoစဲၪ့[romanization needed][sàiɴ]'to run'
Katësu[su]'sun'
Khmerអេស្ប៉ាញ (éspanh)[ʔeːˈspaːɲ]noun: 'Spain'
adjective: 'Spanish'		SeeKhmer phonology
ម៉ាស៊ីន (masin)[maːˈsiːn]'machine'
Korean섬 (seom)[sʌːm]'island'SeeKorean phonology
Malaysatu[satu]'one'
Malayalamസ്വപ്നം[romanization needed][sʋɐpɨ̆n̪ɐm]'dream'
Malteseiebes[eaˈbes]'hard'
Marathiसाप[romanization needed][saːp]'snake'SeeMarathi phonology
Nepaliसगरमाथा[romanization needed][sʌɡʌrmät̪ʰä]'Mount Everest'SeeNepali phonology
Odiaସମାନ[romanization needed][sɔmänɔ]'equal'
OccitanLimousinmaichent[mejˈsẽ]'bad'
Persianسیب (sib)[sib]'apple'SeePersian phonology
Portuguese[62]caço[ˈkasu]'I hunt'SeePortuguese phonology
Punjabiਸੱਪ (sapp)[səpː]'snake'
Spanish[38]Latin Americansaltador[s̻a̠l̪t̪a̠ˈð̞o̞r]'jumper'SeeSpanish phonology andSeseo
Canarian
Andalusian
Filipino
SwahiliKiswahili[kiswaˈhili]'Swahili'
Sylhetiꠢꠂꠍꠦ (oise)[ɔise]'done'
Tagaloglasa[ˈlasɐ]'taste'
Tamilஸீட்டா[romanization needed][siːʈaː]'Seetha'SeeTamil phonology
Ticino[23]Varies between dentalized laminal and non-retracted apical.[24] Both variants may be labiodentalized.[23] SeeItalian phonology
Vietnamese[63]xa[saː˧]'far'SeeVietnamese phonology
Yiꌦ (sy)[sɹ̩˧]'die'

Retracted alveolar

[edit]
LanguageWordIPAMeaningNotes
Asturianpasu[ˈpäs̺u]'step'Apical.
Basque[10][64]su[s̺u]'fire'Apical. Contrasts with a dentalized laminal sibilant.[10][64]
Catalan[65][66]Most dialectsset[ˈs̺ɛt̪]'seven'Apical. SeeCatalan phonology
Some Valencian speakers[67]peix[ˈpe̠js̠ʲ]'fish'Normally transcribed with ⟨ʂ⟩; realized as pre-palatal[ɕ] in Standard Catalan and Valencian.
patisc[päˈt̪is̠ʲk]'I suffer'
Dutch[57]Netherlandic speakerssik[ˈs̠ɪkʰ]ⓘ'goatee'Laminal and on the lax end of articulation spectrum. Can be labialized. If retracted is not the main allophone, may appear as such when preconsonantal, after rounded vowels and/r/.[56] SeeDutch phonology
EnglishGlasgow[68]sun[s̺ʌn]'sun'Working-class pronunciation, other speakers may use a non-retracted[s]
Emiliansèinpar[ˈs̠æ̃.pər]'always'
Estonian[69]sõna[ˈsɤnɑ]'word'
Finnish[70]sinä[ˈsinæ]'you'Varies between non-retracted and retracted.[70] SeeFinnish phonology
Galiciansaúde[s̺äˈuðe]'health'Apical.
Greek[71]Κωνσταντινούπολις (Kōnstantinoúpolis)[ko̞nᵗstɐndiˈn̠uˑpo̞lis̠ː]ⓘ'Constantinople'Varies between non-retracted and retracted, depending on the environment.[71] SeeModern Greek phonology
Icelandic[72][73]USSS[ˈʔʏ̠s̠ː]ⓘ'(initialism)USSS'Usually apical,[72][73] can alternatively be laminal.[74] SeeIcelandic phonology
ItalianCentral Italy[75]sali[ˈs̠äːli]'you go up'Present inLazio north of Cape Linaro,[75] most ofUmbria[75]
(savePerugia and the extreme south),[75]Marche and south ofPotenza.[75]
Northern Italy[76][77]Apical.[23] Present in many areas north of theLa Spezia–Rimini Line.[78][79] Derived from local languages of northern Italy.
SeeItalian phonology
Sicily[75]Present south and west of a line drawn fromSyracuse toCefalù.[75]
Leonesepasu[ˈpäs̺ʊ]'step'Apical.
Low German[42][example needed]
Mirandesepasso[ˈpäs̺u]'step'Apical. Contrasts with/s̪/.
OccitanGascondos[d̻ys̺]'two'SeeOccitan phonology
Languedocien[d̻us̺]
Piedmontesesapin[s̠apiŋ]'pine'Apical.
Portuguese[62][80]European,
inland northern		cansaço[kɐ̃ˈs̺as̻u]'weariness'Apical. Contrasts with/s̻/. SeePortuguese phonology
European,
coastal northern		[kɐ̃ˈs̺as̺u]Merges with/s̻/. SeePortuguese phonology
Inland and
southerncapixaba		pescador[pe̞s̺käˈd̻oχ]'fisherman'Realization of Portuguese coda sibilant, which may bepostalveolars,
depending on dialect
Carioca do brejoescadas[is̺ˈkäd̻ɐs̺]'stairs'
SpanishAndeansaltador[s̺äl̪t̪äˈð̞o̞ɾ]'jumper'Apical. In Andean and Paisa (except in southern parts of Antioquia) alternates with a more frequent coronal-dental/s/.[81][82]
SeeSpanish phonology andseseo
Castilian[38]
Paisa accent
SwedishBlekinge[42]säte[ˈs̠ɛːte]'seat'SeeSwedish phonology
Bohuslän[42]
Halland[42]
Scania[42]
Toda[43][44]pōs̠[po:s̠]'milk'Contrasts/θs̪s̠ʃʂ/. Voiced allophones are found in fast speech.[45]
VietnameseSaigon[83]xe[s̺ɛ˧]'vehicle'Apical.
West Frisian[56]sâlt[sɔːt]'salt'Laminal. It is laxer than in English and has a graver friction. It varies between retracted and non-retracted, depending on the environment.[56] SeeWest Frisian phonology

TheMiyakoan language (Ikema-Irabu dialect) has avoiced alveolar sibilant approximant, or voicedlaminal alveolar approximant,[84] transcribed as ⟨z̞⟩ or ⟨ɹ̻⟩. It may allophonically be avoiceless alveolar sibilant approximant orvoiceless laminal alveolar approximant, transcribed as ⟨s̞⟩ or ⟨ɹ̻̊⟩, when occurring after thevoiceless bilabial plosive ⟨p⟩.[85]

Voiceless apico-alveolar sibilant

[edit]

Thevoiceless alveolar retracted sibilant (commonly termed thevoiceless apico-alveolar sibilant) is africative that is articulated with the tongue in a hollow shape, usually with the tip of the tongue (apex) against thealveolar ridge. It is asibilant sound and is found most notably in a number of languages in alinguistic area covering northern and centralIberia. It is most well known from its occurrence in theSpanish of this area. In theMiddle Ages, it occurred in a wider area, coveringRomance languages spoken throughoutFrance,Portugal, andSpain, as well asOld High German andMiddle High German.

Occurrence in Europe

[edit]

Modern

[edit]

In Romance languages, it occurs as the normal voiceless alveolar sibilant inAstur-Leonese,Castilian Spanish,Catalan,Galician, northern EuropeanPortuguese, and someOccitan dialects. It also occurs inBasque andMirandese, where it is opposed to a different voiceless alveolar sibilant, the more common[s]; the same distinction occurs in a few dialects of northeastern Portuguese. Outside this area, it also occurs in a few dialects of Latin American Spanish (e.g.Antioqueño andPastuso, inColombia).

AmongstGermanic languages, it occurs inDutch (and closely relatedLow German),Icelandic, many dialects inScandinavia, and working-classGlaswegian English.

It also occurs inModern Greek (with alaminal articulation), as well as theBaltic languages.

There is no singleIPA symbol used for this sound. The symbol ⟨s̺⟩ is often used, with a diacritic indicating anapical pronunciation. However, that is potentially problematic in that not all alveolar retracted sibilants are apical (see below), and not all apical alveolar sibilants are retracted. The ad hoc non-IPA symbols ⟨ṣ⟩ and ⟨S⟩ are often used in the linguistic literature even when IPA symbols are used for other sounds,[citation needed] but ⟨ṣ⟩ is a common transcription of the retroflex sibilant[ʂ].

Medieval

[edit]

In medieval times, it occurred in a wider area, including theRomance languages spoken in most or all ofFrance andIberia (Old Spanish,Galician-Portuguese,Catalan,French, etc.), as well as in theOld andMiddle High German of central and southernGermany,[86] and most likely Northern Germany as well. In all of these languages, the retracted "apico-alveolar" sibilant was opposed to a non-retracted sibilant much like modern English[s], and in many of them, both voiceless and voiced versions of both sounds occurred.[87] A solid type of evidence consists of different spellings used for two different sibilants: in general, the retracted "apico-alveolar" variants were written⟨s⟩ or⟨ss⟩, while the non-retracted variants were written⟨z⟩,⟨c⟩ or⟨ç⟩. In the Romance languages, the retracted sibilants derived from Latin/s/,/ss/ or/ns/, while the non-retracted sibilants derived from earlieraffricates[t͡s] and[d͡z], which in turn derived from palatalized/k/ or/t/. The situation was similar inHigh German, where the retracted sibilants derived largely from Proto-Germanic/s/, while the non-retracted sibilants derived from instances of Proto-Germanic/t/ that were shifted by theHigh German sound shift. Minimal pairs were common in all languages. Examples in Middle High German, for example, werewizzen "to know" (Old Englishwitan, cf. "to wit") vs.wissen "known" (Old Englishwissen), andwīz "white" (Old Englishwīt) vs.wīs(e) "way" (Old Englishwīs, cf. "-wise").

Description of the retracted sibilant

[edit]

Often, to speakers of languages or dialects that do not have the sound, it is said to have a "whistling" quality, and to sound similar topalato-alveolarʃ. For this reason, when borrowed into such languages or represented with non-Latin characters, it is often replaced with[ʃ]. This occurred, for example, in English borrowings fromOld French (e.g.push frompousser,cash fromcaisse); inPolish borrowings from medieval German (e.g.kosztować fromkosten,żur fromsūr (contemporarysauer)); and in representations ofMozarabic (an extinct medievalRomance language once spoken in southern Spain) in Arabic characters. The similarity between retracted[s̺] and[ʃ] has resulted in many exchanges in Spanish between the sounds, during the medieval period when Spanish had both phonemes. Examples arejabón (formerlyxabón) "soap" from Latinsapō/sapōnem,jibia "cuttlefish" (formerlyxibia) from Latinsēpia, andtijeras "scissors" (earliertixeras < medievaltiseras) from Latincīsōrias (with initialt- due to influence fromtōnsor "shaver").

One of the clearest descriptions of this sound is from Obaid:[88] "There is a Castilians, which is a voiceless, concave, apicoalveolar fricative: The tip of the tongue turned upward forms a narrow opening against the alveoli of the upper incisors. It resembles a faint/ʃ/ and is found throughout much of the northern half of Spain".

Many dialects ofModern Greek have a very similar-sounding sibilant that is pronounced with alaminal articulation.[86]

Loss of the voiceless alveolar sibilant

[edit]

This distinction has since vanished from most of the languages that once had it in medieval times.

  • In most dialects of Spanish, the four alveolar sibilants have merged into the non-retracted[s] (seseo). However, in the Spanish of central and northern Spain, the non-retracted[s] was fronted to[θ] after merging with non-retracted[z], while the retracted[s̺] remains (distinción).Distinción is also preserved inSpanish orthography on both sides of the Atlantic.
  • In French and most dialects of Portuguese, the four alveolar sibilants have merged into non-retracted[s] and[z], while in European Portuguese, most other Old World Portuguese variants and some recently European-influenced dialects of Brazil all instances of coda[s̺], voiced[z̺] before voiced consonants, were backed to[ʃ], while in most of Brazilian Portuguese this phenomenon is much rarer, being essentially absent in the dialects that had a greater indigenous and/or non-Portuguese European influence.
  • In the remaining dialects of Portuguese, found in northern Portugal, they merged into the retracted[s̺][z̺], or, as inMirandese (which is, however, not a Portuguese dialect, but belongs toAsturian-Leonese), conserved the medieval distinction.
  • InGerman,[s̺] was early on voiced to[z̺] in prevocalic position. This sound was then fronted to[z], but did not merge with any other sound (except that it was later re-devoiced in some southern dialects). In pre-consonantal and final position,[s̺] merged with either[s] or[ʃ]. The rules for these mergers differ between dialects. In Standard German,[ʃ] is used stem-initially and sporadically after ‹r›. Especially inAlemannic, every pre-consonantal[s̺] became[ʃ].

Loss-causing events

[edit]

Those languages in which the sound occurs typically did not have a phonological process from which either[s] or[ʃ] appeared, two similar sounds with which ⟨s̺⟩ was eventually confused. In general, older European languages only had a single pronunciation of s.

In Romance languages,[s] was reached from -ti-, -ci-, -ce- ([ti],[ki],[ke]) clusters that eventually became[ts],[tsi],[tse] and later[s],[si],[se] (as in Latinfortia "force",civitas "city",centum "hundred"), while[ʃ] was reached:

  • From a[sk] or[ks] cluster in southern Romance, as in Latinmiscere > Portuguesemexer "to move", Latinfluxus > Spanishflojo "lax", Latincrescere > Italiancrescere "grow", with a different pronunciation.
  • from a deaffricated[tʃ] in Northern France and southern-central Portugal, as in Frenchchat "cat", Portugueseachar "find".

InHigh German,[s] was reached through a[t] >[ts] >[s] process, as in GermanWasser compared to Englishwater. In English, the same process of Romance[ts] >[s] occurred inNorman-imported words, accounting for modern homophonessell andcell.[ʃ] was also reached from a -sk- cluster reduction as in Romance, e.g.Old English spellingasc for modernash, Germanschiff and Englishship compared to Danishskib.

Exceptions

[edit]

Standard Modern Greek, which has apical[s̺], lacked both processes.

The Germanic-speaking regions that did not have either phenomenon have normally preserved the apical[s̺], that is, Icelandic,Dutch and manyScandinavian lects. It is also found in a minority ofLow German dialects.

The main Romance language to preserve the sound,Castilian Spanish, is exceptional in that it had both events that produced[s] and[ʃ], and preserved the apical S at the expense of both, that were shifted farther away.Galician,Catalan andLadino changed only[s].

Reach in ancient times

[edit]

Because of the widespread medieval distribution, it has been speculated that retracted[s̺] was the normal pronunciation in spokenLatin. Certain borrowings suggest that it was not far off from the sh-sound[ʃ], e.g.AramaicJeshua >GreekἸησοῦς (Iēsoûs) > LatinJesus,HebrewShabbat > Latinsabbatum; but this could also be explained by the lack of a better sound in Latin to representSemiticš. It equally well could have been an areal feature inherited from the prehistoric languages of Western Europe, as evidenced by its occurrence in modernBasque.

For the same reasons, it can be speculated that retracted[s̺] was the pronunciation ofProto-Germanic s. Its presence in many branches ofIndo-European and its presence particularly in the more conservative languages inside each branch (e.g. Icelandic, Spanish), as well as being found in disparate areas, such as theBaltic languages andGreece, suggests it could have ultimately been the main allophone ofProto-Indo-European s,[87] known for ranging from[s] to as far as[ɕ].

[ʃ], but not[s], was developed inItalian. However, where Spanish and Catalan have apical[s̺], Italian uses the same laminal[s] that occurs in standard forms of English: evidence, it could be argued, that S was not pronounced apically in Latin. ButNeapolitan has a medieval S becoming either[s] or[ʃ] depending on context, much as inEuropean Portuguese, which could attest to the previous existence of[s̺] in theItalian Peninsula. The Italian pronunciation as laminal S could also be explained by the presence of[ʃ] but not[s], thus moving the pronunciation of[s̺] to the front of the mouth in an attempt to better differentiate between the two sounds.

A voiceless laminal dental ordentialveolar sibilant contrasts with a voiceless apical alveolar or post-alveolar sibilant inBasque and several languages of California, includingLuiseño of the Uto-Aztecan family andKumeyaay of the Yuman family.

Voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative

[edit]
Voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative
θ̠
θ͇
ɹ̝̊
IPA number130 414
Audio sample
Encoding
Entity(decimal)&#952;​&#817;
Unicode(hex)U+03B8 U+0331

Avoiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative (also known as a "slit" fricative) is a consonantal sound. As theInternational Phonetic Alphabet does not have separate symbols for the alveolar consonants (the same symbol is used for allcoronal places of articulation that are notpalatalized), this sound is usually transcribed ⟨θ̠⟩ or ⟨ɹ̝̊⟩.

Avoiceless alveolar approximant is transcribed in IPA as ⟨ɹ̥⟩.

A few languages also have avoiceless alveolar tapped fricative, which is simply a very brief apical alveolar non-sibilant fricative, with the tongue making the gesture for a tapped stop but not making full contact. This can be indicated in the IPA with the lowering diacritic to show full occlusion did not occur, such as ⟨ɾ̞̊⟩.[89]

Tapped fricatives are occasionally reported in the literature, though these claims are not generally independently confirmed and so remain dubious.

Flapped fricatives are theoretically possible but are not attested.[89]

Features

[edit]
  • Itsmanner of articulation isfricative, which means it is produced by constricting air flow through a narrow channel at the place of articulation, causingturbulence. However, it does not have the grooved tongue and directed airflow, or the high frequencies, of a sibilant.
  • Itsplace of articulation isalveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at thealveolar ridge, termed respectivelyapical andlaminal.
  • Itsphonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords. In some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless; in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds.
  • It is anoral consonant, which means that air is not allowed to escape through the nose.
  • It is acentral consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue, rather than to the sides.
  • Itsairstream mechanism ispulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air only with theintercostal muscles andabdominal muscles, as in most sounds.

Occurrence

[edit]
LanguageWordIPAMeaningNotes
Afenmai[89]aru[aɾ̞̊u]'hat'Tapped;tense equivalent of lax/ɾ/.[89]
DutchSpeakers mainly with
coronal/r/[90]		Geert[ɣeːɹ̝̊t]'Geert'One of many possible realizations of/r/; distribution unclear. SeeDutch phonology
EmilianBolognese[23]zidrån[θ̠iˈdrʌn]'lemon'
EnglishAustralian[91]Italy[ˈɪ̟θ̠əɫɪi̯]'Italy'Occasional allophone of/t/.[91] SeeAustralian English phonology
Received Pronunciation[92][ˈɪθ̠əli]Common allophone of/t/.[92]
Irish[93]Allophone of/t/. SeeEnglish phonology
Scouse[94][95]
Newfoundland[96][97]
SomeAmerican speakers[98][ˈɪɾ̞̊ɨ̞ɫi]Tapped; possible allophone of/t/. Can be a voiceless tap[ɾ̥] or a voiced tap[ɾ] instead.[98] SeeEnglish phonology
General Americantrap[ˈt̠ɹ̝̊æp̚]'trap'Common allophone of/r/; following/t/ or[tʰ]. Phonologically interchangeable with/tʃɹ-/. Dialectal in English English. SeeEnglish phonology
SomeEnglish English speakers[99][100][ˈt̠ɹ̝̊æʔp]
New Zealand[ˈt̠ɹ̝̊e̞p]
Faroese[101]eiturkoppur[ˈaiːtʊɹ̥ˌkʰɔʰpːʊɹ]'spider'Devoiced approximant allophone of/r/.[101] SeeFaroese phonology
Icelandic[73][102]þú[θ̠uː]ⓘ'you'(≡ thou)Laminal.[73][102] SeeIcelandic phonology
Turkish[103]bir[biɾ̞̊]'a(n)'Tapped; word-final allophone of/ɾ/.[103] SeeTurkish phonology

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^Pandeli et al. (1997), p. ?.
  2. ^Maddieson (1984), p. ?.
  3. ^Jessica Hunter;Claire Bowern; Erich Round (1 June 2011). "Reappraising the Effects of Language Contact in the Torres Strait".Journal of Language Contact.4 (1):106–140.doi:10.1163/187740911X558798.ISSN 1877-4091.Wikidata Q56228341.
  4. ^abLadefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. ?.
  5. ^abAdams (1975), p. 283.
  6. ^abPuppel, Nawrocka-Fisiak & Krassowska (1977), p. 149, cited inLadefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 154
  7. ^Qafisheh (1977), pp. 2, 9.
  8. ^Kozintseva (1995), p. 7.
  9. ^Axundov (1983), pp. 115, 128–131.
  10. ^abcdHualde, Lujanbio & Zubiri (2010), p. 1. Although this paper discusses mainly theGoizueta dialect, the authors state that it has "a typical, conservative consonant inventory for a Basque variety".
  11. ^Padluzhny (1989), p. 47.
  12. ^Klagstad (1958), p. 46.
  13. ^Lee & Zee (2003), pp. 109–110.
  14. ^Lin (2001), pp. 17–25.
  15. ^Palková (1994), p. 228.
  16. ^Bauer & Warren (2004), p. 594.
  17. ^"English speech services | Accent of the Year / sibilants in MLE". 31 December 2011. Retrieved2 December 2015.
  18. ^abAdams (1975), p. 288.
  19. ^Fougeron & Smith (1999), p. 79.
  20. ^Grønnum (2005), p. 144.
  21. ^Szende (1999), p. 104.
  22. ^abcdCanepari (1992), p. 68.
  23. ^abcdefghCanepari (1992), p. 72.
  24. ^abcCanepari (1992), pp. 68 and 72.
  25. ^Treder, Jerzy."Fonetyka i fonologia". Archived fromthe original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved2015-11-16.
  26. ^Kara (2002), p. 10.
  27. ^Kara (2003), p. 11.
  28. ^Nau (1998), p. 6.
  29. ^Lunt (1952), p. 1.
  30. ^abSkaug (2003), pp. 130–131.
  31. ^Rocławski (1976), pp. 149.
  32. ^Ovidiu Drăghici."Limba Română contemporană. Fonetică. Fonologie. Ortografie. Lexicologie"(PDF). RetrievedApril 19, 2013.[permanent dead link]
  33. ^Chew (2003), p. 67.
  34. ^Lamb (2003), p. 18.
  35. ^Kordić (2006), p. 5.
  36. ^Landau et al. (1999), p. 67.
  37. ^Pretnar & Tokarz (1980), p. 21.
  38. ^abcdMartínez-Celdrán, Fernández-Planas & Carrera-Sabaté (2003), p. 258.
  39. ^Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 171.
  40. ^Engstrand (1999), pp. 140–141.
  41. ^Engstrand (2004), p. 167.
  42. ^abcdefAdams (1975), p. 289.
  43. ^abLadefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 157.
  44. ^abLadefoged (2005), p. 168.
  45. ^abKrishnamurti (2003), p. 66.
  46. ^Zimmer & Orgun (1999), p. 154.
  47. ^Buk, Mačutek & Rovenchak (2008).
  48. ^Šewc-Schuster (1984), pp. 22, 38, 39.
  49. ^Sjoberg (1963), p. 11.
  50. ^Thompson (1987), pp. 8–9.
  51. ^Thelwall (1990), p. 37.
  52. ^abBasbøll (2005), pp. 61 and 131.
  53. ^abThorborg (2003), p. 80. The author states that/s/ is pronounced with "the tip of the tongue right behind upper teeth, but without touching them." This is confirmed by the accompanying image.
  54. ^abGrønnum (2005), p. 144. Only this author mentions both alveolar and dental realizations.
  55. ^abCollins & Mees (2003), p. 190.
  56. ^abcdeCollins & Mees (2003), pp. 145, 190.
  57. ^abGussenhoven (1999), p. 75.
  58. ^abCanepari (1992), p. 73.
  59. ^abMangold (2005), p. 50.
  60. ^Shosted & Chikovani (2006), p. 255.
  61. ^Okada (1999), p. 117.
  62. ^abCruz-Ferreira (1995), p. 91.
  63. ^Thompson (1959), pp. 458–461.
  64. ^abHualde, J.Basque Phonology (1991)RoutledgeISBN 0-415-05655-1
  65. ^Carbonell & Llisterri (1992), p. 54.
  66. ^Torreblanca (1988), p. 347.
  67. ^Saborit (2009), p. 12.
  68. ^"Annexe 4: Linguistic Variables". Archived fromthe original on 2021-02-25. Retrieved2013-04-23.
  69. ^Kokkelmans, JOACHIM HENRI N (2021)."The Phonetics and Phonology of Sibilants: A Synchronic and Diachronic OT Typology of Sibilant Inventories".Università degli studi di Verona (in Italian). Retrieved2024-06-23.
  70. ^abSuomi, Toivanen & Ylitalo (2008), p. 27.
  71. ^abArvaniti (2007), p. 12.
  72. ^abKress (1982), pp. 23–24. "It is never voiced, ass insausen, and it is pronounced by pressing the tip of the tongue against the alveolar ridge, close to the upper teeth – somewhat below the place of articulation of the Germansch. The difference is that Germansch is labialized, while Icelandics is not. It is a pre-alveolar, coronal, voiceless spirant."
  73. ^abcdPétursson (1971), p. ?, cited inLadefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 145.
  74. ^Rögnvaldsson, Eiríkur (2017)."Íslensk hljóðkerfisfræði" [Icelandic phonology](PDF) (in Icelandic). Reykjavík. pp. 36–37.
  75. ^abcdefgAdams (1975), p. 286.
  76. ^Adams (1975), pp. 285–286.
  77. ^Canepari (1992), pp. 71–72.
  78. ^Canepari (1992), p. 71.
  79. ^Adams (1975), p. 285.
  80. ^"2.3. Accenti romanze: Portogallo e Brasile (portoghese)" [Romance accents: Portugal and Brazil (Portuguese)](PDF).Pronunce Straniere dell'Italiano [Foreign pronunciations of Italian] (in Italian). pp. 174–181. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 2012-03-30.
  81. ^Joaquín Montes Giraldo (1992), p. 527.
  82. ^Betancourt Arango (1993), p. 285–286.
  83. ^Thompson (1959).
  84. ^Ball, Martin; Rahilly, Joan (2011), "The symbolization of central approximants in the IPA",Journal of the International Phonetic Association,41 (2):231–237,doi:10.1017/S0025100311000107
  85. ^Shimoji, Michinori (2008),A Grammar of Irabu, a Southern Ryukyuan Language, Australian National University, pp. 44, 48,doi:10.25911/5d5fc82596df5,hdl:1885/150638
  86. ^abAdams (1975), p. ?.
  87. ^abVijūnas (2010).
  88. ^Obaid (1973), p. ?.
  89. ^abcdLaver (1994), p. 263.
  90. ^Collins & Mees (2003), p. 199. Authors do not say where exactly it is used.
  91. ^abLoakes & McDougall (2007), pp. 1445–1448.
  92. ^abBuizza (2011), pp. 16–28.
  93. ^Hickey (1984), pp. 234–235.
  94. ^Marotta & Barth (2005), p. 385.
  95. ^Watson (2007), pp. 352–353.
  96. ^Van Herk, Gerard (2010). "Identity Marking and Affiliation in an Urbanizing Newfoundland Community".Canadian English: A Linguistic Reader: 139.
  97. ^Clarke, Sandra (2009). Hickey, Raymond (ed.)."The Legacy of British and Irish English in Newfoundland".Legacies of Colonial English. Studies in English Language:242–261.doi:10.1017/CBO9780511486920.ISBN 9780521830201.
  98. ^abLaver (1994), pp. 263–264.
  99. ^Boberg (2004), p. 361.
  100. ^Kerswill, Torgerson & Fox (2006), p. 30.
  101. ^abÁrnason (2011), p. 115.
  102. ^abGrønnum (2005), p. 139.
  103. ^abYavuz & Balcı (2011), p. 25.

References

[edit]

External links

[edit]
IPA topics
IPA
Special topics
Encodings
Pulmonic consonants
Place →LabialCoronalDorsalLaryngeal
Manner ↓Bi­labialLabio­dentalLinguo­labialDentalAlveolarPost­alveolarRetro­flexPalatalVelarUvularPharyn­geal/epi­glottalGlottal
Nasalm̥mɱ̊ɱn̼n̪̊n̪n̥nn̠̊n̠ɳ̊ɳɲ̊ɲŋ̊ŋɴ̥ɴ
Plosivepbp̪b̪t̼d̼t̪d̪tdʈɖcɟkɡqɢʡʔ
Sibilantaffricatet̪s̪d̪z̪tsdzt̠ʃd̠ʒtʂdʐtɕdʑ
Non-sibilant affricatepɸbβp̪fb̪vt̪θd̪ðtɹ̝̊dɹ̝t̠ɹ̠̊˔d̠ɹ̠˔cçɟʝkxɡɣqχɢʁʡʜʡʢʔh
Sibilantfricatives̪z̪szʃʒʂʐɕʑ
Non-sibilant fricativeɸβfvθ̼ð̼θðθ̠ð̠ɹ̠̊˔ɹ̠˔ɻ̊˔ɻ˔çʝxɣχʁħʕhɦ
Approximantβ̞ʋð̞ɹɹ̠ɻjɰʁ̞ʔ̞
Tap/flapⱱ̟ⱱɾ̼ɾ̥ɾɽ̊ɽɢ̆ʡ̮
Trillʙ̥ʙr̥rr̠ɽ̊r̥ɽrʀ̥ʀʜʢ
Lateral affricatetɬdɮtꞎd𝼅c𝼆ɟʎ̝k𝼄ɡʟ̝
Lateral fricativeɬ̪ɬɮꞎ𝼅𝼆ʎ̝𝼄ʟ̝
Lateral approximantl̪l̥ll̠ɭ̊ɭʎ̥ʎʟ̥ʟʟ̠
Lateral tap/flapɺ̥ɺ𝼈̊𝼈ʎ̮ʟ̆

Symbols to the right in a cell arevoiced, to the left arevoiceless.Shaded areas denote articulations judged impossible.

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