Vladivostok was historically part ofOuter Manchuria. Shortly after the signing of theTreaty of Aigun betweenQing China and theRussian Empire and affirmed by theConvention of Peking – from which it is also known as theAmur Annexation – the city was founded as a Russian military outpost on July 2, 1860.[12] In 1872, the main Russian naval base on the Pacific Ocean was transferred to the city, stimulating its growth. In 1914 the city experienced rapid growth economically and ethnically diverse with population exceeding over 100,000 inhabitants with slightly less than half of the population being Russians.[13] During this time, largeAsian communities developed in the city. The public life of the city flourished; many public associations were created, from charities to hobby groups.[14] After the outbreak of theRussian Revolution in 1917, Vladivostok wasoccupied in 1918 byWhite Russian andAllied forces, the last of whom, from theJapanese Empire, were not withdrawn until 1922 as part of its widerintervention in Siberia; by that time the antirevolutionaryWhite Army forces had collapsed. That same year, theRed Army occupied the city, absorbing theFar Eastern Republic into theRussian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic.
Following thedissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the city became a part of theRussian Federation. Vladivostok remains the largest Russian port on thePacific Ocean, and the chief cultural, economic, scientific, and tourism hub of the Russian Far East. As the terminus of theTrans-Siberian Railway, the city was visited by over three million tourists in 2017.[15] The city is the administrative center of the Far Eastern Federal District, and is the home to the headquarters of thePacific Fleet of theRussian Navy. Due to its geographical position in Asia combined with itsRussian architecture, the city has been referred to as "Europe in the Far East".[16][17] Manyforeign consulates and businesses have offices in Vladivostok, and the city hosts the annualEastern Economic Forum. With a yearly mean temperature of around 5 °C (41 °F), Vladivostok has acold climate for its mid-latitude coastal setting. This is due to winds from the vastEurasian landmass in winter and the cooling ocean temperatures.
Vladivostok means 'Lord of the East' or 'Ruler of the East'. The name derives from Slavicвладь (vlad, 'to rule'[a]) and Russianвосток (vostok, 'east'); Colloquial Russian speech may use the short formVladik (Russian:Владик) or "vdk" (Russian:вдк) to refer to the city.[citation needed]
The city, along with other features in thePeter the Great Gulf area, was first given its modern name in 1859 byNikolay Muravyov-Amursky. The name initially applied to the bay, but following an expedition byAlexey Karlovich Shefner in 1860, it was later applied to the new settlement.[18] The form of the name appears analogous to that of the city ofVladikavkaz ("Ruler of the Caucasus" or "Rule the Caucasus"), now inNorth Ossetia–Alania, which was founded and named by the Russian Empire in 1784.
Chinese maps from theYuan dynasty (1271–1368) referred to Vladivostok asYongmingcheng (永明城;Yǒngmíngchéng).[19] Since theQing dynasty,[20] the city has also been known asHaishenwai/Haishenwei/Hai-shen-wei (海參崴;Hǎishēnwǎi, Hǎishēnwēi; 'sea cucumber bay[21]') from Mandarin Chinese, ultimately from theManchuHaišenwai (Manchu:ᡥᠠᡳᡧᡝᠨᠸᡝᡳ, Möllendorff:Haišenwei, Abkai:Haixenwai) orsmall seaside fishing village.[22] However, according toNational Chung Cheng University's research department for Manchu studies, the Manchu name comes from Chinese, specificallyMandarin Chinese, that was named for its historical abundance of sea cucumbers.[23] In China, Vladivostok is now officially known by the transliterationChinese:符拉迪沃斯托克;pinyin:Fúlādíwòsītuōkè), although the historical Chinese name海參崴 (Hǎishēnwǎi) is still used in common parlance and outsideMainland China to refer to the city.[24][25] According to the provisions of the Chinese government, all maps published in China must bracket the city's Chinese name.[26][27]
The modern-day Japanese name of the city is transliterated asUrajiosutoku (ウラジオストク). Historically,[b] the city's name wastransliterated with Kanji as浦鹽斯德 and shortened toUrajio (ウラジオ,浦鹽).[28]
Vladivostok (1955)Vladivostok and surrounding region (DMA, 1988)
The city is located in the southern extremity ofMuravyov-Amursky Peninsula, which is about 30 kilometers (19 mi) long and 12 kilometers (7.5 mi) wide.
The highest point in the city isMount Kholodilnik, at 257 meters (843 ft).Eagle's Nest Hill is often called the highest point in the city, but with a height of 199 m (653 ft), or 214 m (702 ft) according to other sources, it is only the highest point in the city center, not the whole city.
Located in the extreme southeast of the Russian Far East, in the extreme southeast ofNorth Asia, Vladivostok is geographically closer toAnchorage, Alaska, US and evenDarwin, Australia than it is to the nation's capital ofMoscow. Vladivostok is also closer toHonolulu, Hawaii, US than to the city ofSochi inSouthern Russia. It also is further east than any area south of it in China and the entire Korean peninsula.
Vladivostok has a monsoon-influencedhumid continental climate (Köppen climate classificationDwb,Trewartha climate classificationDcbc) with warm, humid and rainy summers and frigid, dry winters. Owing to the influence of theSiberian High, winters are much colder than a latitude of 43 degrees should warrant, given its low elevation and coastal location, with a January average of −11.9 °C (10.6 °F). Winter temperatures are somewhat colder thanMilwaukee and far colder thanFlorence; all 3 locations are at or above 43 degrees north latitude. They are even colder than those ofMoscow andMinneapolis, interior locations at 55 and 44 degrees north, respectively. Since the maritime influence is strong in summer, Vladivostok has a relatively cold annual climate for its latitude. For example, Vladivostok is 9.5 degrees Celsius colder thanSochi in terms of average temperature, and 17.5 degrees Celsius colder in terms of January temperatures, despite both being at 43 degrees North.
In winter, temperatures can drop below −20 °C (−4 °F) while mild spells of weather can raise daytime temperatures above freezing. The average monthly precipitation, mainly in the form of snow, is around 18.5 millimeters (0.73 in) from December to March. Snow is common during winter, but individual snowfalls are light, with a maximum snow depth of only 5 centimeters (2.0 in) in January. During winter, clear sunny days are common.
Summers are warm, humid and rainy, due to the East Asianmonsoon. The warmest month is August, with an average temperature of +20 °C (68 °F). Vladivostok receives most of itsprecipitation during the summer months, and most summer days see some rainfall. Cloudy days are fairly common and because of the frequent rainfall, humidity is high, on average about 90% from June to August.
During the summer season, the city is prone totyphoons andtropical storms.Typhoon Sanba struck the city as a tropical storm in 2012. InArtyom, near Vladivostok, more than 300 ha (740 acres) of crops were inundated. Preliminary losses over the region were estimated to be₽40 million (US$1.29 million).[29] Typhoons can be rare, but tropical storms happen from theSea of Japan after a typhoon landfall fromSouth Korea andJapan.
On average, Vladivostok receives 840 millimeters (33 in) of precipitation per year, but the driest year was 1943, when 418 millimeters (16.5 in) of precipitation fell, and the wettest was 1974, with 1,272 millimeters (50.1 in) of precipitation. The winter months from December to March are dry, and in some years they have seen no measurable precipitation at all. Extremes range from −31.4 °C (−24.5 °F) in January 1931 to +33.6 °C (92.5 °F) in July 1939.[30]
Some modern Chinese historians claim that the city was the site of a Chinese settlement around 600 AD,[34][35] where it was known as Yongmingcheng (永明城 [Yǒngmíngchéng], "city of eternal light") during theYuan dynasty.[19]
For a long time, the Russian government looked for a stronghold in theFar East; this role was played in turn by the settlements ofOkhotsk,Ayan,Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, andNikolaevsk-on-Amur. By the middle of the 19th-century, the search for the outpost had reached a dead end. None of the ports met the necessary requirement: to have a convenient and protected harbor next to important trade routes.[36] After China was threatened with war on a second front by Governor-General of the Far EastNikolay Muraviev when China was suppressing theTaiping Rebellion,[12]theAigun Treaty was concluded by Muraviev's forces, after which Russian exploration of the Amur region began, and later, as a result of the signing of theTreaty of Tientsin and theConvention of Peking, the territory of modern Vladivostok was annexed to Russia. The name Vladivostok appeared in the middle of 1859, was used in newspaper articles and denoted a bay.[36] On June 20 (or July 2 of theGregorian calendar), 1860 the transport of the Siberian Military Flotilla "Mandzhur" under the command of Lieutenant-Commander Alexei Karlovich Shefner delivered a military unit to the Golden Horn Bay to establish a military post, which has now officially received the name of Vladivostok.[37]
On October 31, 1861, the first civilian settler, a merchant, Yakov Lazarevich Semyonov, arrived in Vladivostok with his family. On March 15, 1862, the first act of his purchase of land was registered, and in 1870 Semyonov was elected the first head of the post, and a local self-government emerged.[36] By this time, a special commission decided to designate Vladivostok as the main port of theRussian Empire in the Far East.[38] In 1871, the main naval base of the Siberian Military Flotilla, the headquarters of the military governor and other naval departments were transferred from Nikolaevsk-on-Amur to Vladivostok.[39]
General view of Vladivostok, 1880
In the 1870s, the government encouraged resettlement to the South Ussuri region, which contributed to an increase in the population of the post: according to the first census of 1878, there were 4,163 inhabitants. The city status was adopted and the city Duma was established, the post of the city head, the coat of arms was adopted, although Vladivostok was not officially recognized as a city.[39]
Due to the constant threat of attack from theRoyal Navy, Vladivostok also actively developed as a naval base.
Intersection ofSvetlanskaya and Aleutskaya streets in the 1910s
In 1880, the post officially received the status of a city. The 1890s saw a demographic and economic boom associated with the completion of the construction of the Ussuriyskaya branch of theTrans-Siberian Railway and theChinese-Eastern Railway.[39] According to the first census of the population of Russia on February 9, 1897, roughly 29,000 inhabitants lived in Vladivostok, and 10 years later the city's population had tripled.[39] Koreanhaenyeo divers fromJeju Island and vicinities were active in Vladivostok.[40]
The first decade of the 20th-century was characterized by a protracted crisis caused by the political situation: the government's attention was shifted toLüshunkou and the Port ofDalian (Talien). As well as theBoxer uprising in North China in 1900–1901, theRusso-Japanese War of 1904–1905, and finally the first Russian revolution led to stagnation in the economic activity of Vladivostok.[13]
Since 1907, a new stage in the development of the city began: the losses of Lüshunkou and Dalian (Talien) again made Vladivostok the main port of Russia on thePacific Ocean. A free port regime was introduced, and until 1914 the city experienced rapid growth, becoming an important economic hub in theAsia-Pacific, as well as an ethnically diverse city with a population exceeding over 100,000 inhabitants: during the time ethnic Russians made up less than half of the population,[13] and largeAsian communities developed in the city. The public life of the city flourished; many public associations were created, from charities to hobby groups.[14]
DuringWorld War I, no active hostilities took place in the city.[41] However, Vladivostok was an important staging post for the import of military-technical equipment for troops from allied and neutral countries, as well as raw materials and equipment for industry.[42]
Immediately after theOctober Revolution in 1917, during which theBolsheviks came to power, theDecree on Peace was announced, and as a result of theTreaty of Brest-Litovsk concluded between the Bolshevik government of Russia and theCentral Powers, led to the end ofSoviet Russia's participation in World War I. On October 30, the sailors of the Siberian Military Flotilla decided to "rally around the united power of the Soviets", and the power of Vladivostok, as well as all of the Trans-Siberian Railway passed to the Bolsheviks.[41] During theRussian Civil War, from May 1918,[43] they lost control of the city to theWhite Army-alliedCzechoslovak Legion, who declared the city to be an Allied protectorate. Vladivostok became the staging point for the Allies'Siberian intervention, a multi-national force including Japan, the United States and China; China sent forces to protect the local Chinese community after appeals from Chinese merchants.[44] The intervention ended in the wake of the collapse of the White Army and regime in 1919; all Allied forces except the Japanese withdrew by the end of 1920.[41]
Throughout 1919 the region was engulfed in a partisan war.[41] To avoid a war with Japan, with the filing of the Soviet leadership, theFar Eastern Republic, a Soviet-backed buffer state between Soviet Russia and Japan, was proclaimed on April 6, 1920. The Soviet government officially recognized the new republic in May, but in Primorye a riot occurred, where significant forces of theWhite Movement were located, leading to the creation of theProvisional Priamurye Government, with Vladivostok as its capital.[45]
In October 1922, the troops of theRed Army of the Far Eastern Republic under the command ofIeronim Uborevich occupied Vladivostok, displacing theWhite Army formations from it. In November, the Far Eastern Republic liquidated and became a part of Soviet Russia.[39]
Aerial view of Vladivostok and the Golden Horn Bay in 2014
By the time of the establishment of Soviet power, Vladivostok was clearly in decline. The retreating forces of theImperial Japanese Army (IJA) removed items of material value from the city. Life was paralyzed; there was no money in the banks, and the equipment of enterprise was plundered. Due to mass migration and repression, the city's population decreased to 106,000 inhabitants.[46] Between 1923 and 1925, the government adopted a "three-year restoration" plan, during which operations at the commercial port were resumed, and it became the most profitable in the country (from 1924 to 1925).[46][47] The "restoration" period was distinguished by a number of peculiarities: theRussian Far East did not adopt 'war communism', but was, immediately, inducted to theNew Economic Policy.[47]
In 1925, the government decided to accelerate the industrialization of the country. A number of subsequent "five-year plans" changed the face of Primorye, making it an industrial region, partly as a result of the creation of numerous concentration camps in the region.[47] In the 1930s and 1940s, Vladivostok served as a transit point on the route used to deliver prisoners and cargo for theSevvostlag of the Soviet super-trustDalstroy. The notorious Vladivostok transit camp was located in the city. In addition, in the late 1930s and early 1940s, the Vladivostok forced labour camp (Vladlag) was located in the area of the Vtoraya Rechka railway station.[48]
Vladivostok was not a place of hostilities during theGreat Patriotic War, although there was a constant threat of attack from Japan. In the city, a "Defense Fund" was created (the first in the country), to which the residents of Vladivostok contributed personal wealth.[49] During the war years Vladivostok handled imported cargo (lend-lease) of a volume almost four times more thanMurmansk and almost five times more thanArkhangelsk.[50]
Downtown Vladivostok in 1982
By the decree of theCouncil of Ministers of the Soviet Union "Issues of the Fifth Navy" dated August 11, 1951, a special regime was introduced in Vladivostok (it began to operate on January 1, 1952); the city wasclosed to foreigners.[51] It was planned to remove from Vladivostok not only foreign consulates, but also the merchant and fish fleet and transfer all regional authorities to Voroshilov (nowUssuriysk). However, these plans were not implemented.[51]
During the years of theKhrushchev Thaw, Vladivostok received special attention from state authorities. In 1954,Nikita Khrushchev visited the city for the first time to finally decide whether to secure the status of a closed naval base for him.[52] It was noted that at that time the urban infrastructure was in a deplorable state.[52] In 1959, Khrushchev visited the city again. The result was a decision on the accelerated development of the city, which was formalized by the decree of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union on January 18, 1960.[52] During the 1960s, a new tram line was built, a trolleybus was launched, the city became a huge construction site: residential neighborhoods were being erected on the outskirts, and new buildings for public and civil purposes were erected in the center.[52]
In 1974,Gerald Ford paid an official visit to Vladivostok, to meet withLeonid Brezhnev, becoming the first President of the United States to visit the city.[53]
On September 20, 1991,Boris Yeltsin signed decree No. 123 "On the opening of Vladivostok for visiting by foreign citizens", which entered into force on January 1, 1992, ending Vladivostok's status as aclosed city.[54]
On 3 November 2010, the remains of the executed uncovered during construction of the Sedanka-Patrokl Highway were reburied in the northern part of the Lesnoe cemetery and an Orthodox cross was raised over the mass grave.[55]
In November 2020, the city and region had experienced a rare weather phenomenon in the face offreezing rain caused by collision of warm and cold air masses. The result was wires and trees encrusted in ice up to 1.2 cm (0.47 in) thick. More than 1,500 homes were left without electricity, 900 without heating, 870 without hot water, 500 without cold water. Between 60% and 70% of Vladivostok's forests were damaged.[60][61][62][63]
The structure of the city administration has the City Council at the top.
The responsibilities of the administration of Vladivostok are:
Exercise of the powers to address local issues of Vladivostok in accordance with federal laws, normative legal acts of the Duma of Vladivostok, decrees and orders of the head of the city of Vladivostok;
The development and organization of the concepts, plans and programs for the development of the city, approved by the Duma of Vladivostok;
Development of the draft budget of the city;
Ensuring implementation of the budget;
The use of territory and infrastructure of the city;
Possession, use and disposal of municipal property in the manner specified by decision of the Duma of Vladivostok
Legislative authority is vested in the City Council. The new City Council began operations in 2001 and in June that year, deputies of the Duma of the first convocation of Vladivostok began their work. On December 17, 2007, the Duma of the third convocation began. The deputies consist of 35 elected members, including 18 members chosen by a single constituency, and 17 deputies from single-seat constituencies.
The city charter approved the following structure of local government bodies:[64]
City Duma is a representative body
The head of the city is its highest official
Administration is the executive and administrative body
Chamber of Control and Accounts – controls the body
Vladivostok City Duma's history dates from November 21, 1875, when 30 "vowels" were elected. Great changes took place after the 1917 Revolution, when the first general elections were held and women were allowed to vote. The last meeting of the Vladivostok City Duma took place on October 19, 1922, and on October 27 it was officially abolished. In Soviet times, its functions were performed by the City Council. In 1993, by a presidential decree, the Soviets were dissolved and, until 2001, all attempts to elect a new Duma were unsuccessful. The Duma of the city of Vladivostok of the fifth (current) convocation began work in the fall of 2017, consisting of 35 deputies.[65]
The head of Vladivostok, on the principles of one-man management, manages the city's administration, which he forms in accordance with federal laws, laws of the Primorsky Territory and the city charter. The city's administrative structure is approved by the City Duma on the proposal of the head, and may include sectoral (functional) and territorial bodies of the administration of Vladivostok.[66]
Igor Pushkaryov was the city's mayor from May 2008 to June 2016; previously he was a Federation Council member of Primorsky Krai. On June 27, 2016, Konstantin Loboda, the first deputy mayor, was appointed as the Vladivostok's new acting mayor.[67] On December 21, 2017, Vitaly Vasilyevich Verkeenko was appointed the head of the city.
According to theRussian Census of 2021, Vladivostok had a population of 603,519, with 634,835 residents in the greater urban area.[5] Since the city's founding its population has actively grown, save for the periods of theRussian Civil War and the demographic crisis afterdissolution of the Soviet Union in the 1990s and the beginning of the 2000s. In the 1970s, the population exceeded over 500,000, and in 1992 reached a historical high of over 648,000. The average population density is about 1,832 people/km2.
The population has risen by 30,000. Since 2013, natural growth dynamics added 727 individuals to this figure by 2015's end.[68] By 2020, Vladivostok's population reached over 600,000, as reported by the Russian Federal Statistics Bureau.[69]
The city's age distribution includes a large segment of older adults. Overall, the population includes 12.7% who are younger than able-bodied; 66.3% who are able-bodied; and 21% who are older than able-bodied.[70] Vladivostok's population, like that of Russia as a whole, includes a significantly greater number of women than men.[70]
The demographic makeup of the city went through significant changes since its foundation, and was marked by several waves of immigration from both Europe and Asia. From the late 1890s to the early 1920s, half of the city's population was Asian, with theChinese being the largest Asian group, followed byKoreans andJapanese.[71] The old Chinese quarter of the city was calledMillionka and in its peak accommodated up to 50,000 Chinese residents.[72] The neighbourhood had its own small shops, theatres, opium dens, brothels, and hideouts for smugglers and thieves. The city's economy was heavily dependent on the services provided by the Chinese merchants and businessmen in the neighbourhood.[73] Specifically, the retail services of the city were controlled by the Chinese, as they had more retail shops than Russians did.[74] There also existed an ethnic enclave of Koreans calledSinhanch'on. Koreans moved to the area in significant quantities following theannexation of Korea by Japan in 1910. By 1915, the Korean population in the city stood at around 10,000.[75] Sinhanch'on became a hub of theKorean independence movement and hosted the first Korean provisional government, theKorean Independence Army Government. On the orders ofJoseph Stalin, both Millionka and Sinhanch'on were liquidated, and their residents deported between 1936 and 1938. Today, the city is much more homogeneous, with more than 90 percent declaring Russian ethnicity. However, there still exists a minority of Koreans and Chinese in Vladivostok, accounting for roughly 1 percent of the population, as well as more recent immigrants fromCentral Asia, mainly fromUzbekistan. HistoricalGerman,French,Estonian,American, and Central Asian diasporas at the start of the 21st century have been little studied.[76]
According to the Russian census of 2010, Vladivostok's residents include representatives of over seventy nationalities and ethnic groups. Among them, the largest ethnic groups (over 1,000 people) are: ethnic Russians (475,200);Ukrainians (10,474);Uzbeks (7,109); Koreans (4,192);Chinese (2,446);Tatars (2,446);Belarusians (1,642);Armenians (1,635); andAzerbaijanis (1,252).[77]
The historical core of the city evolved around thecity's port. The city was first established as a military outpost. The main buildings of the post such as barracks, administrative buildings, church and other facilities were located at the northern and north-western border of the Golden Horn Bay. In 1868 its spatial development was regulated when the first urban plan created by Mikhail Lubensky,[78] according to which the city was divided into rectangular blocks each containing 8 plots. In the 1870s, the central government's decision to relocate theSiberian Fleet fromNikolaevsk-on-Amur to Vladivostok sparked a construction boom. The city’s first architect, Yuliy Rego, oversaw the planning of building blocks along its first street, Amerikanskaya (later renamedSvetlanskaya), which runs along the embankment of Golden Horn Bay. As the city territory began to expand, occupying the northern and western shores to Amur Bay and deep into the peninsula. The central street of the city, Svetlanskaya, follows the outlines of the coastline, and the streets perpendicular to it rise up the slopes of the hills. By the end of the 19th century, the city's urban layout was organized around two main streets: Svetlanskaya, which ran parallel to theGolden Horn Bay and the port, and Aleutskaya, which ran perpendicular to it along the peninsula. Therailway station, completed in 1894, was located at their intersection. This layout, combined with the city’s hilly topography, allowed for visual access to the water from most areas. In accordance with the 1906 master plan of the city, these two streets were the most integrated within the foundationalgrid layout.[79]
The Soviet period which began following the city's occupation by thePeople's Revolutionary Army of the Far Eastern Republic [ru] in October 1922 set new priorities and direction. During thefirstSoviet five-year plan, the "Plan for the existing and planned layout of the city of Vladivostok" (1928) was adopted. The implementation of the construction program affected the appearance of the city: more multi-story buildings appeared, and the single-story wooden buildings of the era of the first settlers disappeared. Groups of large buildings appeared on the outskirts of the city, as a result of which the scale of the sea panorama began to increase.[80]
In June 1931, the plenum of theCentral Committee of theCommunist Party of the Soviet Union adopted a program for the construction of new and the reconstruction of old cities in the Soviet Union. As part of the designated reconstruction in Vladivostok, a general plan for the city was drawn up in 1934, and the plan itself was developed in 1936 under the direction of architect Yevgeny Vasiliev. In the end, the project was never approved, but it was used in the development of individual areas of the city.[81] In 1923-1933, housing construction was carried out in the city: houses were erected on Egersheld, 2-ya Flotskaya, Sukhanovskaya, and Beregovaya Streets. The Railway Workers' Club was built in the Pervaya Rechka area.[82]
While the city was not damaged duringWorld War II as it was far from the front, during the war and in the post-war period it suffered from a relative negligence due to theSoviet government's focus on reconstruction of cities inEuropean Russia. The 1954 master plan envisioned the construction of a central square at the intersection of Leninskaya and Kitaiskaya streets. It was planned to place the Fighters for the Soviet Power ofAlexei Tenta [ru] at the square. In 1961, the Soviet government approved a new 20-year urban master plan, developed by theLengiprogor Institute inLeningrad. The plan called for the construction of new urban districts and improvements to the transportation infrastructure, including the addition of a bridge across Golden Horn Bay.
During the decades that followed World War II, as the city expanded, its development stretched into the direction of the slopes of the mountains adjacent to the city which are called in RussianSopki. At later stages construction occurred even on the top of the slopes, a situation which contributing to high infrastructure and transportation costs.[83]
The city's main industries areshipping, commercialfishing, and thenaval base. Fishing accounts for almost four-fifths of Vladivostok's commercial production. Other food production totals 11%.
A very important employer and a major source of revenue for the city's inhabitants is the import of Japanese cars.[84] Besides salesmen, the industry employs repairmen, fitters, import clerks as well as shipping and railway companies.[85] The Vladivostok dealers sell 250,000 cars a year, with 200,000 going to other parts of Russia.[85] Every third worker in thePrimorsky Krai has some relation to the automobile import business. In recent years, the Russian government has made attempts to improve the country'sown car industry. This has included raising tariffs for imported cars, which has put the car import business in Vladivostok in difficulties. To compensate, Prime MinisterVladimir Putin ordered the car manufacturing companySollers to move one of its factories from Moscow to Vladivostok. The move was completed in 2009, and the factory now employs about 700 locals. It is planned to produce 13,200 cars in Vladivostok in 2010.[84]
Vladivostok is a link between theTrans-Siberian Railway and the Pacific Sea routes, making it an important cargo and passenger port. It processes bothcabotage and export-import general cargo of a wide range. 20 stevedoring companies operate in the port.[86] The cargo turnover of the Vladivostok port, including the total turnover of all stevedoring companies, at the end of 2018 amounted to 21.2 million tons.[87]
In 2015, the total volume of external trade seaport amounted to more than 11.8 billion dollars.[88] Foreign economic activity was carried out with 104 countries.[88]
Vladivostok is located in the extreme southeast of the Russian Far East, and is the closest city to the countries of the Asia-Pacific with an exotic European culture, which makes it attractive to tourists.[89] The city is included in the project for the development of the Far East tourism "Eastern Ring". Within the framework of the project, the Primorsky Stage of theMariinsky Theater was opened, and there are plans to open branches of theHermitage Museum, theRussian Museum, theTretyakov Gallery and theState Museum of Oriental Art.[90] Vladivostok entered the top ten Russian cities for recreation and tourism according to Forbes, and also took the fourteenth place in the National Tourism Rating.[91]
In addition to being a cultural hub, the city also is a tourism hub in thePeter the Great Gulf. The city's resort area is located on the coast ofAmur Bay, which includes over 11 sanatoriums.[92] Vladivostok also has a bustling gambling zone,[93] which has over 11 casinos planned to open by 2023.[94] Tigre de Cristal, the city's first casino, was visited by over 80,000 tourists, in less than a year of its opening.[95]
In 2017, the city was visited by around 3,000,000 tourists, including 640,000 foreigners, of which over 90% are tourists from Asia, specifically China, South Korea and Japan.[15] Domestic tourism is based on business tourism (business trips to exhibitions, conferences), which accounts for up to 70% of the inbound flow. In Vladivostok, diplomatic tourism is also developed, as there are 18 foreign consulates in the city.[96] There are 46 hotels in the city, with a total fund of 2561 rooms.[96] The vast majority of the travel companies of Primorsky Krai (86%) are concentrated in Vladivostok, and their number was around 233 companies in 2011.[97]
TheTrans-Siberian Railway was built to connectEuropean Russia with Vladivostok, Russia's most importantPacific Ocean port. Finished in 1905, the rail line ran from Moscow to Vladivostok via several of Russia's main cities. Part of the railway, known as theChinese Eastern Line, crossed over into China, passing throughHarbin, a major city in Manchuria. Today, Vladivostok serves as the main starting point for the Trans-Siberian portion of theEurasian Land Bridge.
Vladivostok is the main air hub in the Russian Far East.Vladivostok International Airport (VVO) is the home base ofAurora, a subsidiary ofAeroflot. The airline was formed byAeroflot in 2013 by amalgamatingSAT Airlines andVladivostok Avia. TheVladivostok International Airport was significantly upgraded in 2013 with a new 3,500-meter (11,500 ft)-long runway capable of accommodating all aircraft types without any restrictions. TheTerminal A was built in 2012 with a capacity of 3.5 million passengers per year.
International flights connect Vladivostok with Japan, China, Philippines, North Korea, South Korea and Vietnam.
It is possible to get to Vladivostok from several of the larger cities in Russia. Regular flights toSeattle, Washington, were available in the 1990s but have been cancelled since.Vladivostok Air flew toAnchorage, Alaska, from July 2008 until 2013, before being transformed intoAurora.
On June 28, 1908, Vladivostok's first tram line was started alongSvetlanskaya Street, running from the railway station on Lugovaya Street.[citation needed] On October 9, 1912, the first wooden carriages manufactured in Belgium entered service. Today, Vladivostok's means of public transportation include trolleybus, bus,tram, train,funicular and ferryboat. The main urban traffic lines are Downtown—Vtoraya Rechka, Downtown—Pervaya Rechka—3ya Rabochaya—Balyayeva, and Downtown—Lugovaya Street.
Videoconferencing in Vladivostok State University of Economics and Service
There are 114 general education institutions in Vladivostok, with a total number of students of 50,700 people (in 2015). The municipal education system of the city consists of preschool organizations, primary, basic, secondary general education schools, lyceums, gymnasiums, schools with an in-depth study of individual subjects, and centers of additional education.
The municipal educational network includes 2 gymnasiums, 2 lyceums, 13 schools with advanced study of individual subjects, one primary school, 2 basic schools, 58 secondary schools, four evening schools, and one boarding school. Three Vladivostok schools are included in the Top-500 schools of the Russian Federation.[98] At the municipal level, there is a city system of school olympiads, a city scholarship has been established for outstanding achievements of students.
In 2016, branches of the Academy of Russian Ballet and the Nakhimov Naval School were opened.[99][100]
Dozens of colleges, schools and universities provide vocational education in Vladivostok. The beginning of higher education was laid in the city with the founding of the Oriental Institute.[101] At the moment, the largest university in Vladivostok is the Far Eastern Federal University. More than 41,000 students study in it, 5,000 employees work, including 1,598 teachers. It accounts for a large share (64%) of scientific publications among Far Eastern universities.[101]
Students in Vladivostok celebratingSt Tatyana's Day, or Russian Students Day
Also, higher education in the city is represented by such local universities:
Over fiftynewspapers and regional editions to Moscow publications are issued in Vladivostok. The largest newspaper of thePrimorsky Krai and the wholeRussian Far East isVladivostok News with a circulation of 124,000 copies at the beginning of 1996. Its founder, joint-stock company Vladivostok-News, also issues a weekly English-language newspaper Vladivostok News. The subjects of the publications issued in these newspapers vary from information about Vladivostok and Primorye to major international events. NewspaperZolotoy Rog (Golden Horn) gives every detail of economic news. Entertainment materials and cultural news constitute a larger part of Novosti (News) newspaper which is the most popular among Primorye's young people. Also, new online mass media about the Russian Far East for foreigners is the Far East Times. This source invites readers to take part in the informational support of R.F.E. for visitors, travellers and businessmen. Vladivostok operates many online news agencies, such as NewsVL.ru, Primamedia, Primorye24 and Vesti-Primorye. From 2012 to 2017 there operates youth online magazine Vladivostok-3000.
As of 2020,[update] there operate nineteen radio stations, including three 24-hour local stations. Radio VBC (FM 101,7 MHz, since 1993) broadcasts classic and modern rock music, oldies and music of the 1980s–1990s. Radio Lemma (FM 102,7 MHz, since 1996) broadcasts news, radio shows and various Russian and European-American songs. Vladivostok FM (FM 106,4 MHz, was launched in 2008) broadcasts local news and popular music (Top 40). The State broadcasting company "Vladivostok" broadcasts local news and music programs from 7 to 9, from 12 to 14 and from 18 to 19 on weekdays on the frequency of Radio Rossii (Radio of Russia).
"Recovering" (1889) by Cyril Lemokh – Primorsky State Art Gallery
The active development of art museums in Vladivostok began in the 1950s. In 1960, the House of Artists was built, in which there were exhibition halls. In 1965, the Primorsky State Art Gallery was separated into a separate institution, and later, on the basis of its collection, the Children's Art Gallery was created. In Soviet times, one of the largest areas for exhibitions in Vladivostok was the exhibition hall of the Primorsky branch of the Union of Artists of Soviet Russia. In 1989 the gallery of contemporary art "Artetage" was opened.[102]
In 1995, the Arka gallery of contemporary art was opened, the first exposition of which consisted of 100 paintings donated by the collector Alexander Glezer.[103] The gallery participates in international exhibitions and fairs. In 2005, a non-commercial private gallery "Roytau" appeared.[102] In recent years, the centers of contemporary art "Salt" (created on the basis of the FEFU art museum) and "Zarya",[104][105] have been active.
The city is home to the Vladivostok Pops Orchestra.
Russian rock bandMumiy Troll hails from Vladivostok and frequently puts on shows there. In addition, the city hosted the "VladiROCKstok" International Music Festival in September 1996. Hosted by the mayor and governor, and organized by two young American expatriates, the festival drew nearly 10,000 people and top-tier musical acts from St. Petersburg (Akvarium andDDT) and Seattle (Supersuckers,Goodness), as well as several leading local bands.[citation needed]
Nowadays[when?] there is another annual music festival in Vladivostok, Vladivostok Rocks International Music Festival and Conference (V-ROX). Vladivostok Rocks is a three-day open-air city festival and international conference for the music industry and contemporary cultural management. It offers the opportunity for aspiring artists and producers to gain exposure to new audiences and leading international professionals.[106]
Musical theater in Vladivostok is represented by the Primorsky Regional Philharmonic Society, the largest concert organization in Primorsky Krai. The Philharmonic has organized the Pacific Symphony Orchestra and the Governor's Brass Orchestra. In 2013, the Primorsky Opera and Ballet Theater was opened.[107] On January 1, 2016, it was transformed into a branch of theMariinsky Theater.[108] The Russian Opera House houses the State Primorsky Opera and Ballet Theater.[109]
In 2014, 21 movie theaters operated in Vladivostok, and the total number of film screenings was 1,501,000.
Most of the city's movie theaters – Ocean, Galaktika, Moscow (formerly called New Wave movie theater), Neptune 3D (formerly called Neptune and Borodino), Illusion, Vladivostok – are renovated movie theaters built in the Soviet years. Among them stands out "Ocean" with the largest (22 by 10 meters) screen in the Far East of the country, located in the city's downtown in the area of Sports Harbor.[111] Together with the "Ussuri" movie theater, it is the venue for the annual international film festival "Pacific Meridians" (since 2002).[112] Since December 2014 the IMAX 3D hall has been operating in the Ocean movie theater.[113]
Maxim Gorky Academic Theater, named after the Russian authorMaxim Gorky, was founded in 1931 and is used for drama, musical and children's theater performances.
There are five professional theaters in the city. In 2014, they were visited by 369,800 spectators. The Primorsky Regional Academic Drama Theater named afterMaxim Gorky is the oldest state theater in Vladivostok, opened on November 3, 1932. The theater employs 202 people: 41 actors (of them, three folk and nine honored artists of Russia).[114]
Manor of Julius Bryner, in front of which stands the statue of his grandson Juli (the actorYul Brynner), Aleutskaya St.
The Primorsky Pushkin Theater was built in 1907–1908, and is currently one of the main cultural centers of the city. In the 1930s–40s, the following still operating ones were successively opened: the Drama Theater of the Pacific Fleet, the Primorsky Regional Puppet Theater, and the Primorsky Regional Drama Theater of Youth.[115] The regional puppet theater gave 484 performances in 2015, which were attended by more than 52,000 spectators. There are 500 puppets in the theater, where 15 artists work. The troupe regularly goes on tour to Europe and Asia.[116]
In September 2012, a granite statue of the actorYul Brynner (1920–1985) was inaugurated in Yul Brynner Park, directly in front of the house where he was born at 15 Aleutskaya St.
Admirala Fokina Street (2021)Practicing yoga onYoga Day in Vladivostok, 2016
Parks and squares in Vladivostok include Pokrovskiy Park, Minnyy Gorodok, Detskiy Razvlekatelnyy Park, Park of Sergeya Lazo, Admiralskiy Skver, Skver im. Neveskogo, Nagornyy Park, Skver im. Sukhanova, Fantaziya Park, Skver Rybatskoy Slavy, Skver im. A.I.Shchetininoy.
Pokrovskiy Park was once a cemetery. It was converted into a park in 1934 but was closed in 1990. Since 1990, the land the park sits on belongs to the Russian Orthodox Church. During the rebuilding of the Orthodox Church, graves were found.
Minny Gorodok is a 91-acre (37 ha) public park. Minny Gorodok means "Mine Borough Park" in English. The park is a former military base that was founded in 1880. The military base was used for storing mines in underground storage. Converted into a park in 1985, Minny Gorodok contains several lakes, ponds, and an ice-skating rink.
Detsky Razvlekatelny Park is a children's amusement park located near Downtown Vladivostok. The park contains a carousel, gaming machines, a Ferris wheel, cafés, an aquarium, movie theater and a stadium.
Admiralsky Skver is a landmark located near Downtown Vladivostok. The Square is an open space, dominated by the Triumfalnaya Arka. South of the square sits a museum ofSoviet submarine S-56.
Vladivostok annually hosts various contests. In 2022, the 35th Regatta boat for the Goblet of Peter the Great and the 19th Russian Championship of Conrad-25R yachts were held.[117]
Local ecologists from theEcocenter organization have claimed that much of Vladivostok's suburbs arepolluted and that living in them can be classified as ahealth hazard.[citation needed] The pollution has a number of causes, according toEcocenter geochemical expert Sergey Shlykov. Vladivostok has about eighty industrial sites, which may not be many compared to Russia's most industrialized areas, but those around the city are particularly environmentally unfriendly, such asshipbuilding and repairing, power stations, printing,fur farming, andmining.
In addition, Vladivostok has particularly vulnerable geography which compounds the effect of pollution. Winds cannot clear pollution from some of the most densely populated areas around the Pervaya and Vtoraya Rechka as they sit in basins which the winds blow over. In addition, there is little snow in winter and no leaves or grass to catch the dust to make it settle down.[118]
In 2010, arches with the names of each of Vladivostok's twin towns were placed in a park within the city.[121]
From Vladivostok ferry port next to the train station, a ferry of the DBS Cruise Ferry travels regularly toDonghae, South Korea and from there toSakaiminato on the Japanese main island ofHonshu.
^When the city was transliterated with Kanji, 鹽 was theKyūjitai form in use. However, afterpostwar Kanji simplification, the Kanjis 鹽 and 德 were simplified in Japanese to 塩 and 徳, respectively.
^谢, 选骏.谢选骏全集96卷 [Complete Works of Xie Xuanjun Volume XCVI] (in Chinese). Xiè Xuǎnjùn (Self-published online). p. 707.它来自满语,意为"海边的小渔村", 1860 年之前本为中国清朝吉林辖地。
^Kee, Kwonho (2001).中共對韓半島外交政策: 從辯證法的角度研究 [Mainland China's foreign policy in the Korean Peninsula: a dialectical analysis](PDF) (in Chinese (Taiwan)).National Sun Yat-sen University.Archived(PDF) from the original on October 1, 2017. RetrievedJune 20, 2017.
^Климат Владивостока [Climate of Vladivostok].Погода и Климат (Weather and Climate) (in Russian).Archived from the original on December 27, 2016. RetrievedJune 19, 2013.
^Koh, Mi (December 30, 2014)."Jeju haenyo spreading through Asia"(PDF).World Environment and Island Studies.4 (3): 38.Archived(PDF) from the original on May 17, 2023. RetrievedMay 17, 2023.
^PRECLÍK, Vratislav. Masaryk a legie (Masaryk and legions), váz. kniha, 219 str., vydalo nakladatelství Paris Karviná, Žižkova 2379 (734 01 Karviná) ve spolupráci s Masarykovým demokratickým hnutím (Masaryk Democratic Movement, Prague), 2019,ISBN978-80-87173-47-3, pages 38 – 50, 52 – 102, 124 – 128,140 – 148,184 – 190
^Joana Breidenbach (2005). Pál Nyíri, Joana Breidenbach (ed.).China inside out: contemporary Chinese nationalism and transnationalism (illustrated ed.). Central European University Press. p. 90.ISBN963-7326-14-6. RetrievedSeptember 15, 2020.Then there occurred another story which has become traumatic, this one for the Russian nationalist psyche. At the end of the year 1918, after the Russian Revolution, the Chinese merchants in the Russian Far East demanded the Chinese government to send troops for their protection, and Chinese troops were sent to Vladivostok to protect the Chinese community: about 1,600 soldiers and 700 support personnel.
^Кривенко С."Владивостокский ИТЛ".Система исправительно-трудовых лагерей в СССР.Archived from the original on October 31, 2011. RetrievedSeptember 15, 2020.
^Александр Львович Ткачев (April 27, 2011).Первый визит президента США [First Visit of an American President]. alltopprim.ru.Archived from the original on July 1, 2016. RetrievedSeptember 15, 2020.
^Williamson, Gail M.; Christie, Juliette (September 18, 2012). Lopez, Shane J; Snyder, C.R (eds.). "Aging Well in the 21st Century: Challenges and Opportunities".Oxford Handbooks Online:164–170.doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195187243.013.0015.ISBN9780195187243.
^Zeballos, Carlos; Mostovoi, Sergei (2016). "The Study of Interfaces as a Method for Urban Renewal: a proposal for Vladivostok's Downtown Waterfront".Far Eastern Federal University.
Законодательное Собрание Приморского края. Закон №161-КЗ от 14 ноября 2001 г. «Об административно-территориальном устройстве Приморского края», в ред. Закона №673-КЗ от 6 октября 2015 г. «О внесении изменений в Закон Приморского края "Об административно-территориальном устройстве Приморского края"». Вступил в силу со дня официального опубликования. Опубликован: "Красное знамя Приморья", №69 (119), 29 ноября 2001 г. (Legislative Assembly of Primorsky Krai. Law #161-KZ of November 14, 2001On the Administrative-Territorial Structure of Primorsky Krai, as amended by the Law #673-KZ of October 6, 2015On Amending the Law of Primorsky Krai "On the Administrative-Territorial Structure of Primorsky Krai". Effective as of the official publication date.).
Законодательное Собрание Приморского края. Закон №179-КЗ от 6 декабря 2004 г. «О Владивостокском городском округе», в ред. Закона №48-КЗ от 7 июня 2012 г. «О внесении изменений в Закон Приморского края "О Владивостокском городском округе"». Вступил в силу 1 января 2005 г.. Опубликован: "Ведомости Законодательного Собрания Приморского края", №76, 7 декабря 2004 г. (Legislative Assembly of Primorsky Krai. Law #179-KZ of December 6, 2004On Vladivostoksky Urban Okrug, as amended by the Law #48-KZ of June 7, 2012On Amending the Law of Primorsky Krai "On Vladivostoksky Urban Okrug". Effective as of January 1, 2005.).
Narangoa, Li (2014).Historical Atlas of Northeast Asia, 1590–2010: Korea, Manchuria, Mongolia, Eastern Siberia. New York: Columbia University Press.ISBN9780231160704.
Poznyak, Tatyana Z. 2004. Foreign Citizens in the Cities of the Russian Far East (the second half of the 19th and 20th centuries). Vladivostok: Dalnauka, 2004. 316 p. (ISBN5-8044-0461-X).
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